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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2018) Special Issue-7: 4065-4077

International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences ISSN: 2319-7706 Special Issue-7 pp. 4065-4077 Journal homepage: http://www.ijcmas.com

Review Article

Ginger (Zingiber officinale): A Nobel Remedy

P. Singh1*, S. Srivastava2, V. B. Singh1, Pushkar Sharma2 and Devendra Singh3

1Department of Animal Nutrition, C.V.Sc. & A.H., N.D.U.A.T., Kumarganj, Faizabad-224229 (U.P.), India 2Department of Veterinary Gyneacology and Obstetrics, C.V.Sc. & A.H., N.D.U.A.T., Kumarganj, Faizabad-224229 (U.P.), India 3Department of Veterinary and toxicology, College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Navania, Udaipur, (Rajasthan), India *Corresponding author

ABSTRACT

Now the trend is reversing towards the traditional i.e. Phytotherapy. Ancient has described about the medicinal and their medicinal used in various diseases. Medicinal plants are generally known as “Chemical Goldmines” as they contain

natural chemicals, which are acceptable to human and animal systems. is one which

scientifically known as Zingiber officinale, belonging to family and the most K e yw or ds important with several medicinal, nutritional and ethnomedical values therefore, used extensively worldwide as a , flavouring agent and herbal remedy. Traditionally, Z. Antimicrobial, officinale is used in Ayurveda, Siddha, Chinese, Arabian, Africans, Caribbean and many , Ginger, other medicinal systems to cure a variety of diseases like pain, nausea, vomiting, asthma, Phytotherapy cough, inflammation, dyspepsia, loss of appetite, palpitaion, constipation and indigestion. The major of ginger root include , , bisabolene,

oleoresins, starch, (zingiberne, zingiberole, camphen, cineole, borneol), mucilage, and proteins which were responsible for the medicinal property of ginger. This

study is aimed to review the salient medicinal properties of ginger and is uses in treatment of various diseases.

Introduction

Phytotherapy (herbal or understanding of the pivotal role medicinal Herbalism) is the study of plant science and plants play in providing herbal remedies to use of plants and intended for medicinal health maladies. India has a rich resource purposes or for supplementing a diet. Plants base of medicinal plants, plush with have been the basis for medical treatments approximately 8,000 different species. through much of human history, and According to the Government of India such is still widely (GOI), traditional medicines are the sole practiced today. The World Health means of health care for about 65 percent of Organization (WHO) has been promoting a the population. The Knowledge of useful movement for "Saving plants for Saving plants must have been the first acquired by Lives" This is because of the growing man to satisfy his hunger and heal his

