!'&!#43 !'&!#43 !'&!#43 'RAIN SORGHUM WWWDPINSWGOVAU !GFACT 0 FIRST EDITION
35--!29 /& 34!4%7)$% "%34 -!.!'%-%.4 7HEREVER POSSIBLE USE NO TILL AND CONTROLLED 02!#4)#%3 &/2 '2!). 3/2'(5- TRAFlC FOR DRYLAND CROPS AS THESE METHODS INCREASE SOIL MOISTURE STORAGE MORE QUICKLY AND 0ADDOCK SELECTION DEEPLY THAN RANDOM TRAFlCKED CONVENTIONALLY 'RAIN SORGHUM BOTH DRYLAND AND IRRIGATED IS CULTIVATED FALLOWS 4HIS INCREASE IN MOISTURE USUALLY GROWN ON HEAVY CLAY SOILS (EAVY CLAY STORAGE COMBINED WITH REDUCED SOIL COMPACTION SOILS HAVE A HIGH WATER HOLDING CAPACITY CAPABLE LEADS TO INCREASED YIELDS AND WATER USE OF SUPPLYING THE PLANT WITH MOISTURE THROUGHOUT EFlCIENCY 5SE RESPONSE CROPPING IN FAVOURABLE THE WARM GROWING SEASON EVEN IN THE ABSENCE DRYLAND AREAS TO REDUCE THE RISK OF DEEP OF RAINFALL MOISTURE DRAINAGE
&IGURE ! GRAIN SORGHUM CROP NEAR "REEZA NORTHERN .37 0HOTO * +NEIPP
/2$%2 ./ 0 !'$%8 3OWING TIME !UTHORS !LL HYBRIDS CAN BE SOWN UP UNTIL #HRISTMAS BUT *ENNIE 3PENCELEY FORMER $ISTRICT !GRONOMIST NO LATER THAN EARLY *ANUARY !FTER #HRISTMAS -OREE 7EST 'ILES "UTLER 2ESEARCH USE A QUICKER VARIETY WITH MIDGE RESISTANCE 4O !GRONOMIST !DRIAN .ICHOLAS %NTOMOLOGIST REDUCE THE RISK OF ERGOT IN NORTHERN .37 PLANT 3TEVEN 3IMPFENDORFER 0LANT 0ATHOLOGIST SO THAT CROPS mOWER BY MID -ARCH 7IDE SOWING *OHN (OLLAND 2ESEARCH !GRONOMIST WINDOWS OCCUR FROM 3EPTEMBER TO *ANUARY *OHN +NEIPP ,EADER #ROPPING 3YSTEMS HOWEVER DONT SOW TOO EARLY COLD OR TOO LATE 4AMWORTH !GRICULTURAL )NSTITUTE *AN %DWARDS ERGOT AND FROST RISK AND AIM TO AVOID mOWERING $ISTRICT !GRONOMIST #OWRA AND 4ONY $ALE THE CROP IN THE EXTREME HEAT OF *ANUARY 3OIL FORMER $ISTRICT !GRONOMIST 'UNNEDAH TEMPERATURE SHOULD BE nO# AND RISING 0LANT POPULATION !DJUST PLANT POPULATION AND ROW SPACING TO TARGET YIELD 5NIFORMITY OF POPULATION #ONTENTS IS IMPORTANT THEREFORE PRECISION PLANTERS 3UMMARY OF STATEWIDE "EST -ANAGEMENT WITH PRESS WHEELS ARE PREFERRED 5SE LOWER 0RACTICES FOR GRAIN SORGHUM POPULATIONS IN MORE MARGINAL SITUATIONS AND INCREASE POPULATIONS WHERE CONDITIONS ARE MORE )NTRODUCTION FAVOURABLE 3UGGESTED PLANT POPULATIONS ARE (ISTORICAL BACKGROUND $RYLAND SOLID PLANT n PLANTSHA %ND USES $RYLAND SKIP ROW n PLANTSHA ,IMITED IRRIGATION n PLANTSHA &EED VALUE OF SORGHUM &ULL IRRIGATION n PLANTSHA !REAS OF PRODUCTION )NSECT CONTROL )RRIGATED SORGHUM PRODUCTION )T IS PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT TO MONITOR AND -OISTURE CONSERVATION AND FALLOW CONTROL SOIL DWELLING INSECTS EG WIREWORMS AT MANAGEMENT SOWING (ELIOTHIS CAN BE A PROBLEM ESPECIALLY 4HE SORGHUM PLANT AND HOW IT GROWS AFTER mOWERING 4HE BIOLOGICAL INSECTICIDE .06 IS EFFECTIVE FOR THE CONTROL OF HELIOTHIS -IDGE 3OWING CONTROL MAY ALSO BE NECESSARY IN LATE CROPS .UTRITION 4IMELINESS OF HARVEST $ISEASES (ARVEST MAY BE ASSISTED BY CROP DESICCATION )NSECT PESTS 4HE AIM IS TO MAXIMISE YIELD THROUGH THE ASSIMILATION OF CARBOHYDRATE IN THE SEED BUT "ENEFICIAL INSECTS IN SORGHUM BALANCE THIS MOISTURE USE WITH STORING WATER FOR ,ODGING THE NEXT CROP 7HEN BETWEEN AND PER 7EED CONTROL CENT OF THE GRAINS HAVE FORMED A @BLACK LAYER IE ARE PHYSIOLOGICALLY MATURE THE CROP IS #ROP DESICCATION READY TO BE DESICCATED (ARVEST 'RAIN HANDLING 3TORAGE OF GRAIN 'RAIN MOISTURE SHOULD BE LESS THAN FOR -ARKETING LONG TERM STORAGE "E PREPARED TO DRY GRAIN WITH 'RAZING AND HAY LATE SOWN CROPS 0LAN YOUR GRAIN MARKETING
&URTHER INFORMATION 'RAZING
!CKNOWLEDGEMENTS 0RIOR TO FEEDING ANY SORGHUM CROP SEEK VETERINARY ADVICE ABOUT THE RISK OF HYDROCYANIC ACID ALKALINE ERGOT AND NITRATE POISONING
).42/$5#4)/. ()34/2)#!, "!#+'2/5.$
'RAIN 3ORGHUM 3ORGHUM BICOLOR , -OENCH IS )NTERNATIONAL THE MAIN SUMMER CEREAL CROP GROWN IN NORTHERN !USTRALIA )T IS MAINLY USED IN !USTRALIA AS STOCK 'RAIN SORGHUM IS REGARDED AS BEING ORIGINALLY FEED IN THE CATTLE PIG AND POULTRY INDUSTRIES DOMESTICATED AROUND CENTRAL !FRICA IN THE 3ORGHUM STUBBLE CAN ALSO BE UTILISED AFTER %THIOPIAN AND 3UDAN REGIONS BEFORE ITS SPREAD HARVEST AS STOCK FODDER 7ORLDWIDE SORGHUM IS TO OTHER AREAS IN !FRICA AND !SIA AND MORE AN IMPORTANT FOOD SOURCE FOR HUMANS ESPECIALLY RECENTLY TO !MERICA AND !USTRALIA "ECAUSE IN WARM ARID ENVIRONMENTS OF ITS INHERENT ABILITY TO WITHSTAND DROUGHT SOIL TOXICITIES AND TEMPERATURE EXTREMES MORE 'RAIN SORGHUM IS MORE DROUGHT TOLERANT THAN EFFECTIVELY THAN OTHER CEREAL CROPS SORGHUM MAIZE THE OTHER MAIN SUMMER GROWING CEREAL HAS BECOME THE MOST IMPORTANT FOOD AND )T IS THEREFORE AN IMPORTANT RAIN GROWN CROP FEED SOURCE IN MANY OF THE WORLDS HARSHER IN NORTHERN .37 FROM THE NORTHERN SLOPES ENVIRONMENTS AND (UNTER THROUGH TO WESTERN AREAS SUCH AS 7ALGETT 'RAIN SORGHUM ALSO PLAYS A CRITICAL ROLE .ATIONAL AS A ROTATION CROP FOR DISEASE AND WEED CONTROL 'RAIN SORGHUM WAS lRST GROWN IN 1UEENSLAND IN THE WINTER CEREAL BASED FARMING SYSTEM OF IN AND IN .EW 3OUTH 7ALES IN USING NORTHERN .37 DWARF VARIETIES INTRODUCED FROM THE 53! 4HE USE OF PRACTICES SUCH AS CONTROLLED TRAFlC &OLLOWING THE DEVELOPMENT OF CYTOPLASMIC MALE AND NO TILL WHICH MAXIMISE SOIL WATER INlLTRATION STERILITY IN THE S IN THE 53! HYBRID VARIETIES AND ENABLE THE PLANT TO EXTRACT MOISTURE WERE lRST GROWN COMMERCIALLY IN !USTRALIA IN EFFECTIVELY ARE CRITICAL IN ACHIEVING GOOD YIELDS AND WITHIN YEARS FARMERS HAD NEARLY )N ADDITION SORGHUM ROW CONlGURATION CAN BE COMPLETELY SWITCHED TO GROWING HYBRID VARIETIES SUCCESSFULLY MANIPULATED IN WESTERN AREAS TO ENSURE A CROP WILL BE HARVESTED WHEN SOWN INTO %.$ 53%3 A FULL PROlLE OF MOISTURE 7ORLDWIDE SORGHUM IS PRIMARILY USED AS A !S IRRIGATED GRAIN SORGHUM IS USUALLY GROWN ON FOOD SOURCE FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION HOWEVER HEAVY CLAY SOILS HILLS OR BEDS ARE USUALLY USED IN IN !USTRALIA THE PRIMARY USE OF GRAIN SORGHUM A FURROW IRRIGATED SYSTEM IS AS FEED FOR LIVESTOCK 3ORGHUM GRAIN IS ALSO INCREASINGLY BEING USED FOR ETHANOL PRODUCTION ! RANGE OF HYBRID VARIETIES ARE AVAILABLE AND AS IT IS OFTEN THE CHEAPEST FEED GRAIN BEING CONTINUALLY IMPROVED #ONSULT YOUR LOCAL SEED AGENT FOR DETAILS AND REFER TO THE ANNUAL )N !FRICA AND PARTS OF )NDIA SORGHUM IS COOKED PUBLICATION !GNOTE 'RAIN 3ORGHUM 0LANTING AS PORRIDGE )N "OTSWANA THE PORRIDGE MAY 'UIDE 'RAIN SORGHUM IS PLANTED FROM LATE BE EITHER FERMENTED OR UNFERMENTED )T IS ALSO 3EPTEMBER THROUGH TO MID *ANUARY AND HARVESTED USED TO MAKE BOTH UNFERMENTED BREAD IN )NDIA FROM LATE *ANUARY THROUGH TO -AY AND #ENTRAL !MERICA AND FERMENTED BREAD
&IGURE 5NIFORM AND WELL ESTABLISHED GRAIN SORGHUM CROP &IGURE )N !USTRALIA GRAIN SORGHUM IS MAINLY USED TO FEED EAST OF -OREE LIVESTOCK 0HOTO * +NEIPP 0HOTO 3 "ELFIELD
3UDAN %THIOPIA AND )NDIA )N 3AHELIAN !FRICA SORGHUM IS ALSO THE MOST COMMON CEREAL USED IN COUSCOUS
&%%$ 6!,5% /& 3/2'(5- 'RAIN SORGHUM IS COMMONLY USED AS A FEED GRAIN IN THE NORTH EASTERN STATES OF !USTRALIA )T IS FREQUENTLY USED TO FEED CATTLE BROILER CHICKENS AND PIGS 4HE FEED VALUE OF SORGHUM IS VERY SIMILAR TO BARLEY MAIZE AND WHEAT IN TERMS OF METABOLISABLE ENERGY -% CONTENT 4ABLE 0HOTO * +NEIPP (OWEVER SORGHUM IS LESS DIGESTIBLE THAN WHEAT &IGURE 3TEAM mAKED SORGHUM AND BARLEY FOR SOME ANIMALS 4HE AVAILABLE ENERGY FROM ANY GRAIN GENERALLY DEPENDS ON 7ESTERN !USTRALIA WHERE MOST OF THE HYBRID THE CAPACITY TO DIGEST THE STARCH IN THE GRAIN SEED IS PRODUCED 3ORGHUM IS DIGESTED WELL BY PIGS AND POULTRY 3ORGHUM PRODUCTION BOTH IN AREA PLANTED AND BUT GENERALLY POORLY DIGESTED BY CATTLE YIELD SEE &IGURES AND DIFFERS IN !USTRALIA FROM YEAR TO YEAR DUE TO THE HIGHLY VARIABLE 4ABLE -OST LIKELY METABOLISABLE ENERGY RAINFALL PATTERN AND PRICE OUTLOOK $URING THE -% DRY MATTER $- AND PROTEIN CONTENT OF PAST TEN YEARS THE PRICE OF SORGHUM HAS VARIED SOME MAJOR CEREAL FEED GRAINS FROM TO T -ETABOLISABLE %NERGY #RUDE PROTEIN -% ON $- BASIS $- BASIS )22)'!4%$ 3/2'(5- 02/$5#4)/. 'RAIN -*KG ,AND PREPARATION FOR IRRIGATED GRAIN SORGHUM IS "ARLEY SIMILAR TO THAT FOR OTHER IRRIGATED CROPS )NITIAL CULTIVATIONS ARE USUALLY COMPLETED IN DRY SOIL 7HEAT WITH DISCS OR CHISELS TO MULCH PREVIOUS CROP 3ORGHUM RESIDUE 4HE AIM IS TO WORK UP TO CM OF LOOSE SOIL TO ALLOW THE FORMATION OF HILLS OR -AIZE BEDS $EEPER CULTIVATION IS SOMETIMES NEEDED TO /ATS BREAK UP COMPACTED LAYERS AND IMPROVE WATER AND ROOT PENETRATION n FOLLOWING FOR EXAMPLE 3OURCE "LACKWOOD ET AL A WET HARVEST #ARE MUST BE TAKEN THAT THE SOIL IS DRY ENOUGH THROUGHOUT THE PROlLE WHEN DEEP RIPPING TO PREVENT FURTHER DAMAGE FROM "REAKING UP THE SEED GREATLY INCREASES THE COMPACTION OCCURRING DIGESTIBILITY OF THE GRAIN FOR MANY ANIMALS )T SHOULD BE EITHER COARSELY CRACKED OR ROLLED OR %ARLY LAND PREPARATION IS ESSENTIAL TO AVOID STEAM mAKED BUT CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN NOT TO DELAYS AND DAMAGE CAUSED BY TRAFlCKING WET POWDER THE GRAIN 3ORGHUM IS VERY PALATABLE AND SOIL DURING WINTER "EGIN PREPARATION EARLY AND IS THEREFORE USEFUL FOR MIXING WITH WHEAT AND AIM TO HAVE HILLING OR BED FORMATION COMPLETED BARLEY TO IMPROVE THEIR PALATABILITY !S PROTEIN PRIOR TO THE END OF *ULY 4HIS ALLOWS PLENTY OF TIME FOR CLODS TO BREAK DOWN AND HILLS TO AND THEREFORE NITROGEN IN GRAIN SORGHUM IS OFTEN CONSOLIDATE INCREASING THE LIKELIHOOD OF GOOD DElCIENT IT IS ADVISABLE TO ALWAYS ADD UREA EVEN ESTABLISHMENT IN THE MIX WITH SORGHUM WHEN FEEDING TO CATTLE 0RE IRRIGATION IS AN IMPORTANT PART OF SEEDBED !2%!3 /& 02/$5#4)/. PREPARATION AS IT IMPROVES TILTH AND BED CONSOLIDATION .ITROGEN FERTILISER IS USUALLY !LMOST ALL GRAIN SORGHUM IN !USTRALIA IS APPLIED WHEN HILLING UP !DDITIONAL PRODUCED IN NORTHERN .37 AND 1UEENSLAND NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS FERTILISER MAY BE &IGURE 4HE OTHER SMALL BUT IMPORTANT AREA APPLIED AT SOWING :INC IS BEST INCORPORATED OF PRODUCTION IS AT +UNUNURRA IN THE NORTH OF DURING EARLY PREPARATION
&IGURE .37 AND 1LD SORGHUM YIELD DATA FOR THE YEARS &IGURE .37 AND 1LD SORGHUM PRODUCTION DATA FOR THE n 3OURCE !"!2% AND !"3 YEARS n 3OURCE !"!2% AND !"3
0RECISION SEEDERS ARE USED TO SOW THE MAJORITY 3ORGHUM RESIDUE CAN BE DIFlCULT TO HANDLE OF IRRIGATED SORGHUM CROPS )N FULLY IRRIGATED AFTER HARVEST -OST GROWERS USE OFFSET DISCS AT CONDITIONS TARGET PLANT POPULATIONS SHOULD BE LEAST TWICE BEFORE HILLING UP FOR THE FOLLOWING BETWEEN n PLANTSHA WHILE UNDER IRRIGATED CROP LIMITED IRRIGATION PLANT POPULATIONS SHOULD COME BACK TO APPROXIMATELY PLANTSHA #HOOSE -/)3452% #/.3%26!4)/. !.$ &!,,/7 AT LEAST TWO HYBRIDS THAT ARE HIGH YIELDING -!.!'%-%.4 MEDIUM MATURITY LINES 3ELECT HYBRIDS THAT HAVE LITTLE REACTION TO ORGANOPHOSPHATE INSECTICIDES 3ORGHUM SHOULD NOT BE PLANTED IN A DRYLAND IF GRAIN SORGHUM IS TO BE SOWN NEAR OTHER SITUATION UNLESS THE SOIL HAS STORED MOISTURE TO A SUMMER CROPS THAT MAY BE SPRAYED WITH THESE MINIMUM DEPTH OF ONE METRE 4HIS RULE MAY BE INSECTICIDES VARIED IN EASTERN AREAS WHERE ROW CONlGURATION 1UANTITIES OF WATER REQUIRED FOR A FULL IRRIGATION MAY BE ALTERED IF SEASONAL OUTLOOKS ARE OF A SORGHUM CROP WILL VARY DEPENDING ON REASONABLE 2ESEARCH AND EXPERIENCE HAS SHOWN SEASONAL AND SOIL CONDITIONS HOWEVER BUDGET ON THAT PLANTING SORGHUM WITH LESS THAN ONE METRE -,HA FOR A PRE IRRIGATION AND IRRIGATIONS OF OF WET SOIL SIGNIlCANTLY REDUCES YIELDS INCREASES -,HA EACH DURING THE GROWING SEASON 4HE THE RISK OF CROP FAILURE AND PLACES A GREATER TIMING OF THE lRST IRRIGATION IN THE ABSENCE OF RELIANCE UPON IN CROP RAINFALL TO PRODUCE A SIGNIlCANT RAINFALL WILL BE IN MID TO LATE TILLERING PROlTABLE CROP WHILE THE LAST TWO IRRIGATIONS SHOULD BE AT $ESPITE ITS HARDINESS GRAIN SORGHUM NEEDS mOWERING AND GRAIN lLL )RRIGATED GRAIN SORGHUM ADEQUATE MOISTURE ESPECIALLY AT CRITICAL GROWTH CROPS IN NORTHERN .37 ACHIEVE AVERAGE YIELDS OF STAGES )F MOISTURE IS LIMITED DURING HEAD THA AND MAXIMUM YIELDS OF UP TO THA FORMATION POTENTIAL YIELD WILL RAPIDLY DECREASE
&IGURE &URROW IRRIGATED GRAIN SORGHUM AT -OREE &IGURE &URROW IRRIGATED GRAIN SORGHUM 4HE TALL HEADS ARE HYBRIDS THAT HAVE REVERTED TO A PARENT CHARACTERISTIC 0HOTO * 3PENCELEY 0HOTO * 3PENCELEY
ABOUT THA MORE THAN CROPS GROWN AFTER A CONVENTIONALLY TILLED FALLOW 4HIS IS DUE TO THE ABILITY OF NO TILL FALLOWS TO STORE AN EXTRA MM OF AVAILABLE WATER APPROXIMATELY !S A RULE KGHA OF GRAIN IS PRODUCED FOR EVERY MM OF MOISTURE IE X KGHA .O TILL AND MINIMUM TILL FALLOWS WIDEN THE PLANTING WINDOW BY ALLOWING CROPS TO BE SOWN n WEEKS LATER AFTER GOOD RAIN 4HIS INCREASES THE CHANCES OF THE CROP BEING PLANTED AT THE OPTIMUM TIME HENCE IMPROVING YIELD POTENTIAL .O TILL FALLOWS GREATLY INCREASE THE CHANCE OF A 0HOTO * 3PENCELEY CROP BEING PLANTED WHEREAS IN A CONVENTIONAL &IGURE $ROUGHT STRESSED GRAIN SORGHUM NORTH OF -OREE FALLOW PLANTING MAY NOT BE POSSIBLE DUE TO A -ANY PLANTS FAILED TO PRODUCE A HEAD LACK OF MOISTURE
-OISTURE STRESS DURING GRAIN lLLING INCREASES .37 $EPARTMENT OF 0RIMARY )NDUSTRIES RESEARCH LODGING ESPECIALLY IF HARVESTING IS DELAYED FOR HAS SHOWN THAT NO TILL FALLOWS CAN BE STARTED WITH ANY REASON 3TEMS MAY BECOME WEAKENED ONE OR TWO SPRAYS OF GLYPHOSATE AFTER HARVEST DURING NUTRIENT TRANSLOCATION INTO THE GRAIN OF THE PREVIOUS CROP FOLLOWED BY AN ATRAZINE 5SING AGRONOMIC PRACTICES THAT INCREASE WATER SPRAY IN LATE AUTUMN EARLY WINTER 4HIS IS THEN USE EFlCIENCY EG NO TILL AND CONTROLLED TRAFlC FOLLOWED BY A GLYPHOSATE OR A GLYPHOSATE AND GROWING HYBRIDS THAT HAVE A HIGH RESISTANCE ATRAZINE SPRAY IN 3EPTEMBER TO LODGING SIGNIlCANTLY REDUCES LODGING 4HE -INIMUM TILL FALLOWS OFTEN HAVE ABOUT n @STAYGREEN TRAIT WHICH IS BEING BRED INTO NEW CULTIVATIONS BEFORE A LATE AUTUMN EARLY WINTER HYBRIDS IS ALSO ASSISTING TO REDUCE LODGING ATRAZINE SPRAY 4HE VARIABLE COSTS FOR NO #ROPS SHOULD BE SOWN ON HEAVY CLAY SOILS THAT TILL FALLOWS ARE APPROXIMATELY THE SAME AS CAN STORE AND RETAIN SUBSOIL MOISTURE (EAVY CONVENTIONAL CULTIVATED FALLOWS CLAY SOILS WITH STORED MOISTURE TO M AND 0ROlTABLE SORGHUM CROPS HAVE BEEN GROWN RECEIVING MM OF EFFECTIVE RAIN ALLOWING FOR IMMEDIATELY AFTER CHICKPEAS IN CONDITIONS WHERE EVAPORATION RUN OFF ETC SHOULD YIELD AROUND THE SOIL IS WET TO ONE METRE AND A MODERATE THA (OWEVER CROPS STARTING WITH ONLY TO HIGH MIDGE RESISTANT HYBRID IS USED 7HEN M OF SUBSOIL MOISTURE AND RECEIVING MM OF CONSIDERING THIS OPTION THE LIKELY PROBABILITY OF EFFECTIVE RAIN WILL YIELD ONLY ABOUT THA .37 RECEIVING ABOVE AVERAGE RAINFALL IN THE GROWING $EPARTMENT OF 0RIMARY )NDUSTRIES HAS SHOWN SEASON SHOULD BE INVESTIGATED THAT AFTER THE INITIAL n MM OF SOIL WATER IS USED SORGHUM CAN PRODUCE GRAIN AT THE RATE !VOID GROWING SORGHUM FOLLOWING A CANOLA OR OF ABOUT KGHAMM OF EFFECTIVE RAINFALL AND MUSTARD CROP AS THESE CROPS RUN DOWN 6!- SOIL MOISTURE .OTE THAT THESE lGURES ARE BASED AND SORGHUM HAS A HIGH DEPENDENCE ON IT ON NO SUBSOIL LIMITATIONS SUCH AS COMPACTION $OUBLE CROPPING AFTER A WINTER CEREAL CROP CAN SALINITY OR SODICITY BE SUCCESSFUL IF CONDITIONS ARE VERY FAVOURABLE HOWEVER IT HAS A HIGHER RISK OF FAILURE THAN 'OOD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES THAT RESULT IN FOLLOWING CHICKPEAS 4HIS MAY BE DUE TO LOWER GOOD STORED SUBSOIL MOISTURE AND WATER USE WATER EXTRACTION BY CHICKPEAS THAN WHEAT IN EFlCIENCY CAN ACHIEVE LONG TERM YIELD AVERAGES MANY INSTANCES IN NORTHERN .37 IN THE 1UIRINDI DISTRICT OF THA 'UNNEDAH AND 4AMWORTH OF THA IN THE )NVERELL AND .ARRABRI DISTRICTS THA AND IN THE -OREE 4(% 3/2'(5- 0,!.4 !.$ (/7 )4 '2/73 DISTRICT THA 4HE PLANT 4HE USE OF NO TILL AND MINIMUM TILL FALLOWS INCREASE SUBSOIL MOISTURE AND THE PROSPECTS 4HE SORGHUM PLANT IS KNOWN BOTANICALLY AS OF HIGH YIELDING AND PROlTABLE CROPS .O TILL 3ORGHUM BICOLOR , -OENCH AND IS A MEMBER CROPS FOLLOWING WINTER CEREALS CONSISTENTLY YIELD OF THE 0OACEAE FAMILY
0HOTO ' "UTLER 0HOTO ' "UTLER
&IGURE ! GRAIN SORGHUM HYBRID WITH AN OPEN PANICLE &IGURE ! WHITE SEEDED GRAIN SORGHUM HYBRID WITH A HEAD CLOSED PANICLE HEAD )T IS A PERENNIAL TROPICAL # GRASS THAT IS CAPABLE 7ILD SORGHUM TYPES USED IN BREEDING PROGRAMS OF GROWING BEYOND PHYSIOLOGICAL MATURITY MAY BE WELL OVER M IN HEIGHT MULTI STEMMED OF THE GRAIN 4HE HYBRIDS AVAILABLE FOR GRAIN AND HAVE VERY SMALL SEED HEADS PRODUCTION MAY BE EITHER DETERMINATE OR INDETERMINATE IN SETTING A NUMBER OF TILLERS (OW THE PLANT GROWS FOR GRAIN PRODUCTION !LTHOUGH THEY CAN VARY $EPENDING ON LOCATION PLANTING TIME AND MOST HYBRIDS GROW TO AROUND M IN HEIGHT ! HYBRID THE SORGHUM GROWING SEASON IS BETWEEN SORGHUM PLANT PRODUCES TWO RANKS OF SINGLE AND DAYS FROM SOWING TO HARVEST LEAVES IN ALTERNATE POSITIONS ON THE STEM 4HE LEAVES HAVE OVERLAPPING SHEATHS LONG BROAD 'ROWTH RATES ARE VERY SENSITIVE TO TEMPERATURE BLADES AND WITH THE EXCEPTION OF THE LOWEST LEAF AND MOISTURE AS WELL AS SOIL FERTILITY AND POINTED TIPS 3ORGHUM USUALLY HAS A DOMINANT INSECT AND DISEASE DAMAGE 4HE ROOTS GROW AT STEM AND DEPENDING ON THE HYBRID AND THE APPROXIMATELY CMDAY PLANT POPULATION A NUMBER OF TILLERS ! VIGOROUS 3ORGHUM HAS RECOGNISABLE GROWTH STAGES THAT lBROUS ROOT SYSTEM SUPPORTS THE PLANT AND CAN BE USED TO PLAN IRRIGATION DESICCATION INSECT PROVIDES WATER AND NUTRIENTS FOR SHOOT GROWTH SCOUTING AND INSECT CONTROL SEE &IGURE .OTE 3ORGHUM ROOTS CAN EXTRACT WATER TO A DEPTH THAT LEAVES ARE COUNTED WHEN THE PLACE WHERE OF M THE LEAF BLADE AND LEAF SHEATH ATTACH KNOWN AS 4HE SORGHUM HEAD IS A MANY BRANCHED PANICLE THE COLLAR CAN BE SEEN WITHOUT CUTTING THE PLANT WITH SMALL SEEDS APPROXIMATELY MM IN APART DIAMETER &IGURE AND 4HE CURRENT HYBRIDS MAY EITHER HAVE AN OPEN OR CLOSED PANICLE AND 3TAGE IS EMERGENCE IE WHEN THE COLEOPTILE IS THE NUMBER OF SEEDS PER HEAD WILL VARY 3EED lRST VISIBLE 4HIS GENERALLY OCCURS BETWEEN WEIGHT TYPICALLY RANGES FROM TO AND DAYS AFTER PLANTING DEPENDING ON SOIL SEEDSKG 3EED TYPICALLY CONTAINS BETWEEN AND TEMPERATURE MOISTURE CONDITIONS SOWING DEPTH PERCENT PROTEIN !LTHOUGH COLOUR OF THE SEED AND SEED VIGOUR #ONDITIONS FOR GERMINATION COAT VARIES FROM WHITE THROUGH TO BROWN RED IS {INCLUDE A TEMPERATURE RANGE BETWEEN THE MOST COMMONLY GROWN COLOUR IN !USTRALIA AND O# AND RISING SOIL MOISTURE NEAR lELD
&IGURE