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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2018) Special Issue-7: 4065-4077 wounds (Kshirsagar and Singh 2001). (gingierol, ), phenol (gingeol, Proven agro-industrial technologies need to ), proteolytic (zingibain), be applied to the cultivation and processing vitamin B6, Vitamin C, calcium, of medicinal plants and the manufacture of magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, linoleic herbal medicines. acid, gum, starch, lignin, vegeto matter, asmazone, acetic acid, acetate of potassa, Ginger is a subtropical plant grown for its sulphur. The is the alcohol group of root (rhizome or underground stem). The the oleoresin. Ginger owes its aroma to root has tan skin, ivory to pale green flesh, about 1 to 3% of volatile oils, which are peppery, slightly sweet flavor. Ginger has bisabolene, zingiberene and zingiberol many medicinal uses; the fresh or dried (Dhanik et al., 2017). The major rhizome is used in oral or topical pharmacological activity of ginger appears preparations for treatment a variety of to be due to gingerol and shogaol. ailments, while the essential oil is applied topically as an . Evidence suggests Anti-inflammatory activity that ginger is most effective against nausea and vomiting in small animals, associated Ginger appears to be promising for safe use with surgery, vertigo, travel sickness and in medicine, pharmaceutical and food morning sickness and pregnancy, and cancer industries. Ginger is also often used in joint chemotherapy (Bone et al., 1990, Grontved support supplements. Ginger was reported to et al., 1988, Sripramote et al., 2003). This have effectiveness for relieving joint pain of study deals to summarized and review upon osteoarthritis (OA) and rheumatoid arthritis the use of Zingiber officinale by the different probably due to its anti-inflammatory ethnic communities of India. This work is effects. (Thomson et al., 2002, Wigler et al., also an attempt to present and enlist the use 2003 and Ramadan et al., 2011). Funk et al., zinger as ethnoveterinary meditational (2016) clinically investigated the utility and purpose by different communities of India as safety and effectiveness of ginger in dietary well as abroad. The authors hope that this supplements to quell joint disease in review will be helpful in medicinal inflammatory arthritis may be warranted, but treatment of animals. should clearly include careful consideration and characterization of the chemical content constituents of ginger of the products to be tested. (Rayati et al., (Zingiber officinale) 2017) ginger powder is as effective as ibuprofen in the management of postsurgical Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is a flowering sequelae. Furthermore, serum C-reactive plant whose rhizome, ginger root or protein (CRP) levels alone are not suggested simply ginger, is widely used as a spice or for the assessment of anti-inflammatory a folk medicine. The primary known effects of . Hassan et al., (2017) constituents of ginger root include gingerols, resulted about the aqueous of Z. zingibain, bisabolene, oleoresins, starch, officinale have significantly decreased the essential oil (zingiberne, zingiberole, carrageenan-Induced inflammation and camphen, cineole, borneol), mucilage, and related paw edema in our study on Sprague protein. Volatile oils are bisabolene, cineole, dawley rats. Ginger and coriander contain phellanadrene, citral, borneol, citronellol, many chemical constituents which have geranial, linalool, limeonene, zingiberol, anti-inflammatory effect against zingiberene, camphene), oleoresin inflammation caused by gamma radiation

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(Abd El-Salam and Hassan, 2017). Several dosage of 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg b.wt. research reports have resulted that whole respectively daily for 30 days which ginger have anti-inflammatory effect revealed dosage of 50 mg/kg to be safest and on the production of NO/iNOS, PGE2/COX- protective to rats that may be used in various 2, TNF-a, IL-1b, and macrophage disease conditions in animals for its chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP- 1) in antioxidant potential and In vitro antioxidant murine macrophages, such as RAW264.7 activity of Zingiber officinale extracts and cells and J774.1 cells, as well as human its safety study in rats. Danwilai et al., monocytes, U937 cells.(Imanishi et al., (2017) confirm the antioxidant 2004, Lantz et al., 2007 and Chen et al., pharmacological activity of ginger in their 2008). study. No serious adverse effects were reported after taking ginger extract as a daily Antioxidant Activity supplement.

Antioxidant medicines are molecule that Antimicrobial activity inhibits the oxidation of other molecules. Fuhrman et al., (2000) described about In Antibacterial activity vitro, ginger has been shown to exhibit antioxidant effects. Nunes et al., (2012) Ginger has strong antibacterial properties. reported that Free radical or reactive oxygen Studies have revealed that a methanol species are one of the main culprits in the extract of Z. officinale rhizomes possesses genesis of various diseases. However, significant antibacterial activity against neutralization of free radical activity is one Escherichia coli, Salmonella enteriditis and of the important steps in the diseases Staphylococcus aureus (Sunilson et al., prevention. Antioxidants stabilize/deactivate 2009). Escherichia coli induced diarrhea is free radicals, often before they attack targets the leading cause of death in developing in biological cells. Plants fruits, seeds, oil, countries and recently it was documented leaves, bark and roots show an important that zingerone exerted protective effect on role in diseases prevention due to the rich E. coli induced diarrhea (Chen et al., 2008). source of antioxidant Eleazu et al., (2012) studied antioxidant potentials of six varieties Zingerone also showed protective effect in of ginger. All the varieties were observed to hyper motility mediated diarrhea that was possess strong antioxidant activities and had linked to inhibition of gastrointestinal high quantities of phenols, which may be motility (Iwami et al., 2011). A recent study responsible for their antioxidant activities. also indicated that zingerone supplemented Correlation analysis in the study revealed Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus that the total phenolic contents of the ginger vannamei) juveniles showed strengthening varieties correlated negatively with their of immunity and protection against V. total oleoresin contents. This finding alginolyticus challenge (Chang et al., 2012). suggested that the oleoresin contents might The essential oil from ginger was studied for not have come from their phenolics antimicrobial activity against Aspergillus constituents and that the oleoresins present niger, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, could have little contribution to the Mycoderma sp., Lactobacillus acidophilus antioxidant activities of the ginger varieties. and Bacillus cereus, as determined by paper Jhambh et al., (2015) studied that ethanolic agar diffusion method (Guptha and extract of Zingiber officinale orally at Ravishankar, 2005).