CAPACITY SEED DEPTH OF AROUND CM AND A AS OPPOSED TO THE POINTED TIPS OF LATER LEAVES SEEDLING VIGOUR PERCENTAGE HIGHER THAN IT IS A STRAIGHTFORWARD PROCESS TO TELL HOW MANY LEAVES THE PLANT HAS 4HE SEED PROVIDES THE SEEDLING WITH NUTRIENTS AND FOOD RESERVES 4HE HYPOCOTYL OR YOUNG $URING THIS STAGE THE YIELD POTENTIAL IS SET )F SHOOT EXTENDS FROM THE SEED TAKING UP WATER WATER SUNLIGHT OR NUTRIENTS ARE LIMITING YIELDS !T AROUND DAY A lBROUS ROOT SYSTEM BEGINS TO CAN BE RESTRICTED $RY MATTER PRODUCTION OCCURS FORM FROM THE HYPOCOTYL $URING THIS PERIOD THE AT NEARLY A CONSTANT RATE BETWEEN NOW AND SEED MUST BE PROTECTED AGAINST SOIL INSECT ATTACK MATURITY )F CONDITIONS TURN COOL AND WET FUNGAL DISEASES 3TAGE IS BETWEEN THE lVE LEAF STAGE AND SUCH AS PYTHIUM MAY CAUSE LOSSES THROUGH GROWING POINT DIFFERENTIATION 4HE GROWING POINT SEEDLING DEATH CHANGES FROM VEGETATIVE LEAF PRODUCING 3TAGE EXTENDS BETWEEN EMERGENCE AND THE TO REPRODUCTIVE HEAD PRODUCING ABOUT THREE LEAF STAGE 4HE GROWING POINT IS STILL BELOW DAYS AFTER EMERGENCE !T THIS STAGE THE TOTAL THE SOIL SURFACE 4HIS STAGE WILL USUALLY BEGIN NUMBER OF LEAVES HAS BEEN DETERMINED AND THE ABOUT DAYS AFTER EMERGENCE POTENTIAL HEAD SIZE WILL SOON BE DElNED !ROUND &IGURE 3ORGHUM 'ROWTH 3TAGE n 4HREE ,EAF 3TAGE PER CENT OF THE TOTAL LEAF AREA WILL HAVE DEVELOPED CORRELATING TO APPROXIMATELY ONE THIRD OF THE TIME TAKEN BETWEEN PLANTING AND PHYSIOLOGICAL MATURITY 4HIS EQUATES TO BETWEEN AND LEAVES WITH THE LOWER TO LEAVES POSSIBLY BEING LOST &OLLOWING GROWING POINT DIFFERENTIATION STALK OR CULM GROWTH INCREASES RAPIDLY .UTRIENT UPTAKE IS ALSO RAPID 4HIS RAPID GROWTH ALLOWS SORGHUM PLANTS TO BE VERY COMPETITIVE AGAINST WEEDS FOR THE REMAINDER OF THE SEASON
&IGURE 3ORGHUM 'ROWTH 3TAGE n GROWTH LEADING UP TO GROWING POINT DIFFERENTIATION
3TAGE IS FROM THE THREE TO lVE LEAF STAGE 4HIS OCCURS APPROXIMATELY DAYS AFTER EMERGENCE 4HE GROWING POINT IS STILL BELOW THE SOIL SURFACE !T THE lVE LEAF STAGE THE ROOT SYSTEM IS RAPIDLY EXPANDING AND ROOTS PRODUCED AT THE LOWER NODES MAY PUSH THE LOWER LEAF OFF THE PLANT !S THE LOWEST lRST LEAF ALWAYS HAS A ROUNDED TIP
&IGURE 3ORGHUM 'ROWTH 3TAGE n &IVE ,EAF 3TAGE
3TAGE IS BETWEEN GROWING POINT DIFFERENTIATION AND WHEN THE mAG LEAF BECOMES VISIBLE $URING THIS STAGE THE CULM AND LEAVES RAPIDLY GROW UNTIL THE mAG LEAF THE lNAL LEAF BECOMES VISIBLE IN THE WHORL 7HEN THE mAG LEAF EMERGES ALL EXCEPT THE lNAL OR LEAVES SHOULD BE FULLY EXPANDED AND AROUND PER CENT OF THE TOTAL LEAF AREA HAS BEEN GROWN 7HILE GROWTH AND NUTRIENT UPTAKE IS OCCURRING AT A RAPID RATE LIGHT INTERCEPTION IS BEING MAXIMISED 4HE HEAD CONTINUES DEVELOPMENT AND THE LOWER TO LEAVES MAY BE LOST "ECAUSE OF THIS ANY REFERENCE TO LEAF NUMBER SHOULD NOW BE MADE FROM THE TOP DOWN THE mAG LEAF BEING NUMBER
&IGURE 3ORGHUM 'ROWTH 3TAGE BOOTING
&IGURE 3ORGHUM 'ROWTH 3TAGE n mAG LEAF VISIBLE 3TAGE IS BOOT STAGE ,EAF AREA IS NOW AT A PEAK PROVIDING MAXIMUM LIGHT INTERCEPTION 4HE HEAD STILL ENCLOSED IN THE mAG LEAF SHEATH IS ALMOST DEVELOPED TO FULL SIZE 4HE PEDUNCLE HAS BEGUN TO ELONGATE AND WILL RESULT IN THE HEAD BECOMING VISIBLE FROM THE mAG LEAF SHEATH 0OTENTIAL HEAD SIZE IS DETERMINED 3TRESSFUL CONDITIONS FROM LACK OF MOISTURE OR HERBICIDE DAMAGE AT THIS STAGE MAY STOP THE HEAD COMPLETELY GROWING FROM THE &IGURE 3ORGHUM 'ROWTH 3TAGE &LOWERING mAG LEAF SHEATH 4HIS FAILURE WILL HINDER COMPLETE POLLINATION AT mOWERING IS USUALLY DElNED AS THE STAGE WHEN PER !T STAGE n OTHERWISE KNOWN AS @ PER CENT CENT OF THE HEADS IN THE PADDOCK ARE PER mOWERED OR HALF BLOOM OR GENERALLY AS @mOWERING CENT mOWERED HOWEVER IT MAY ALSO RELATE TO n THE PEDUNCLE RAPIDLY ELONGATES PUSHING THE AN INDIVIDUAL PLANT 4HE TIME REQUIRED FROM HEAD THROUGH THE mAG LEAF SHEATH (ALF BLOOM PLANTING TO PER CENT mOWERED DEPENDS ON
THE HYBRID AS WELL AS THE ENVIRONMENT -ODERN 4HIS PERIOD INCLUDES WHEN THE GRAIN IS OF SOFT AS HYBRIDS USUALLY TAKE BETWEEN n DAYS WHICH WELL AS MEDIUM DOUGH CONSISTENCY REPRESENT SOMEWHERE BETWEEN n PER CENT !S DRY MATTER ACCUMULATION IS SIMILAR ACROSS OF THE TIME BETWEEN PLANTING AND PHYSIOLOGICAL HYBRIDS THE LENGTH OF TIME TAKEN DURING THIS MATURITY PERIOD WILL STRONGLY INmUENCE GRAIN YIELD WITH 3ORGHUM IS PRIMARILY SELF POLLINATED &LOWERING THE LONGER MATURING HYBRIDS OUT YIELDING THE BEGINS AT THE TOP AND PROCEEDS DOWNWARD QUICKER MATURING LINES 4HIS HOLDS AS LONG AS THE REQUIRING n DAYS FOR THE WHOLE HEAD TO mOWER PLANTS ARE NOT SUBJECTED TO MOISTURE STRESS OR FROST DURING THIS PERIOD 4HE TIME A HYBRID TAKES TO START mOWERING DEPENDS LARGELY ON TEMPERATURE &OR EXAMPLE A 3TAGE n (ARD $OUGH n !PPROXIMATELY OF MEDIUM MATURITY HYBRID PLANTED IN THE COOLER THE GRAIN DRY WEIGHT HAS ACCUMULATED BY HARD EARLY /CTOBER PERIOD AT -OREE mOWERS IN ABOUT DOUGH STAGE .UTRIENT UPTAKE IS ESSENTIALLY DAYS (OWEVER IF PLANTED IN THE WARMER MID COMPLETE 3OME LOWER LEAVES MAY NOW HAVE .OVEMBER PERIOD IT mOWERS IN DAYS BEEN LOST 3EVERE MOISTURE STRESS DURING mOWERING CAN RESULT IN POLLEN BLASTING AND POOR HEAD lLL ! FURTHER DISTINCT STAGES ARE INVOLVED IN SEED DEVELOPMENT THE lRST OF WHICH IS 3TAGE @3OFT DOUGH TO MEDIUM DOUGH FOLLOWED BY @(ARD $OUGH AND lNALLY 0HYSIOLOGICAL -ATURITY %NTIRE SEED DEVELOPMENT TAKES AROUND DAYS 3TAGE @3OFT DOUGH IS THE STAGE AFTER APPROXIMATELY HALF THE GRAIN DRY WEIGHT HAS ACCUMULATED &OLLOWING AN INCREASE IN CULM WEIGHT AFTER @ PER CENT mOWERED THE CULM DECREASES IN WEIGHT AS THE GRAIN RAPIDLY FORMS
&IGURE 3ORGHUM 'ROWTH 3TAGE n 3OFT $OUGH
&IGURE 3ORGHUM 'ROWTH 3TAGE n (ARD $OUGH 0HYSIOLOGICAL -ATURITY n 3TAGE n THE PLANT HAS REACHED MAXIMUM TOTAL DRY WEIGHT AND MAXIMUM GRAIN WEIGHT 0HYSIOLOGICAL MATURITY CAN BE DETERMINED BY THE FORMATION OF A DARK SPOT ON THE GRAIN ON THE OPPOSITE SIDE FROM THE EMBRYOn OTHERWISE KNOWN AS BLACK LAYER FORMATION &IGURE 7HILE THE SEEDS DEVELOP NUTRIENTS AND MOISTURE mOW THROUGH A SERIES OF TUBES FROM THE PARENT TO THE SEED /NCE THE GRAIN REACHES ITS MAXIMUM SIZE THESE TUBES BECOME PERMANENTLY BLOCKED OFF 4HIS IS BECAUSE THE WATER IN THE SEED DURING THE SOFT DOUGH AND HARD DOUGH STAGES IS DISPLACED WITH
YIELD COMPARED TO THE LONGER GROWING TYPES 4HE CHOICE OF MATURITY PATTERN TYPES WILL DEPEND ON DEPTH OF STORED SOIL MOISTURE AND THE GROWERS ATTITUDE TO RISK 6ARYING THE ROW SPACING ANDOR PLANT POPULATION MAY ALTER THE DESIRABLE MATURITY LENGTH s $ISEASE RESISTANCE ! RANGE OF RESISTANCES IS AVAILABLE FOR A NUMBER OF GRAIN SORGHUM DISEASES ,ATE PLANTED CROPS ARE MORE LIKELY TO BE AFFECTED BY RUST INFECTION &IGURE "LACK ,AYER &ORMATION n 3EEDS PROGRESS FROM s 2ESISTANCE TO LODGING LODGING RATING BEING LESS MATURE ! TO MORE MATURE $ .OTE THE DISTINCT BLACK DOT IN $ SIGNIFYING THE FORMATION OF THE BLACK LAYER s 2ESISTANCE TO INSECTS MIDGE RATING
STARCH UNTIL WATER CAN NO LONGER MOVE IN 4HE s /RGANOPHOSPHATE /0 REACTION 'RAIN SEED THEREFORE DRIES OUT TYPICALLY FROM AROUND SORGHUM HYBRIDS VARY IN THEIR TOLERANCE TO DOWN TO OR AIR DRY LEVEL 4HE BLACK ORGANOPHOSPHATE INSECTICIDE SPRAYS )F GRAIN LAYER APPEARS lRST IN THE SEEDS AT THE TOP OF SORGHUM IS GROWN NEAR OTHER SUMMER CROPS THE HEAD THAT WILL POSSIBLY BE EXPOSED TO AN /0 DURING THE SEASON SELECT MORE TOLERANT !FTER PHYSIOLOGICAL MATURITY THE REMAINING HYBRIDS TO WITHSTAND ANY DRIFT THAT MAY LEAVES THAT WERE STILL FUNCTIONING MAY STAY INADVERTENTLY OCCUR GREEN OR MAY RAPIDLY DIE 4HIS WILL VARY WITH HOW DETERMINANT THE HYBRID IS AS WELL AS 3OWING TIME ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS )F TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE ARE FAVOURABLE BRANCHES MAY START TO "ECAUSE OF THE VARIABLE RAINFALL PLANTING TIME GROW FROM THE UPPER PARTS OF THE STEM WHERE VARIES FROM 3EPTEMBER TO *ANUARY 4HE PREFERRED THE LEAVES ATTACH PLANTING TIME FOR -OREE AND .ARRABRI IS LATE 3EPTEMBER TO LATE /CTOBER WHILE FOR 'UNNEDAH 4HE TIME BETWEEN PHYSIOLOGICAL MATURITY AND )NVERELL AND 4AMWORTH DISTRICTS MID /CTOBER HARVEST DATE WILL DEPEND ON HYBRID AS WELL AS TO LATE .OVEMBER IS PREFERABLE #ROPS SHOULD ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS BE PLANTED BY EARLY *ANUARY SO THAT mOWERING 3/7).' lNISHES BY MID -ARCH 4HIS REDUCES THE RISK OF SORGHUM ERGOT INFECTION AND YIELD LOSS AS RESULT (YBRID SELECTION OF HEAVY BUILD UP OF MIDGE AND A LONGER SLOWER DRYING DOWN PERIOD !N UP TO DATE LIST OF HYBRIDS CAN BE FOUND IN !GNOTE 'RAIN 3ORGHUM 0LANTING 'UIDE AVAILABLE )F PLANTING LATE $ECEMBER EARLY *ANUARY PLANT A FROM YOUR NEAREST .37 $0) OFlCE MIDGE RESISTANT HYBRID #ROPS PLANTED INTO GOOD SOIL MOISTURE WITH ADEQUATE NUTRITION CAN STILL .O VARIETY EXCELS IN ALL CHARACTERISTICS THEREFORE HAVE GOOD YIELD POTENTIAL TO SPREAD YOUR RISK GROW TWO OR THREE VARIETIES WHICH HAVE PERFORMED CONSISTENTLY IN YOUR AREA #ROP FAILURE IS LIKELY FROM VERY EARLY PLANTING PROBLEMS WITH EMERGENCE OR VERY LATE PLANTING 7HEN SELECTING HYBRIDS CONSIDER DUE TO COLD CONDITIONS AROUND mOWERING s 9IELD POTENTIAL USE HYBRID TRIALS AS A GUIDE 0LANTING AT THE EARLIEST OPPORTUNITY IS PREFERRED s -ATURITY PATTERN TIME AND PLANTING TO AVOID MIDGE ERGOT AND MOISTURE DElCIT AT CONDITIONS mOWERING AMONGST OTHER PROBLEMS s !S A GENERAL GUIDE LATER MATURING SORGHUM 3ORGHUM SEED SHOULD BE PLANTED WHEN THE IS HIGHER YIELDING PARTICULARLY UNDER GOOD SOIL TEMPERATURE AT AM %34 AT THE INTENDED MOISTURE AND NUTRIENT CONDITIONS )F MOISTURE SEED DEPTH ABOUT CM IS AT LEAST ª# COULD BE A LIMITING FACTOR AFFECTING YIELD THE PREFERABLY ª# FOR THREE TO FOUR CONSECUTIVE QUICKER EARLIER MATURING HYBRIDS TEND TO HAVE DAYS AND RISING WITH THE RISK OF FROST PAST 3OIL A GREATER RELIABILITY OF PRODUCING A REASONABLE TEMPERATURES USUALLY REACH ª# IN EARLY /CTOBER
AND HIGHER POPULATIONS WHERE CONDITIONS ARE MORE FAVOURABLE .OTE THAT IT IS NOT ONLY TARGET POPULATION PER HECTARE THAT IS IMPORTANT AN EVENLY DISTRIBUTED PLANT POPULATION IS THE KEY TO ACHIEVING HIGH YIELDS )N DRYLAND CROPS THE POPULATION CHOSEN SHOULD MAXIMISE THE CHANCES OF HAVING SOIL WATER FOR mOWERING AND GRAIN lLL TO ENSURE HIGH STABLE YIELDS -ATCHING PLANT POPULATION WITH STORED SOIL MOISTURE SHOULD RESULT IN GOOD POTENTIAL YIELD ,OW TILLERING HYBRIDS SHOULD BE PLANTED AT SLIGHTLY HIGHER POPULATIONS 1UICK MATURING
0HOTO * 3PENCELEY HYBRIDS PLANTED IN VERY GOOD CONDITIONS &IGURE 0URPLING OF GRAIN SORGHUM LEAVES DUE TO MAY REQUIRE A HIGHER POPULATION THAN SLOWER EMERGENCE UNDER COLD CONDITIONS HYBRIDS TO REALISE THEIR YIELD POTENTIAL IN CERTAIN ENVIRONMENTS AT -OREE AND MID /CTOBER AT 'UNNEDAH -EASURE THE SOIL TEMPERATURE USING A SOIL 7HEN CALCULATING PLANTING RATES ALLOW FOR AN THERMOMETER EXTRA n PER CENT FOR ESTABLISHMENT LOSSES WHEN PLANTING INTO A VERY GOOD SEEDBED ON 0LANTING INTO COLD SOILS SLOWS EMERGENCE HEAVY BLACK SOIL USING PRESS WHEELS AND n REDUCES GERMINATION AND ESTABLISHMENT AND PER CENT WHEN SEEDBED CONDITIONS ARE FAIR OR INDUCES SEEDLING BLIGHT ,OW SOIL AND AIR WHEN PRESS WHEELS ARE NOT USED TEMPERATURES SLOW PLANT GROWTH AND REDUCE NUTRIENT UPTAKE ESPECIALLY PHOSPHORUS /BTAIN THE NUMBER OF SEEDS PER KG AND THE INDUCING @PURPLING IN SOME HYBRIDS &IGURE GERMINATION PERCENTAGE FROM THE BAG LABEL 4HE LONGER EMERGENCE TIME INCREASES THE 0LANTING RATE 2EQUIRED NUMBER OF PLANTSHA X CROPS SUSCEPTIBILITY TO SOIL INSECT DAMAGE 6ERY EARLY PLANTED PADDOCKS FREQUENTLY HAVE TO BE KGHA 3EEDSKG X GERM X ESTABLISHMENT LOSS REPLANTED %XAMPLE 0LANT POPULATION 0LANTING RATE X 4ARGET PLANT POPULATION DEPENDS ON THE X X DEPTH OF STORED SOIL MOISTURE LIKELY GROWING X CONDITIONS AND PROBABILITY OF ABOVE OR BELOW AVERAGE IN CROP RAINFALL %XPECTED CROP YIELD X X AFFECTS THE OPTIMAL PLANT POPULATION 5SE KGHA LOWER POPULATIONS IN THE MORE MARGINAL AREAS 3EEDING RATES VARY DUE TO MANY FACTORS HOWEVER AS A GUIDE AVERAGE DRYLAND RATES ARE USUALLY &IGURE 0OOR AND UNEVEN ESTABLISHMENT OF A CROP LOWERS BETWEEN n KGHA AND IRRIGATED RATES AROUND POTENTIAL YIELD AND OFTEN INCREASES THE WEED SEED BURDEN KGHA 4HIS IS BASED ON AN APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF SEEDSKG AND A TARGET DRYLAND PLANT POPULATION OF PLANTSHA 7ITH FULL IRRIGATION TARGET PLANT POPULATION COULD BE PLANTSHA 2OW SPACING
.ARROW ROWS OUT YIELD WIDE ROWS UNDER GOOD GROWING CONDITIONS THEREFORE NARROW ROWS ARE MORE APPROPRIATE WITH HIGH YIELDING IRRIGATED CROPS ANDOR HIGH RAINFALL ENVIRONMENTS WHEREAS WIDE ROWS ARE MORE ADVANTAGEOUS IN LOW MOISTURE LOWER YIELDING DRYLAND SITUATIONS 4HE NARROW ROW ADVANTAGE DECREASES RAPIDLY
AS SOIL MOISTURE RESERVES DECLINE ESPECIALLY IN MORE MARGINAL AREAS 4ABLE IS A USEFUL 4ABLE 7IDE ROW CONFIGURATIONS USED TO GUIDE TO DETERMINE WHICH ROW SPACING IS MORE PLANT SORGHUM APPROPRIATE FOR A PARTICULAR TARGET YIELD IN A 2OW CONFIGURATION 2OWS PLANTED DRYLAND SITUATION M SOLID PLANT !LL ROWS PLANTED ON M ROW SPACING 4ABLE /PTIMUM ROW SPACING FOR EXPECTED YIELD M SOLID PLANT !LL ROWS PLANTED ON M ROW SPACING %XPECT 9IELD /PTIMUM 2OW 3PACING M SOLID PLANT !LL ROWS PLANTED ON M !BOVE THA d M ROW SPACING THA d M 3INGLE SKIP 4WO ROWS PLANTED ONE ROW "ELOW THA t M UNPLANTED
$OUBLE SKIP 4WO ROWS PLANTED TWO ROWS UNPLANTED
STABILITY AND GREATLY REDUCING THE RISK OF CROP FAILURE (OWEVER IN HIGH YIELDING ENVIRONMENTS OR SEASONS RESULTING IN M SOLID PLANT YIELDS OF THA OR HIGHER YIELD LOSS OF n COMPARED TO SOLID PLANT SHOULD BE EXPECTED IF WIDE OR SKIP ROW CONlGURATIONS ARE USED !GRONOMIC MANAGEMENT IS VERY IMPORTANT IF SORGHUM IS PLANTED ON WIDE OR SKIP ROW 0HOTO 4 #HRISTIAN CONlGURATIONS 0LANT POPULATION SHOULD BE THE &IGURE 'RAIN SORGHUM PLANTED ON A SOLID ROW SAME AS SOLID PLANT ON AN AREA BASIS SAME CONlGURATION LEFT AND SINGLE SKIP ROW CONlGURATION PLANTSHA %VEN AS OPPOSED TO PATCHY PLANT RIGHT 4HE DIFFERENCE IN MATURITY BETWEEN THE PLANTS IS ESTABLISHMENT WITHIN ROWS WILL MAXIMISE THE DUE TO THE DIFFERENCES IN MOISTURE AVAILABILITY TO THE PLANTS WATER USE BETWEEN THE WIDE ROWS 'OOD STUBBLE ! METHOD OF CONSERVING WATER DURING THE MANAGEMENT GROUND COVER IS NECESSARY VEGETATIVE STAGE OF A CROP FOR USE AT mOWERING TO REDUCE WATER LOSS BETWEEN PLANTED ROWS AND GRAIN lLL IS BROADLY TERMED @SKIP ROW %FFECTIVE WEED CONTROL BEFORE AND DURING THE &IGURE 4HIS TERM INDICATES THAT THE ROW SEASON IS CRITICAL OTHERWISE THE ADVANTAGES CONlGURATION IS CHANGED BY @SKIPPING OR NOT OF THE WIDER ROWS WILL BE LOST 7IDER ROWS PLANTING ROWS 4HIS @SKIP ROW MANAGEMENT M ALLOW INTER ROW CULTIVATION FOR STRATEGY HAS BEEN USED WITH PEANUTS COTTON AND &IGURE 3INGLE SKIP ROW GRAIN SORGHUM GROWING ON THE MAIZE AS WELL AS SORGHUM 7HEN DISCUSSING ROW ,IVERPOOL 0LAINS SPACING FOR SORGHUM IT IS USEFUL TO REFER TO 4ABLE 4HE USE OF WIDE OR SKIP ROW CONlGURATIONS SHOULD CONSERVE SOME SOIL WATER FOR LATER IN THE GROWING SEASON 4HESE CONlGURATIONS ARE MOST EFFECTIVE WHEN STARTING SOIL WATER LEVELS ARE GOOD WITH THE WIDE AREAS BETWEEN ROWS ACTING AS A BUFFER FOR POOR OR VARIABLE IN CROP RAINFALL )N MORE MARGINAL DRYLAND AREAS GROWERS COULD REGARD WIDE ROWS AS MANDATORY AND CONSIDER SINGLE SKIP ROW DOUBLE SKIP ROW M OR M ROWS 4HESE WIDER ROWS IMPROVE RISK MANAGEMENT BY INCREASING YIELD 0HOTO ' "UTLER
WEED CONTROL BUT THIS WILL RESULT IN ADDITIONAL WATER LOSS 4ABLE 5SING GRAIN PROTEIN LEVELS TO INDICATE 3ORGHUM SOWN USING WIDE OR SKIP ROW SPACING . DEFICIENCY IN SORGHUM SHOULD HAVE A LOWER RISK OF PEST PROBLEMS 'RAIN 0ROTEIN )NDICATED . SUPPLY MIDGE LOWER HERBICIDE COSTS LESS SPRAYED MC AREA AND MORE EVEN mOWERING AND DRY DOWN ,ESS THAN !CUTE . DEFICIENCY -ORE TIME IMPROVING HARVESTABILITY YIELD HIGHLY LIKELY WITH MORE .
3EED DEPTH TO -ARGINAL . DEFICIENCY 9IELD #ORRECT SEED PLACEMENT IS ESSENTIAL WHEREBY MAY INCREASE WITH MORE . THE SEED IS PLANTED DEEP ENOUGH INTO MOISTURE 'REATER . NOT LIMITING -ORE . WILL TO GERMINATE AND ALLOW ITS ROOTS TO GROW DOWN THAN INCREASE GRAIN PROTEIN THROUGH MOIST SOIL INTO SUBSOIL MOISTURE 4HE IDEAL PLANTING DEPTH IS BETWEEN n MM INTO 3OURCE 1$0) #ROP -ANAGEMENT .OTES MOISTURE n 3UMMER %DITION
.542)4)/. FOLLOWING SORGHUM THE YIELD WAS INCREASED 3OIL TESTS TO ESTIMATE NUTRIENT LEVELS SHOULD BY THA 3UGGESTED NITROGEN RATES FOLLOWING FORM PART OF THE OVERALL ROTATION PROGRAM VARIOUS DRYLAND CROPS ARE OUTLINED IN 4ABLE !PPLIED FERTILISER RATES SHOULD BE DETERMINED AND IRRIGATED CROPS ARE OUTLINED IN 4ABLE 2ATES USING SOIL TESTING IN CONJUNCTION WITH RECORDS OF GRAIN PRODUCTION AND GRAIN PROTEIN LEVELS FOR INDIVIDUAL PADDOCKS 5SING THIS INFORMATION IN 4ABLE 'UIDE TO NITROGEN RATES KGHA FOR ASSOCIATION WITH DEPTH OF STORED SOIL MOISTURE DRYLAND SORGHUM GROWN ON THE ,IVERPOOL NITROGEN FERTILISER LEVELS CAN BE CALCULATED BASED 0LAINS ON TARGET YIELDS 9IELD 4ARGET .ITROGEN 0REVIOUS #ROP THA THA 3ORGHUM SUNFLOWER COTTON .ITROGEN DElCIENCY SYMPTOMS ARE USUALLY EVIDENT ON THE OLDER LEAVES WHICH BECOME #OWPEAS MUNG BEANS MAINLY PALE GREEN WITH PALE YELLOW CHLOROSIS ,ONG FALLOW WINTER CEREAL AND PALE BROWN NECROSIS 4HE DEVELOPMENT OF PALE YELLOW LEAVES IS THE MOST OBVIOUS SYMPTOM ,ONG FALLOW FABA BEANS OF NITROGEN DElCIENCY ,ONG FALLOW CHICKPEA
,OW GRAIN PROTEIN OF SORGHUM COMBINED WITH ,UCERNE GOOD STAND POOR YIELD IS A RELIABLE INDICATOR OF LOW NITROGEN AVAILABILITY 4HE 1$0) HAS DEVELOPED A GUIDE 3OURCE .37 $0) !GNOTE 'RAIN 3ORGHUM USING SORGHUM GRAIN PROTEIN LEVELS 4ABLE )F 0LANTING 'UIDE n THE GRAIN PROTEIN LEVELS ARE CONSISTENTLY BELOW THEN THERE IS ACUTE NITROGEN DElCIENCY 4ABLE 'UIDE TO NITROGEN RATES FOR IRRIGATED 4HEY SUGGEST THAT YIELD WOULD ALMOST CERTAINLY SORGHUM INCREASE WITH INCREASED NITROGEN SUPPLY )F THE PROTEIN VARIES BETWEEN n MARGINAL NITROGEN 0REVIOUS #ROP .ITROGEN 2ATE KGHA DElCIENCY IS OCCURRING 'RAIN YIELD AND PROTEIN 3ORGHUM MAIZE COTTON MAY INCREASE BY INCREASING NITROGEN SUPPLY 3OYBEANS !BOVE PROTEIN NITROGEN MAY NOT BE LIMITING YIELD ,ONG FALLOW WHEAT
/N THE ,IVERPOOL 0LAINS AVERAGE YIELD WAS ,ONG FALLOW FABA BEANS INCREASED BY THA WITH THE ADDITION OF KG 3OURCE .37 $0) !GNOTE 'RAIN 3ORGHUM .HA IN TRIALS DURING n 9IELDS WERE 0LANTING 'UIDE n LIFTED FROM TO THA !FTER SHORT FALLOWS