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Antiviral activity insulin or insensitivity of target organ for insulin (Maiti et al., 2004). Severe tissue and Among the different viruses which cause the vascular damages occur if animal is common cold, Rhinovirus is one. In plaque untreated which is followed by serious reduction test, the dried rhizome of ginger complications such as neuropathy, has been investigated for anti-rhino-viral retinopathy, nephropathy, ulceration and activity. Fractionation by solvent extraction, cardiovascular complications. An important solvent partition and repeated finding based on in STZ treated-type 1 chromatography guided by bioassay, diabetic rat model reported that, oral allowed the isolation of several administration of ethanolic extract of ginger sesquiterpenes with anti-rhino-viral significantly decrease fasting blood glucose actiuvity. The most effective activity of level (Ojewolew et al., 2006). Earlier study these was β- sesquiphellandrene (Denyer et reported that significant blood glucose al., 1994). lowering effect of ginger juice in diabetic and nondiabetic animals (Sharma et al., activity 1977). In the presence of 0.11M- 6GN and 30mM 2-deoxy-D-ribose, the growth of Extract of ginger powder is effective against osteoblastic Mc3T3 –E1 cells was increased, several antifungal diseases. The principle as a result of elevating the alkaline in the ginger are the gingerols phosphatase activity, collagen content and and gingerdiol. (Ramkissoon et al., 2012, osteocalcin secretion of the cells. At Nasri et al., 2013). concentrations of 1 and 100 nM, 6- GN increased the osteoprotegerin secretion in activity osteoblastic cells and decreased the protein carbonyl contents of osteoblastic cells, The rhizome of Z. officinale aqueous which is of importance in bone diseases extracts was show antihelmintic activity related to (Choi et al., 2007). The against the earthworm Pheretima posthuma. antidiabetic activity of fresh juice of Z. The result showed that the test extract officinale was proposed to be correlated (100mg/ml) possess significant through 5-HT receptor antagonism. Since 6- antihelmintic activity (Dubey et al., 2010). gingerol the chemical and biological marker Methanol extracts of Z. officinale was substance present in Z. officinale is reported screened for their in vitro anthelmintic to possess 5-HT antagonistic activity the activity. Results revealed that Zingiber present investigation was undertaken to officinale killed all the test worms study the effect of methanolic extract and its (Haemonchus contortus) within two hours fractions in STZ-induced NIDDM rats and post exposure being 100% effective (Iqbal et to correlate with concentrations of 6- al., 2001). gingerol present therein (Yamahara et al., 1989). Recent studies showed that gingerol, Anti-diabetic activity its chief active constituent, enhanced cell- mediated glucose uptake via increasing Diabetes is a major global health problem insulin-sensitivity, thus improving chronic worldwide. Diabetes is a metabolic disorder, disease, as diabetes (Akhani et al., 2004). caused by abnormality of carbohydrate The main component 6-gingerol also metabolism and is a major health problem. exhibited hypoglycemic property when The major cause of diabetes is low blood administered to diabetic mice and improved