OF n KGHA OF NITROGEN ARE USED ON HIGH 5SING THE ABOVE EXAMPLE IF SOIL ANALYSIS YIELDING CROPS GROWN AFTER WINTER CEREALS ON THE CONlRMED ONLY KGHA OF SOIL NITROGEN WAS ,IVERPOOL 0LAINS 4RIALS IN OTHER AREAS WHERE SOIL AVAILABLE THEN A FURTHER KGHA OF FERTILISER NITROGEN LEVELS HAVE BEEN HIGHER HAVE GIVEN NITROGEN WOULD BE REQUIRED TO ACHIEVE A TARGET SMALLER AND LESS CONSISTENT YIELD RESPONSES YIELD OF THA AT PROTEIN #OWPEA AND MUNGBEAN CROPS MAY LEAVE UP .ITROGEN FERTILISER CAN BE APPLIED IN DIFFERENT TO KGHA OF ADDITIONAL SOIL NITROGEN WHILE FORMS WITH ANHYDROUS AMMONIA AND SOYBEANS MAY RESULT IN RESIDUAL SOIL NITROGEN UREA MOST COMMON 4HE CHOICE USUALLY LEVELS OF n KG .HA COMPARED WITH CROPS DEPENDS ON PRICE AVAILABILITY AND CONVENIENCE SUCH AS SORGHUM OR OTHER CEREALS 4HE AMOUNT OF OF USE /NLY VERY LOW RATES OF NITROGEN CAN BE SAFELY SOWN WITH SORGHUM SEED KGHA IN NITROGEN CONTRIBUTED BY A PULSE CROP TO THE SOIL CM ROWS AND UP TO KGHA IN CM ROWS LARGELY DEPENDS ON THE QUANTITY OF DRY MATTER (IGHER RATES SHOULD BE SOWN CM TO THE SIDE PRODUCED BY THE PULSE CROP THE EFFECTIVENESS OF OF THE PLANTING TINE )T IS THE NORMAL PRACTICE NODULATION AND THE PREVIOUS SOIL NITROGEN STATUS TO APPLY HIGH RATES OF NITROGEN FERTILISER PRE 0ULSE CROPS WILL REDUCE THE LOSS OF SOIL NITROGEN PLANTING IN DRYLAND SITUATIONS HOWEVER POST COMPARED TO OTHER CROPS SUCH AS SORGHUM PLANT APPLICATION CAN BE UTILISED ESPECIALLY IN (OWEVER THE CONTRIBUTION OF A PREVIOUS SUMMER IRRIGATED SORGHUM PULSE LEGUME CROP TO SOIL NITROGEN LEVELS CAN 0HOSPHORUS BE VERY ERRATIC RANGING FROM ACTUAL DEPLETION 3ORGHUM IS MORE TOLERANT TO LOW PHOSPHORUS TO AN INCREASE OF UP TO n KG .HA 'ROWERS THAN WINTER CEREALS 3OIL LEVELS NEED TO BE QUITE ARE ADVISED TO ADOPT A CONSERVATIVE APPROACH LOW BELOW MGKG BICARBONATE BEFORE IN ASSUMING THE AMOUNT OF NITROGEN FOLLOWING CONSISTENT RESPONSES TO PHOSPHORUS FERTILISER PULSE CROPS UNLESS ON FARM EXPERIENCE HAS OCCUR 3OILS WITH LESS THAN MGKG ARE LIKELY GIVEN A GOOD INDICATION TO RESPOND TO ADDED PHOSPHORUS 2ESPONSES TO STARTER FERTILISERS MAY OCCUR IN THE -OREE )N IRRIGATED SORGHUM CROPS FERTILISER USE AREA AND ON THE ,IVERPOOL 0LAINS .OTE THAT EFlCIENCY CAN BE INCREASED BY USING POST PLANT APPLICATIONS OF PHOSPHORUS FERTILISER CAN INDUCE APPLICATIONS OF NITROGEN EITHER AS WATER RUN ZINC DElCIENCY !N IN CROP FOLIAR SPRAY IS UREA OR SIDE DRESSED NITROGEN 4HIS EFlCIENCY MOST EFFECTIVE IS DRAMATICALLY DECREASED WHERE SLOW IRRIGATION )N MILD PHOSPHORUS DElCIENCY SITUATIONS THERE RESULTS IN WATERLOGGING AND SUBSEQUENT LOSS OF ARE FEW CLEARLY RECOGNISABLE SYMPTOMS 0LANTS NITROGEN THROUGH DENITRIlCATION APPEAR STUNTED WITH THIN STEMS AND DARK GREEN .ITROGEN BUDGETING IS A USEFUL TECHNIQUE THAT LEAVES 4HE CROP MAY APPEAR TO BE UNEVEN CAN BE USED TO GIVE AN INDICATION OF THE NITROGEN AND GRAIN MATURITY MAY BE DELAYED 7HEN THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE SORGHUM CROP DElCIENCY BECOMES MORE SEVERE GROWTH IS GREATLY REDUCED AND OVERTONES OF DARK RED OR .ITROGEN BUDGETING PURPLE DEVELOP ON THE SHEATHS AND BLADES OF OLDER LEAVES )F THE DElCIENCY IS VERY SEVERE 4HIS METHOD CAN BE USED TO DETERMINE THE DARK BROWN NECROSIS OFTEN DEVELOPS NEAR THE NITROGEN REQUIREMENTS OF A CROP BY DOING A TIP OF THE LEAF BLADE AND ADVANCES INWARDS AND SIMPLE CALCULATION 4HE QUANTITY OF NITROGEN ALONG THE MARGINS TOWARDS THE BASE %VENTUALLY . REQUIRED TO GROW THE CROP IS APPROXIMATELY AFFECTED LEAVES WITHER AND DIE DOUBLE THE QUANTITY REMOVED IN THE GRAIN AT 3ORGHUM IS MORE VULNERABLE TO PHOSPHORUS HARVEST AND ZINC DElCIENCY FOLLOWING PERIODS OF LONG . REMOVED IN GRAIN 4ARGET YIELD THA X GRAIN PROTEIN FALLOW SUCH AS DROUGHT OR CROPS LIKE CANOLA KGHA X ZND MUSTARD WHEN 6ERSICULAR !RBUSCULAR -YCORRHIZAE 6!- LEVEL IS LOW . REQUIRED FOR CROP KGHA . REMOVED IN GRAIN X :INC %XAMPLE 4HE HEAVY ALKALINE SOILS OF NORTHERN .37 . REQUIRED FOR CROP KGHA THA X X X FREQUENTLY RESPOND TO ZINC THEREBY IMPROVING KG .HA SORGHUM YIELDS 9IELD RESPONSES HAVE BEEN
OBTAINED FROM STARTER FERTILISERS CONTAINING ABOUT 'RAIN SORGHUM IS REGARDED AS BEING SLIGHTLY ZINC THAT ARE APPLIED AT ABOUT n KGHA TOLERANT OF SOIL ACIDITY )T HAS BEEN SUCCESSFULLY IN SOWING ROWS n CM WIDE -ORE RELIABLE GROWN WHERE SOIL TESTS HAVE GIVEN P( VALUES OF RESPONSES HAVE BEEN OBTAINED BY APPLYING IN A IN WATER SOLUTION ZINC OXIDE AT ABOUT KGHA INCORPORATED INTO 0RIOR TO GROWING GRAIN SORGHUM IN ANY PADDOCK THE SEEDBED WELL BEFORE PLANTING 3YMPTOMS GROWERS SHOULD MEASURE THE %#E #HLORIDE OF ZINC DElCIENCY DEVELOP IN THE YOUNG LEAVES %XCHANGEABLE 3ODIUM 0ERCENTAGE %30 WITH BROAD YELLOW OR WHITE BANDS BETWEEN THE AND P( LEVELS /NCE THE CROP IS GROWING MARGINS AND THE MID VEIN IN THE LOWER HALF OF lELD OBSERVATIONS OF WHERE THE ROOTS ARE THE LEAF GROWING GIVEN THE SEASONAL CONDITIONS ARE !S NOTED IN THE PHOSPHORUS SECTION SORGHUM IS ALSO VERY USEFUL IN IDENTIFYING ANY ISSUES WITH SUBSOIL CONSTRAINTS PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE TO ZINC DElCIENCY WHEN 6ERSICULAR !RBUSCULAR -YCORRHIZAE 6!- LEVEL IS LOW 6!- IS A NATURALLY OCCURRING SOIL FUNGUS $)3%!3%3 THAT HELPS PLANTS WITH THE UPTAKE OF PHOSPHORUS $ISEASES THAT MAY BE A PROBLEM INCLUDE HEAD AND ZINC SMUT LEAF BLIGHT ANTHRACNOSE LEAF SPOT *OHNSON GRASS MOSAIC VIRUS SORGHUM ERGOT AND PYTHIUM 3ALINITY SODICITY AND ACIDITY 3ELECT HYBRIDS THAT ARE RESISTANT TO DISEASES 3UB SOIL SALINITY IS REASONABLY COMMON IN THE PREVALENT IN YOUR REGION BROWN GREY AND BLACK CLAY SOILS IN NORTHERN ,EAF RUST 0UCCINIA PURPUREA .37 3ALINITY IS THE SALT CONCENTRATION IN THE SOIL SOLUTION 7HILE PAST RESEARCH FROM !PPEAR AS SMALL PURPLE RED OR TAN SPOTS ON THE EXPERIMENTALLY IMPOSED SALT LEVELS INDICATES LEAVES 4HESE CAN ENLARGE AND FORM ELONGATED THAT GRAIN SORGHUM IS TOLERANT OF SALINITY MORE RAISED PUSTULES WHICH BREAK TO RELEASE BROWN RECENT RESEARCH IN NORTHERN .37 INDICATES POWDERY SPORES 4HESE CAN SIGNIlCANTLY REDUCE THAT GRAIN SORGHUM IS MUCH MORE SENSITIVE YIELD AND CONTRIBUTE TO LODGING IN SUSCEPTIBLE TO SALINITY )N THIS RESEARCH THERE WAS A RAPID HYBRIDS HENCE USE ONLY RUST RESISTANT HYBRIDS DECLINE IN PLANT GROWTH AND YIELD AS SOIL SALINITY 2UST TENDS TO BE A MAJOR PROBLEM IN HUMID INCREASED ESPECIALLY FROM %LECTRICAL #ONDUCTIVITY COASTAL AREAS AND LATE PLANTED CROPS ,EAF RUST SATURATED EXTRACT %#E FROM TO D3M 4HESE OFTEN APPEARS IN NORTHERN INLAND .37 TOWARDS EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ARE SUPPORTED BY GROWER THE END OF AUTUMN BUT USUALLY DOES NOT AND AGRONOMIST ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE THAT WHERE SIGNIlCANTLY REDUCE YIELD THERE IS SUBSOIL SALINITY GRAIN SORGHUM HAS (EAD SMUT 3PORISORIUM REILIANUM DIFlCULTY GROWING ROOTS INTO THESE SALINE LAYERS (EAD SMUT IS SOIL BORNE OR INTRODUCED ON SEED )N ADDITION TO SUB SOIL SALINITY SUBSOIL SODICITY AND TENDS TO BE A PROBLEM IN EARLY PLANTED IS ALSO REASONABLY COMMON IN NORTHERN .37 ! CROPS WITH SEEDLINGS BECOMING INFECTED DURING SODIC SOIL HAS AN EXCESS OF EXCHANGEABLE SODIUM COOLER WEATHER )N THE )NVERELL AND 7ARIALDA IONS ATTACHED TO CLAY PARTICLES 4HIS EXCESS OF AREAS THE INCIDENCE OF HEAD SMUT HAS BEEN UP IONS AFFECTS THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A TO n OF THE CROP &ORTUNATELY DUE TO EFFORTS SOIL BY CAUSING DISPERSION 7HEN A CLAY SOIL BY SORGHUM BREEDERS MOST HYBRIDS HAVE GOOD DISPERSES WITH WATER THE CLAY PARTICLES SWELL AS LEVELS OF RESISTANCE THEY ARE NO LONGER BOUND TOGETHER AND MINIMISE DRAINAGE THROUGH THE SOIL PORES SPACES ! *OHNSON GRASS MOSAIC VIRUS DISPERSIVE SOIL SETS HARD WHEN DRY 3UBSOIL SODICITY RESTRICTS ROOTING DEPTH DUE TO THE SOIL !PHIDS MOVING BETWEEN PLANTS SPREAD *OHNSON BEING SO HARD )T THEREFORE RESTRICTS ACCESS TO GRASS MOSAIC VIRUS AND CAUSE @MOSAIC @RED WATER AND NUTRIENTS FOR THE CROP 3URFACE SODICITY LEAF OR @RED STRIP SYMPTOMS ON THE LEAVES 4HE RESULTS IN SURFACE SEALING REDUCTIONS IN WATER @MOSAIC SYMPTOMS APPEAR AS LIGHT AND DARK INlLTRATION AND MAY CAUSE WATERLOGGING ON THE GREEN LINES ON VEINS @2ED LEAF SYMPTOMS CAUSE SURFACE !PPLICATION OF GYPSUM CAN AMELIORATE THE LEAF TO SHOW SIGNS OF LEAF REDDENING FOLLOWED THE EFFECTS OF SURFACE SODICITY BY RED SPOTS OR LARGE AREAS OF DEAD TISSUE @2ED
STRIPE SYMPTOMS APPEAR AS RED OR TAN STRIPES ROOT GROWTH 0YTHIUM INFECTION CAN RESULT IN PARALLEL TO THE VEINS *OHNSON GRASS MOSAIC VIRUS FAILURE OF THE SEED TO GERMINATE )NFECTION DURING PREVALENCE HAS DECLINED WITH NO SIGNIlCANT OR SHORTLY AFTER GERMINATION MAY RESULT IN PRE DAMAGE TO CROPS IN .37 IN RECENT SEASONS OR POSTEMERGENCE DAMPING OFF WITH SYMPTOMS APPEARING AS STUNTING AND MILD CHLOROSIS TO 3ORGHUM ERGOT #LAVICEPS AFRICANA NECROSIS OF LOWER LEAVES AND SUBSEQUENT DEATH 3ORGHUM ERGOT HAS BEEN DETECTED IN LATE OF THE SEEDLINGS -ANY FUNGICIDES ARE NOT mOWERING CROPS IN NORTHERN .37 4HE FUNGUS EFFECTIVE IN CONTROLLING SEEDLING DISEASE CAUSED INFECTS SORGHUM HEADS AT mOWERING AND IS BY 0YTHIUM SPP (YBRID SORGHUM IS GENERALLY FAVOURED BY MILD TEMPERATURES n# HIGH LESS SUSCEPTIBLE DUE TO INCREASED VIGOUR HUMIDITY AND OVERCAST CONDITIONS 4HE ERGOT 3IMILARLY PLANTS FROM NEW OR HIGH QUALITY SEED SPORES COMPETE WITH POLLEN IN THE UNFERTILISED ARE LESS SUSCEPTIBLE THAN PLANTS FROM OLD OR mORETS %RGOT CAN INFECT *OHNSON 'RASS AS WELL AS POOR QUALITY SEED 0RIMARILY AVOID SOWING TOO BOTH FORAGE AND GRAIN SORGHUM EARLY IN THE SEASON INTO COOL WET SOIL WHICH FAVOURS INFECTION BY 0YTHIUM SPP &USARIUM STALK ROT &USARIUM MONILIFORME AND CHARCOAL ROT -ACROPHOMINA PHASEOLINA &USARIUM STALK ROOT IS CAUSED BY &USARIUM MONILIFORME WHILE CHARCOAL ROT IS CAUSED BY THE FUNGUS -ACROPHOMINA PHASEOLINA "OTH DISEASES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH LODGING OF SORGHUM PLANTS WHEN MOISTURE STRESS OCCURS DURING GRAIN lLLING 4HE LOWER TWO TO THREE INTERNODES OF SORGHUM INFECTED WITH & MONILIFORME TYPICALLY CONTAIN AREAS OF PINKISH PITH 0REMATURE PLANT DEATH CAN ALSO OCCUR WITH &USARIUM STALK ROT WITH LEAVES 0HOTO $ 7ARD SUDDENLY TURNING A BLUISH GREY (EADS ON THESE &IGURE *OHNSON GRASS INFECTED WITH SORGHUM ERGOT ON PLANTS LOSE THEIR GLOSSY APPEARANCE ARE SMALLER THE ,IVERPOOL 0LAINS .OTE THE HONEYDEW FROM THE SEEDS AND HAVE STERILE mORETS 4HE GRAIN THAT DEVELOPS %RGOTS ARE CREAMY COLOURED SCLEROTES USUALLY IS SMALLER THAN THAT FROM UNINFECTED PLANTS SMALLER THAN SORGHUM SEED THAT REPLACE THE #HARCOAL ROT OCCURS WHEN - PHASEOLINA INFECTS DEVELOPING SEED IN THE PLANT HEAD 3ORGHUM THE ROOTS OF PLANTS GROWING UNDER MOISTURE ERGOT CAN CAUSE HARVESTING PROBLEMS WITH THE STRESS AND HIGH TEMPERATURE 5NLIKE &USARIUM STICKY HONEYDEW CLOGGING MACHINERY !NOTHER STALK ROT CHARCOAL ROT CAUSES DISINTEGRATION MAJOR PROBLEM IS THAT ERGOTS ARE TOXIC TO OF VASCULAR TISSUE AND PITH !FFECTED STALKS LIVESTOCK BUT PROVIDED ERGOT LEVELS ARE LESS THAN ARE SPONGY AT THE BASE AND TEND TO LODGE BY WEIGHT THE GRAIN IS WITHIN SAFE USAGE IN MODERATE WINDS 4HE PITH OF THE STALK OF LEVELS FOR MANY END USERS 4O REDUCE THE RISK OF INFECTED PLANTS ARE CHARACTERISTICALLY MARKED ERGOT IN NORTHERN .37 PLANT BY EARLY *ANUARY WITH SMALL DARK CHARCOAL COLOURED SCLEROTIA OF SO THAT CROPS mOWER BY MID -ARCH WHILE THE - PHASEOLINA -AINTAINING SOIL MOISTURE DURING WEATHER IS STILL RELATIVELY HOT AND DRY !GRONOMIC THE POSTmOWERING PERIOD CAN MINIMISE THE MEASURES SUCH AS PRESS WHEELS AND GOOD INCIDENCE OF &USARIUM STALK ROT AND CHARCOAL ROT NUTRITION THAT PROMOTE EVEN mOWERING ALSO HELP ! BALANCED FERTILISER PROGRAM IS BENElCIAL (IGH LEVELS OF NITROGEN AND LOW LEVELS OF POTASSIUM 3EEDLING BLIGHT 0YTHIUM SPP SHOULD BE AVOIDED 'ENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS TO 3EEDLING BLIGHT CAN BE A MAJOR FACTOR LIMITING PREVENT LODGING SHOULD BE FOLLOWED P STAND ESTABLISHMENT WHEN SORGHUM IS SOWN /THER DISEASES INTO COLD WET SOILS 0YTHIUM SPP APPEAR TO BE THE PRIMARY CAUSE OF SEEDLING DISEASES ,EAF SPOT AND THE OTHER DISEASES MAY OCCUR 3ORGHUM MAY BE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO 0YTHIUM IN LATER PLANTED SORGHUM )NFORMATION ON THE SPP IN COOL WET SOILS DUE TO SLOWED SEED DISEASE REACTION OF HYBRIDS IS AVAILABLE FROM SEED GERMINATION DELAYED EMERGENCE AND REDUCED COMPANIES 0LANTING RESISTANT HYBRIDS AT OPTIMUM
PLANTING TIME WILL LESSEN THE DISEASE PROBLEM 3PRAY FOR MIDGE WHEN .- IS GREATER THAN # X 7 AND RESULT IN INCREASED YIELD 2 X 6 X 2$ ).3%#4 0%343 WHERE .- NUMBER OF MIDGE PER M ROW 2 MIDGE RATING OF HYBRID USED &OR INSECT CONTROL OPTIONS REFER TO )NSECT AND # COST OF CONTROL HA -ITE #ONTROL IN &IELD #ROPS PUBLISHED BY .37 $EPARTMENT OF 0RIMARY )NDUSTRIES 7 ROW SPACING WIDTH CM CONSTANT 3ORGHUM MIDGE #ONTARINIA SORGHICOLA 6 VALUE OF CROP T 3ORGHUM MIDGE CAN SEVERELY REDUCE YIELDS 2$ RESIDUAL LIFE OF CHEMICAL USED DAYS ESPECIALLY IN LATE PLANTED CROPS 4HE MIDGE LARVAE SUCK JUICES FROM DEVELOPING SEED SHRIVEL %XAMPLE SEED AND REDUCE GRAIN DEVELOPMENT .- 3ORGHUM MIDGE RESISTANCE IS NOW AVAILABLE IN 2 MOST NEWLY RELEASED HYBRIDS -IDGE RATING IS # X 7 X THE FACTOR BY WHICH A HYBRIDS MIDGE RESISTANCE EXCEEDS THAT OF A FULLY SUSCEPTIBLE RATING X 6 X 2$ X X HYBRID &OR EXAMPLE A MIDGE TESTED RATING FOR A HYBRID OF WILL SUFFER ONE QUARTER THE DAMAGE OF A SUSCEPTIBLE HYBRID RATING .EW HYBRIDS ARE TESTED FOR THEIR MIDGE RESISTANCE BY THE )NDUSTRY 4ESTING 'ROUP COMPRISING THE !S DO NOT SPRAY AT THIS STAGE 1UEENSLAND $EPARTMENT 0RIMARY )NDUSTRIES AND SEED COMPANIES 4HESE HYBRIDS ARE GIVEN OFlCIAL MIDGE RATING IN A LOGO &IGURE -ONITOR MIDGE ACTIVITY ON EMERGED HEADS BEFORE &IGURE !N ADULT SORGHUM MIDGE -ONITOR MIDGE ACTIVITY mOWERING AND DURING EARLY mOWERING EVEN IF A ON EMERGED HEADS BEFORE mOWERING AND DURING EARLY MIDGE RESISTANT HYBRID HAS BEEN PLANTED mOWERING #ROPS SHOULD BE SPRAYED AT n DAY INTERVALS WHEN THE ECONOMIC THRESHOLD IN THE TABLE BELOW IS REACHED 4HIS THRESHOLD IS BASED ON A BENElT COST RATIO OF 4HIS RATIO IS APPROPRIATE BECAUSE INSECTICIDES ARE USUALLY LESS THAN EFFECTIVE 5SE THE TABLE AS A GUIDE ONLY AND SEEK ADVICE FROM YOUR AGRONOMIST
&IGURE /FlCIAL INDUSTRY MIDGE TESTED RATING LOGOS
(ELIOTHIS (ELICOVERPA ARMIGERA (ELICOVERPA ARMIGERA COTTON BOLLWORM OR CORN EARWORM IS A SERIOUS PEST OF SORGHUM AND OTHER lELD CROPS ( ARMIGERA HAS DEVELOPED RESISTANCE TO A RANGE OF CONVENTIONAL CHEMICAL INSECTICIDES AND CAN BE DIFlCULT AND EXPENSIVE TO CONTROL 4HE HELIOTHIS MOTHS LAY PEARLY WHITE EGGS ON PRE mOWERING HEADS 4HE YOUNG HELIOTHIS LARVAE CATERPILLARS MAINLY FEED ON THE ANTHERS mOWER SPIKELETS AND OTHER mORAL PARTS SURROUNDING THE mOWERS IN THE PLANT HEAD !S THE HELIOTHIS &IGURE (ELIOTHIS (ELICOVERPA ARMIGERA LARVA .OTE THAT HELIOTHIS CAN VARY IN COLOUR DEPENDING ON THE FOOD CATERPILLARS MATURE SEE &IGURE THEY START SOURCE AND AGE OF THE LARVA FEEDING ON THE DEVELOPING GRAIN 9OUNG LARVAE ARE SMALL AND HARD TO SEE ON THE SORGHUM HEADS &IGURE (ELIOTHIS (ELICOVERPA ARMIGERA LARVA INFECTED 4HEY ARE EASIER TO DETECT BY SHAKING THE HEAD WITH .UCLEAR 0OLYHEDRIC 6IRUS .06 INTO A LIGHT COLOURED BUCKET )NSPECTION SHOULD START PRIOR TO mOWERING AND CONTINUE WEEKLY UNTIL THE CROP REACHES THE SOFT DOUGH STAGE /PEN HEAD TYPE HYBRIDS TEND TO SUFFER LESS DAMAGE THAN THE CLOSED COMPACT TYPE #ONTROLLING HELIOTHIS BY SPRAYING CONVENTIONAL INSECTICIDES CAN BE DIFlCULT AS SPRAY FAILURE IS HIGHLY PROBABLE WHERE RESISTANT POPULATIONS HAVE DEVELOPED 5NDER THE RIGHT CONDITIONS THE BIOLOGICAL INSECTICIDE .UCLEAR 0OLYHEDRIC 6IRUS .06 HAS GIVEN EXCELLENT RESULTS SEE &IGURE $ECIDING WHEN TO SPRAY IS A BALANCE BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF HELIOTHIS PRESENT THE COST OF CONTROL AND THE VALUE OF THE CROP #RITICAL HELIOTHIS NUMBER PER HEAD # X 7 6 X . WHERE # COST OF CONTROL HA . NUMBER OF HEADS PER M ROW 7 WIDTH OF ROW SPACING USED CM 6 VALUE OF CROP T SEED AND BORE INTO STEMS OF SEEDLINGS GROWTH %XAMPLE STAGE 4HE LARVAE ARE n MM LONG 3EEDLINGS ARE DESTROYED AT THE GROWING POINT #RITICAL HELIOTHIS NUMBER PER HEAD $AMAGE IS MORE SEVERE UNDER COOL WET # X 7 X CONDITIONS WHEN GROWTH IS RETARDED !LWAYS 6 X . X USE PRESSWHEELS WHEN SOWING AS THIS REDUCES THE CARBON DIOXIDE mOW FROM THE SEED WHICH IS WHAT ATTRACTS WIREWORMS TO THE GERMINATING SEED 7IREWORM NUMBERS CAN BE PARTICULARLY HIGH IF 7IREWORMS /RONDINA SPP SORGHUM IS SOWN INTO SUNmOWER OR SORGHUM STUBBLE FROM THE PREVIOUS YEAR )NDICATIVE LEVELS 7IREWORMS CAN SEVERELY REDUCE SORGHUM OF WIREWORMS MAY BE GATHERED FROM BURYING ESTABLISHMENT 4HE LARVAE FEED ON GERMINATING MAIZE SEED TRAPS UNDER THE SOIL AT VARIOUS
LOCATIONS IN THE PADDOCK PRIOR TO SOWING )F OAT APHID 2 PADI AND THE RUSTY PLUM APHID WIREWORM NUMBERS ARE SUSPECTED TO BE GREATER (YSTERONEURA SETARIAE ARE ALSO FOUND LESS THAN VERY LOW IT IS STRONGLY RECOMMENDED THAT FREQUENTLY !PHIDS OFTEN INFEST SORGHUM HEADS A SEED APPLIED INSECTICIDE BE USED 5NEVEN TOWARDS THE END OF GRAIN lLL BUT DEPENDING ESTABLISHMENT PROBLEMS WITH WEED CONTROL AND ON THE SEASON MAY INFEST THE CROP ANYTIME JUST LOSS OF YIELD MAY OTHERWISE RESULT BEFORE HEAD EMERGENCE THROUGH TO mOWERING %VEN WHEN CONDITIONS ARE DRY THERE IS USUALLY #UTWORMS !GROTIS SPP NO ECONOMIC DAMAGE AND CONTROL IS SELDOM WORTHWHILE 4HE PRESENCE OF APHIDS CAN HELP MAINTAIN NATURAL ENEMIES OF OTHER PESTS (OWEVER IF THE POPULATION BECOMES VERY HIGH HEAD EMERGENCE CAN BE IMPAIRED YIELD AND QUALITY MAY BE REDUCED AND APHID HONEYDEW CAN CAUSE HARVESTER BLOCKAGES AND BREAKDOWN ! PRE HARVEST SPRAY WITH A KNOCKDOWN HERBICIDE MAY AVOID THE HARVEST PROBLEMS CAUSED BY APHIDS !RMYWORMS -YTHIMNA CONVECTA AND 3PODOPTERA SPP &IGURE #OMMON CUTWORM !GROTIS INFUSA LARVA .OTE !RMYWORMS SEE &IGURE AND ARE THE THAT CUTWORMS CAN VARY IN COLOUR DEPENDING ON THE FOOD SOURCE AND AGE OF THE LARVA LARVAE CATERPILLARS OF MOTHS AND GET THEIR DESCRIPTIVE NAME FROM THEIR HABIT OF MOVING ON #UTWORM LARVAE !GROTIS MUNDA ! IPSILON AND MASS FROM A DEPLETED FOOD SOURCE IN SEARCH OF A ! INFUSA n SEE &IGURE ATTACK YOUNG PLANTS BY FEEDING ON THE LEAVES AND STEMS -OST DAMAGE IS CAUSED BY OLDER LARVAE WHICH BY CHEWING CUT THROUGH STEMS AND LEAVES TO GAIN ACCESS TO THE TOP GROWTH 4HEY ALSO CAUSE PLANTS TO WILT AND DIE BY CUTTING OR PARTIALLY CUTTING THROUGH THE STEM NEAR OR BELOW GROUND LEVEL ,ARGE NUMBERS OF CUTWORMS USUALLY MOVE IN FROM THE EDGES OF CROPS AND CAUSE DAMAGE IN PATCHES !S THESE LARVAE USUALLY HIDE UNDER SOIL CLODS DURING THE DAY INSPECTIONS AND SPRAYS SHOULD BE DONE AT NIGHT &IGURE #OMMON ARMYWORM -YTHIMNA CONVECTA "LACK lELD EARWIGS .ALA LIVIDIPES LARVA .OTE THAT ARMYWORM LARVA CAN VARY IN COLOUR %ARWIGS FEED ON BOTH LIVE AND DEAD PLANT DEPENDING ON THE FOOD SOURCE AND AGE OF THE LARVA MATERIAL !DULTS AND NYMPHS DAMAGE CROPS BY &IGURE ,ESSER ARMYWORM 3PODOPTERA EXIGUA LARVA FEEDING ON SEEDLINGS BUT NORMALLY MOST DAMAGE .OTE THAT ARMYWORM CAN VARY IN COLOUR DEPENDING ON THE IS CAUSED WHEN THEY FEED ON THE ROOTS OF YOUNG FOOD SOURCE AND AGE OF THE LARVA PLANTS AND THE PROP ROOTS OF OLDER PLANTS 4HIS ROOT FEEDING OFTEN CAUSES PLANT LODGING !DULTS ARE MM LONG SHINY BLACK AND HAVE A PAIR OF PINCERS AT THE REAR END OF THEIR BODY "LACK lELD EARWIG POPULATIONS ARE HIGHEST AND HENCE DAMAGE IS MOST SEVERE IN SOILS WITH A HIGH WATER HOLDING CAPACITY
!PHIDS 4HE MOST COMMON APHID FOUND IN SORGHUM IS THE CORN APHID 2HOPALOSIPHON MAIDIS 4HE
NEW FOOD SOURCE 4HESE LARVAE FEED ON LEAVES 4HEY CAN KILL YOUNG PLANTS AND ALSO DECIMATE YIELDS BY CAUSING SEVERE DEFOLIATION AT mOWERING 4HE LARVAE OF MOST SPECIES FEED DURING EVENING AND NIGHT AND HIDE NEAR THE GROUND DURING THE DAY .UMBERS OFTEN BUILD UP AFTER HEAVY RAIN 2UTHERGLEN BUGS .YSIUS VINITOR AND 'REY CLUSTER BUG . CLEVELANDENSIS &IGURE 4RICHOGRAMMA &IGURE 4ELENOMUS 2UTHERGLEN SEE &IGURE AND GREY CLUSTER PARASITIC WASP PARASITISING WASP BUGS ARE FREQUENT PESTS OF GRAIN SORGHUM AND 4RICHOGRAMMA SP 4ELENOMUS SP 0IRATE BUGS /RIUS SPP 0IRATE BUGS ADULTS AND NYMPHS ARE PREDATORS AND ARE OFTEN FOUND IN SORGHUM CROPS DURING mOWERING AND GRAIN MATURATION 0IRATE BUGS PREY ON SORGHUM MIDGE ADULTS THRIPS AND THE EGGS OF OTHER INSECTS .ATURAL ENEMIES OF HELIOTHIS AND APHIDS 4HERE ARE A NUMBER OF INSECTS WHICH ATTACK HELIOTHIS COMMONLY FOUND IN GRAIN SORGHUM CROPS )T IS IMPORTANT TO RECOGNISE THESE &IGURE 2UTHERGLEN BUG .YSIUS VINITOR FEMALE ADULT BENElCIAL INSECTS SO THAT THEY CAN BE CONSERVED
USUALLY OCCUR IN HOT DRY WEATHER 4HE ADULT AND )T IS THE ABILITY TO GROW SORGHUM WITHOUT BROAD IMMATURE BUGS FEED BY SUCKING SAP FROM THE SPECTRUM INSECTICIDES RELYING ON NATURAL ENEMIES PLANT LEAVES STEMS AND HEADS AND WHEN PRESENT AND THE APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR POLYHEDRIC VIRUS IN LARGE NUMBERS CAN SIGNIlCANTLY REDUCE YIELD .60 OR "4 TO CONTROL HELIOTHIS WHICH MAKES AND GRAIN QUALITY 0OPULATIONS CAN INCREASE SORGHUM VALUABLE AS A SUMMER TRAP CROP RAPIDLY SO CROPS SHOULD BE MONITORED REGULARLY 0ARASITIC 7ASPS FROM HEAD EMERGENCE TO THE HARD DOUGH STAGE AT AS MANY LOCATIONS WITHIN THE CROP AS POSSIBLE 4RICHOGRAMMA &IGURE 4ELENOMUS &IGURE )T IS GENERALLY RECOMMENDED THAT CONTROL SHOULD AND -ICROPLITIS ARE SMALL BLACK WASPS THAT COMMENCE WHEN THE ADULTS ARE DETECTED RATHER PARASITISE HELIOTHIS EGGS 4HE WASPS LAY THEIR THAN WAITING FOR NYMPHS TO DEVELOP 4HIS IS EGGS INSIDE THE HELIOTHIS EGG AND THE DEVELOPING BECAUSE OF THE POTENTIAL FOR RAPID POPULATION LARVAE THEN EAT THE HOST HELIOTHIS LARVAE BEFORE INCREASE AND THE DIFlCULTY IN CONTROLLING NYMPHS THEY HATCH 4HE DEVELOPING WASP CAN BE SEEN WITHIN THE SORGHUM HEAD THROUGH THE EGG WALL USING A HAND LENS 4HE RATE OF PARASITISM CAN VARY FROM TO OVER "%.%&)#)!, ).3%#43 ). 3/2'(5- AS RECORDED FOR 4RICHOGRAMMA IN SORGHUM &IGURE /RANGE &IGURE 4WO TONED -IDGE PARASITES AND PREDATORS CATERPILLAR PARASITIC WASP CATERPILLAR PARASITIC WASP .ETELIA PRODUCTA (ETEROPELMA SCAPOSUM 3MALL PARASITIC WASPS THE MOST COMMON OF WHICH IS THE BLACK COLOURED %UPELMUS AUSTRALIENSIS OFTEN APPEAR IN SORGHUM CROPS AT mOWERING 4HESE WASPS PARASITISE MIDGE LARVAE 0ARASITISM DOES NOT REDUCE THE INITIAL POPULATION OF MIDGE LARVAE AND PROVIDE EXTENSIVE PROTECTION OF THE CROP BUT DOES SUPPRESS SUBSEQUENT GENERATIONS AND MAY REDUCE OVERALL CROP DAMAGE 4HE MAIN METHOD OF CONTROL OF MIDGE IS TO GROW RECOMMENDED MIDGE RESISTANT HYBRIDS
IN THE /RD 2IVER )RRIGATION !REA 4HE BEST WAY TO MONITOR LEVELS OF EGG PARASITISM IS TO COLLECT BROWN EGGS AND RECORD WASP EMERGENCE 2EFER TO 1$0) NOTE @4RICHOGRAMMA AND 4ELENOMUS 7ASPS ARE )MPORTANT "IOLOGICAL #ONTROL 7ASPS /THER PARASITES OF HELIOTHIS INCLUDE THE WASPS .ETELIA PRODUCTA ORANGE CATERPILLAR PARASITE n SEE &IGURE (ETEROPELMA SCAPOSUM TWO TONED CATERPILLAR PARASITE n &IGURE &IGURE "ROWN LACEWING -ICROMUS SP ADULT ,ISSOPIMPLA EXCELSA ORCHID DUPE AND )CHNEUMON PROMISSORIUS BANDED CATERPILLAR UNLIKE LADYBIRDS IT IS ONLY THE LARVAE THAT PREY PARASITE AND SEVERAL SPECIES OF 4ACHINID mY ON MOTH LARVAE AND EGGS APHIDS WHITEmY THRIPS (OWEVER THE DISTRIBUTION AND EFFECTIVENESS OF AND MITES !DULT LACEWINGS ARE NECTAR FEEDERS THESE PARASITES IN SORGHUM IS NOT KNOWN AND CONSEQUENTLY THEIR PRESENCE IN A CROP FREQUENTLY DECLINES IN THE ABSENCE OF SUITABLE !VOIDING BROAD SPECTRUM INSECTICIDES SUCH AS mOWERING PLANTS THE ORGANOPHOSPHATES AND SYNTHETIC PYRETHROIDS CAN CONSERVE NATURAL POPULATIONS OF THESE 3PIDERS PARASITES "IOLOGICAL INSECTICIDES SUCH AS .06 AND "T SHOULD BE USED IN PREFERENCE TO BROAD SPECTRUM INSECTICIDES ,ENGTHENING THE mOWERING PERIOD OF A SORGHUM CROP BY PLANTING OVER AN EXTENDED PERIOD CAN ALSO INCREASE NUMBERS OF THESE PARASITOIDS ,ADYBIRD BEETLES ,ADYBIRDS SEE &IGURE FOR PHOTO OF COMMON LADYBIRD LARVA AND ADULT ARE GENERALIST PREDATORS AND SEVERAL SPECIES OCCUR AND FEED ON A RANGE OF PESTS IN SORGHUM !DULTS AND LARVAE ARE VORACIOUS FEEDERS $EPENDING ON SPECIES THEY PREY ON APHIDS WHITEmY LEAFHOPPERS THRIPS AND &IGURE 7OLF SPIDER ,YCOSA SP ADULT MITES AND THE EGGS AND SMALL LARVAE OF HELIOTHIS 3PIDERS ARE PREDATORS AND PLAY A SIGNIlCANT ROLE AND OTHER ,EPIDOPTERA MOTHS IN SUPPRESSING MANY INSECT PESTS (OWEVER THE &IGURE #OMMON SPOTTED LADYBIRD (ARMONIA IMPORTANCE OF SPIDERS IS OFTEN UNDERESTIMATED CONFORMIS LARVA AND ADULT EG WOLF SPIDERS &IGURE ARE VORACIOUS PREDATORS OF HELIOTHIS BUT BECAUSE SPIDERS DO NOT REPRODUCE RAPIDLY THEIR POPULATION SIZE DOES NOT KEEP PACE WITH THEIR PREY AND THEY CANNOT CONTROL THEIR PREY WHEN OUTBREAKS OCCUR
,/$').' ,ODGING IS A SIGNIlCANT PROBLEM IN ALL DRYLAND GROWING AREAS 4HE MOST COMMON CAUSE IS MOISTURE STRESS DURING GRAIN lLLING WHEREBY THE PLANT DIVERTS ENERGY FROM THE STEM TO FACILITATE THE REPRODUCTION PROCESS AND HENCE GRAIN lLL 4HIS WEAKENS THE STEM AND ALLOWS THE ,ACEWINGS DEVELOPMENT OF FUNGAL STALK ROTS &USARIUM AND ,ACEWINGS -ALLADA SPP GREEN LACEWINGS AND CHARCOAL STEM ROTS ARE OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH -ICROMUS SPP BROWN LACEWINGS n &IGURE LODGING LEADING TO PLANT DEATH AND CONSIDERABLE LIKE LADYBIRDS ARE GENERALIST PREDATORS (OWEVER YIELD LOSS AS THE PLANT LOSES THE ABILITY TO REMAIN
FACTORS IN SETTING A GRAIN SORGHUM CROP UP TO MAXIMISE YIELDS %FFECTIVE WEED CONTROL IS ALSO VITAL FOR MEETING QUALITY STANDARDS AND LESSENING THE WEED BURDEN FOR FUTURE CROPS 2ECENT EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT THE VALUE OF SORGHUM AS A ROTATION CROP FOR CROWN ROT IN WHEAT AND BARLEY MAY BE SIGNIlCANTLY REDUCED IF GRASS WEEDS ARE NOT EFFECTIVELY CONTROLLED ,ONG RESIDUAL HERBICIDES SHOULD BE USED WITH CAUTION AS THEY CAN REDUCE THE mEXIBILITY OF CROPPING PROGRAMS (OWEVER EFFECTIVE CONTROL OF MOST WEEDS IN CONVENTIONALLY FALLOWED
0HOTO * 3PENCELEY CROPS CAN BE ACHIEVED RELATIVELY CHEAPLY BY &IGURE ! COMBINATION OF DROUGHT STRESS AS WELL AS PIG APPLYING ATRAZINE EITHER BEFORE PLANTING AT DAMAGE RESULTED IN MANY OF THESE PLANTS LODGING PLANTING OR IMMEDIATELY AFTER PLANTING !TRAZINE RESIDUES PREVENT THE PLANTING OF CROPS OTHER UPRIGHT AND FALLS OVER ,ODGED CROPS BECOME A THAN SORGHUM AND MAIZE FOR MONTHS AFTER PROBLEM AT HARVEST TIME AS OFTEN THE HEADS CAN APPLICATION OF n ,HA OF mOWABLE ATRAZINE BE ON THE GROUND -ETOLACHLOR CAN BE USED AS A PRE EMERGENT #ROPS THAT REMAIN GREEN WITH SOME AVAILABLE SPRAY FOR GRASS CONTROL ESPECIALLY LIVERSEED GRASS SOIL MOISTURE DURING GRAIN lLL ARE GENERALLY LESS AND TO REDUCE ATRAZINE RESIDUES IN SUBSEQUENT PRONE TO LODGING 5SE ONLY HYBRIDS THAT HAVE CROPS )F THIS HERBICIDE IS USED THEN SEED SHOULD LODGING RESISTANCE ,ODGING IS RARELY A PROBLEM BE TREATED WITH #ONCEP )) SEED SAFENER IN FULLY IRRIGATED CROPS BUT CAN BE IN PARTIALLY IRRIGATED CROPS THAT BECOME STRESSED DURING &OR WEED CONTROL OPTIONS REFER TO 7EED #ONTROL GRAIN lLL IN 3UMMER #ROPS PUBLISHED ANNUALLY BY .37 $0) !GRONOMIC PRACTICES SUCH AS CONTROLLED TRAFlC NO TILL AND STUBBLE RETENTION WHICH AIM TO #2/0 $%3)##!4)/. STORE MORE SOIL MOISTURE DURING THE FALLOW WILL ENHANCE THE AVAILABILITY OF MOISTURE DURING GRAIN 3ORGHUM BEING A PERENNIAL PLANT CONTINUES lLL 4HESE PRACTICES WILL HELP REDUCE LODGING TO GROW BEYOND PHYSIOLOGICAL MATURITY OF ITS 4HE USE OF LOW PLANT POPULATION AND WIDE ROW INITIAL GRAIN CROP ! PRE HARVEST SPRAY OF EITHER SPACING ESPECIALLY IN THE .ORTH 7EST 0LAINS OF THE KNOCKDOWN HERBICIDES GLYPHOSATE OR A ALSO HELPS 4HESE PRACTICES ALSO ALLOW MEDIUM REGISTERED DIQUAT PRODUCT APPLIED TO THE CROP MATURITY HYBRIDS WITH HIGHER YIELD POTENTIAL TO IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE END OF GRAIN lLL WILL BE USED HASTEN DRY DOWN AND SHOULD KILL OR DESICCATE THE CROP 4HIS TREATMENT KILLS IMMATURE TILLERS 7%%$ #/.42/, DESICCATING GREEN FOLIAGE THEREBY ALLOWING CROPS TO BE HARVESTED MUCH EARLIER AND MORE %FFECTIVE WEED CONTROL ALONG WITH AN EVEN EFlCIENTLY THAN IF THEY WERE NOT SPRAYED #ROP APPROPRIATE PLANT POPULATION ARE TWO CRITICAL DESICCATION ALSO STOPS THE CROP CONTINUING TO USE &IGURE 0OOR WEED CONTROL NOT ONLY LOWERS YIELD BUT CAN MOISTURE THEREBY STARTING THE FALLOW RECHARGE LOWER THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE SORGHUM CROP AS A WEED AND SOONER DISEASE BREAK FOR WINTER CEREALS 4HE TIMING OF THE PRE HARVEST SPRAY IS CRITICAL #ROPS SHOULD BE SPRAYED PREFERABLY BEFORE THE END OF -ARCH WHEN TEMPERATURES ARE STILL WARM AND CROPS ARE STILL GREEN 4HE AIM IS TO MAXIMISE YIELD THROUGH ASSIMILATION OF CARBOHYDRATE IN THE SEED BUT BALANCE THIS MOISTURE USE WITH STORING WATER FOR THE NEXT CROP 7HEN BETWEEN AND PER CENT OF THE GRAINS HAVE FORMED A @BLACK LAYER IE ARE PHYSIOLOGICALLY MATURE THE CROP
0HOTO * 3PENCELEY IS READY TO BE SPRAYED 4HIS IS APPROXIMATELY AT
0HOTO ' "UTLER &IGURE (ARVESTING SKIP ROW SORGHUM NORTH EAST OF -OREE
DOUGH STAGE AND n GRAIN MOISTURE 34/2!'% /& '2!). SEE &IGURE !FTER THE SORGHUM IS HARVESTED AND STORED IN 3PRAYED CROPS STOP USING MOISTURE AND THE THE SILO IT IS STILL VULNERABLE TO ATTACK BY INSECTS PROlLE THEREFORE STARTS STORING SOIL MOISTURE FOR MITES AND FUNGI 3TORING GRAIN FOR ANY LENGTH THE NEXT CROP MORE QUICKLY -ANY GROWERS IN OF TIME AND PROTECTING IT FROM INSECT ATTACK NORTHERN .37 HAVE FOUND THAT IN WET SUMMERS IS NOT EASY BUT IT IS VITAL TO MAINTAIN PRODUCT SPRAYING OUT AN EARLY SORGHUM CROP FOR HARVEST QUALITY 0REVENT MOISTURE GETTING INTO THE GRAIN HAS GIVEN THEM A HIGH RETURN OVER MONTHS AND ALLOWING MICROORGANISMS PARTICULARLY FUNGI AS IT ALSO ALLOWED THEM TO GROW A SUCCESSFUL TO SPOIL THE GRAIN 'RAIN SHOULD BE REGULARLY CHICKPEA DOUBLE CROP CHECKED AND REMEDIAL ACTION TAKEN IF REQUIRED (ARVEST SHOULD OCCUR AS SOON AS POSSIBLE WHEN GRAIN MOISTURE IS OR BELOW AS DELAY -!2+%4).' COULD CAUSE THE DEAD STALKS TO LODGE ,ODGING IS AGGRAVATED WHEN THERE IS MOISTURE STRESS AT GRAIN $URING THE LAST lVE YEARS !USTRALIA HAS PRODUCED lLL VERY STRONG WINDS OR THE HYBRID DOES NOT ON AVERAGE MILLION TONNES OF SORGHUM PER HAVE A HIGH RESISTANCE TO LODGING RATING YEAR 4HE AVERAGE CROP YIELD IS APPROXIMATELY THA !BOUT THREE QUARTERS OR MORE OF THE (!26%34 CROP IS EXPORTED FOR THE FEED GRAIN MARKET $EREGULATION OF THE GRAIN INDUSTRY HAS IMPACTED (ARVESTING MUST BE DONE EFlCIENTLY AND RAPIDLY ON THE WAY CROPS ARE MARKETED 'OOD MARKETING WHILE THE CROP IS AT ITS PEAK 4HE AIM OF THE IS THE PROGRESSIVE ACCUMULATION OF MARKETING HARVESTING OPERATION IS TO DELIVER THE GRAIN IN ACTIONS THAT GIVES A BETTER THAN AVERAGE RESULT PRIME CONDITION TO ITS STORAGE 4IMELINESS OF HARVEST IS A CRUCIAL FACTOR IN ENSURING MAXIMUM +NOWLEDGE OF YOUR COSTS OF PRODUCTION PER PROlT FROM THE CROP 4HE HARVESTING TASK TONNE WILL ALLOW QUICK CALCULATIONS OF HOW REQUIRES PLANNING AS ALL EQUIPMENT MUST BE SET MUCH THE CROP MUST RETURN TO BREAK EVEN AND UP CORRECTLY AND OPERATED EFlCIENTLY 3ELECT AND THEREFORE MAKE A PROlT (ARVEST TIME MAY NOT CORRECTLY MATCH ALL EQUIPMENT ASSOCIATED WITH BE THE BEST TIME TO SELL YOUR CROP 3PREAD YOUR THE HARVESTING OPERATION MARKETING STRATEGY BY FORWARD SELLING CONSIDER USING HEDGING TOOLS AND SELL PART INTO A POOL OR FROM SILO DIRECT TO END USERS 3TAY IN TOUCH WITH
MARKET PRICES AND TRENDS AS PRICES MAY VARY BY &524(%2 ).&/2-!4)/. n PER TONNE DURING THE YEAR #ONSULT YOUR LOCAL .37 $0) AGRONOMIST FOR )N THE CURRENT MARKET GROWERS MUST TAKE THE FURTHER INFORMATION ON GRAIN SORGHUM .37 $0) INITIATIVE TO MARKET THEIR CROP FOR VALUES THAT ARE AND OTHER PUBLICATIONS INCLUDE ABOVE THE COST OF PRODUCTION AND THAT PROVIDE THEM WITH OPTIMUM PROlT !GFACT 0!% 3ORGHUM MIDGE ST EDITION !GNOTE $0) 'RAIN SORGHUM PLANTING GUIDE '2!:).' !.$ (!9 n TH EDITION )T IS COMMON FOR GRAIN SORGHUM STUBBLES TO BE $ANIELLS ) -ANNING 7 AND 0EARCE , GRAZED FOLLOWING HARVEST ESPECIALLY IN TIMES 0ROlLE $ESCRIPTIONS $ISTRICT 'UIDELINES FOR WHEN CATTLE PRICES ARE HIGH 3ORGHUM CROPS -ANAGING 3OILS IN .ORTH 7EST .37 HAVE ALSO BEEN GRAZED OR BALED FOR HAY DURING $RYLAND 3ALINITY )NFORMATION 3HEET .O .7 DROUGHT TIMES WHEN IT IS LIKELY THAT THEY WILL FAIL )33. 3ALINITY DRASTICALLY REDUCES TO PRODUCE A REASONABLE GRAIN YIELD SORGHUM YIELDS 4HERE IS A POTENTIAL RISK OF TOXICITY TO STOCK (ERTEL + AND 2OBERTS + )NSECT AND MITE IF SORGHUM IS GRAZED DUE TO HYDOCYANIC CONTROL IN lELD CROPS !GDEX ACID (#. PRODUCTION IN THE FOLIAGE 4HIS IS PARTICULARLY WHEN THE CROPS ARE YOUNG OR 3COTT & &ARM "UDGETS FOR 3UMMER #ROPS STRESSED EG BY DROUGHT WATERLOGGING NUTRIENT WWWAGRICNSWGOVAUREADERSUMCROPBUD DElCIENCY INSECTS OR DISEASES AND WHEN SHORTER 3TORRIE ! 7EED #ONTROL IN 3UMMER THAN M #ROPS 3ORGHUM CROPS THAT HAVE mOWERED UNDER COOL 'RUNDON .* %DWARDS $' 4AKKAR 0. AND WET CONDITIONS MAY BE INFECTED WITH ERGOT !SHER #* !ND #LARK 2" .UTRITIONAL !S DISCUSSED IN THE $ISEASE 3ECTION ERGOT IS DISORDERS OF GRAIN SORGHUM !USTRALIAN #ENTRE FOR READILY IDENTIlABLE BY THE @HONEYDEW OOZING )NTERNATIONAL !GRICULTURAL 2ESEARCH #ANBERRA FROM THE mOWERS 4HIS HONEYDEW LATER DRIES INTO A WHITE POWDER 4HE DEVELOPING SEED IS 1$0) %RGOT IN SORGHUM n ! .EW $ISEASE REPLACED BY A FUNGAL GROWTH WHICH BECOMES AN IN !USTRALIA @ERGOT A HARD CREAMY COLOURED SCLEROTE ABOUT 1$0) #ROP MANAGEMENT NOTES n $ARLING THE SAME SIZE AS A SORGHUM SEED 3CLEROTES $OWNS AND -ORETON n 3UMMER %DITION HAVE HIGH LEVELS OF ALKALOIDS #URRENT EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THE STOCKFEED LIMIT OF SCLEROTES BY 2YLEY - AND "LANEY " 1$0) #ROP,INK WEIGHT IN SORGHUM GRAIN IS SUITABLE FOR MANY "IOLOGY TOXICITY AND MANAGEMENT OF ERGOT IN CLASSES OF LIVESTOCK WITH SOME EXCEPTIONS 3EEK SORGHUM CURRENT ADVICE ON LIMITS FOR LOT FED CATTLE COWS AND SOWS %RGOT INTERFERES WITH WEIGHT GAIN IN 6ANDERLIP 2, (OW A 3ORGHUM 0LANT CATTLE AND MILK PRODUCTION IN COWS AND SOWS $EVELOPS +ANSAS 3TATE 5NIVERSITY #O OPERATIVE %XTENSION 3ERVICE /THER ANIMAL HEALTH ISSUES SUCH AS THE POTENTIAL FOR NITRATE POISONING ESPECIALLY IF !#+./7,%$'%-%.43 NITROGEN FERTILISERS HAVE BEEN USED NEED TO BE CONSIDERED 'ROWERS ARE URGED TO SEEK 4HE HELP OF THE FOLLOWING PEOPLE IS GRATEFULLY VETERINARY ADVICE PRIOR TO GRAZING ACKNOWLEDGED )AN -ORGAN 0ETER -OYLAN "OB 3ORGHUM IS BEST CUT AT OR BEFORE THE EARLY &REEBAIRN !DAM (ARDY 0AUL 7ALKER ,ORETTA HEAD EMERGENCE STAGE FOR HAY 'RAIN SORGHUM 3ERAlN 2OSS "EASLEY 3TEPHANIE "ELlELD AND VARIETIES ARE NOT AS SUITABLE AS FORAGE SORGHUM 2USSELL #ARTY FOR SUPPLYING TECHNICAL INFORMATION VARIETIES FOR EITHER HAY OR SILAGE AND IN REFEREEING THIS !GFACT AND *ULIE 'EARING FOR PROOF READING THE AGFACT
$)3#,!)-%2 !,7!93 2%!$ 4(% ,!"%, 4HIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN PREPARED BY THE 5SERS OF AGRICULTURAL OR VETERINARY CHEMICAL AUTHORS FOR .37 $EPARTMENT OF 0RIMARY PRODUCTS MUST ALWAYS READ THE LABEL AND ANY )NDUSTRIES FOR AND ON BEHALF OF THE 3TATE OF PERMIT BEFORE USING THE PRODUCT AND STRICTLY .EW 3OUTH 7ALES IN GOOD FAITH ON THE BASIS OF COMPLY WITH THE DIRECTION ON THE LABEL AND THE AVAILABLE INFORMATION CONDITIONS OF ANY PERMIT 5SERS ARE NOT ABSOLVED FROM COMPLIANCE WITH THE DIRECTIONS ON THE LABEL 7HILE THE INFORMATION IN THE DOCUMENT HAS OR THE CONDITIONS OF THE PERMIT BY REASON OF ANY BEEN FORMULATED WITH ALL DUE CARE THE USERS STATEMENT MADE OR OMITTED TO BE MADE IN THIS OF THE DOCUMENT MUST OBTAIN THEIR OWN PUBLICATION ADVICE AND CONDUCT THEIR OWN INVESTIGATIONS AND ASSESSMENTS OF ANY PROPOSALS THEY ARE CONSIDERING IN THE LIGHT OF THEIR OWN INDIVIDUAL 02/$5#4 42!$% .!-%3 CIRCUMSTANCES 4HE PRODUCT TRADE NAMES IN THIS PUBLICATION 4HE DOCUMENT IS MADE AVAILABLE ON THE ARE SUPPLIED ON THE UNDERSTANDING THAT NO UNDERSTANDING THAT THE 3TATE OF .EW 3OUTH PREFERENCE BETWEEN EQUIVALENT PRODUCTS IS 7ALES THE AUTHORS AND THE PUBLISHER THEIR INTENDED AND THAT THE INCLUSION OF A PRODUCT RESPECTIVE SERVANTS AND AGENTS ACCEPT NO DOES NOT IMPLY ENDORSEMENT BY .37 RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON OR $EPARTMENT OF 0RIMARY INDUSTRIES OVER ANY OTHER RELYING ON OR UPON ANY OPINION ADVICE EQUIVALENT PRODUCT FROM ANOTHER MANUFACTURER REPRESENTATION STATEMENT OR INFORMATION WHETHER ¥ 3TATE OF .EW 3OUTH 7ALES n .37 $EPARTMENT EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED IN THE DOCUMENT AND OF 0RIMARY )NDUSTRIES DISCLAIM ALL LIABILITY FOR ANY LOSS DAMAGE COST OR EXPENSE INCURRED OR ARISING BY REASON OF 4HIS PUBLICATION IS COPYRIGHT %XCEPT AS ANY PERSON USING OR RELYING ON THE INFORMATION PERMITTED UNDER THE #OPYRIGHT !CT NO CONTAINED IN THE DOCUMENT OR BY REASON OF ANY PART OF THE PUBLICATION MAY BE PRODUCED BY ERROR OMISSION DEFECT OR MIS STATEMENT WHETHER ANY PROCESS ELECTRONIC OR OTHERWISE WITHOUT SUCH ERROR OMISSION DEFECT OR MIS STATEMENT IS THE SPECIlC WRITTEN PERMISSION OF THE COPYRIGHT CAUSED BY OR ARISES FROM NEGLIGENCE LACK OF CARE OWNER .EITHER MAY INFORMATION BE STORED OR OTHERWISE ELECTRONICALLY IN ANY FORM WHATEVER WITHOUT SUCH PERMISSION 7HILST THE INFORMATION IS CONSIDERED TRUE AND CORRECT AT THE DATE OF PUBLICATION CHANGES IN )33. CIRCUMSTANCES AFTER THE TIME OF PUBLICATION MAY %DITED BY "ILL .OAD IMPACT ON THE ACCURACY OF THE INFORMATION 4HE #OMMUNICATIONS "RANCH INFORMATION MAY CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE AND $UBBO !PRIL THE 3TATE OF .EW 3OUTH 7ALES THE AUTHORS AND !GDEX THE PUBLISHER AND THEIR RESPECTIVE SERVANTS AND *OB .O AGENTS ARE NOT IN ANY WAY LIABLE FOR THE ACCURACY OF ANY INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THIS DOCUMENT 2ECOGNISING THAT SOME OF THE INFORMATION IS PROVIDED BY THIRD PARTIES THE 3TATE OF .EW 3OUTH 7ALES THE AUTHOR AND THE PUBLISHER TAKE NO RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE ACCURACY CURRENCY RELIABILITY AND CORRECTNESS OF ANY INFORMATION INCLUDED IN THE DOCUMENT PROVIDED BY THIRD PARTIES