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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2018) Special Issue-7: 4065-4077 impaired insulin signaling in arsenic (Ensiyeh et al., 2009). Studies based on intoxicated mice (Singh et al., 2009, animal model revealed that, ginger extract Chakraborty et al., 2012). possesses antiserotoninergic and 5-HT3 receptor antagonism effects which play an Anti-obesity activity important role in the etiology of postoperative nausea and vomiting Okamoto et al., 2011 reported that 6-GN (Bhattarai et al., 2001). A study in the favors counteracts body weight gain and fat of ginger role in nausea and vomiting accumulation in mice. A study conducted by indicating its effect and provide relief in Tzeng and Liu (2013) revealed that 6-GN severity in nausea and vomiting inhibits rosiglitazone-induced adipogenesis (Vutyavanich et al., 2001). by suppressing oil droplet accumulation and by decreasing the droplet size in 3T3-L1 Antipyretic activity cells (Tzeng et al., 2011). Histochemical staining also permitted the detection of oil Yeast induced in rats is reduced when droplets in adipocytes at concentrations soxhlet extract of ginger in 80% ethanol is ranging from 5 to15 lg/mL. A reduction in administered at 38% (100mg/kg) (Sacchetti the levels of fatty acid synthase and et al., 2005). Antipyretic effect of adipocyte-specific fatty acid binding protein acetylsalicylic acid is same as at same dose was also reported. of extract of ginger. The ginger extract did not affect the temperature of normothermic Anti-atherosclerotic activity rats. This antipyretic activity may be mediated by COX inhibition. Rabbits with experimentally induced atherosclerosis for 75 days, when fed air Anti-hypercholesterolemic activity dried ginger powder (100 mg/kg orally daily) inhibited atherosclerotic changes in Ginger decrease the cholesterol levels by the aorta and coronary arteries by about 50% interferes with cholesterol biosynthesis. (Verma et al., 2004). Ginger treatment did Anti-lipidemic effect of ginger is done by not cause any significant lowering of serum reducing thermogenesis and high lipids lipids in the study but fibrinolytic activity levels. Ginger also helps to increase serum increased and lipid peroxidation was HDL- cholesterol (Ozgoli and Goli, 2009; decreased. Vutyavanich et al., 2001; Al- Awwadi, 2010). Antiemetic Activity Anti-neoplastic activity Ginger is most commonly used to treat nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy Ginger is considered as a powerful which is either provided by doctor or used as neoplastic agent. self-treatment by women (Allaire et al., 2000). Extracts of ginger suppress cell proliferation and act against resistance of cancerous cells, It would be more effective than vit-B6 to found in several studies. (Barnes et al., overcome the severity of nausea and is also 2002; Newall et al., 1996; Ernst and Pittler, effective in decreasing the frequency of 2000; Nasri et al., 2013; Kumar et al., 2015; vomiting episodes in early pregnancy Saraswat, 2010).

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Biological activity

Active compound of ginger Biological activities Gingerol and gingerol The antioxidant activity. related compound Anti-tumour activity via induction of apoptosis, modulation of genetic and other biological activity. Anti-inflammatory and anti-analgesic activity. Anti-microbial activity. Hepato-protective activity. Paradol Anti-oxidant and anti-cancerous activity. Anti-microbial activity. Shogoal Anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activity. 6- shogaol showed anticancer activities through the inhibition of cell invasion reduction of matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression, anti-proliferation activity and anti-invasion. Zingerone Antioxidant activity. Anti-inflammatory action. Anti-bacterial activity Zerumbone Anti-tumour activity. Anti-microbial activity. 1-Dehydro-(10) gingerdione Regulation of inflammatory genes. Induce Apoptosis by activation of p53. Ginger flavonoids Antioxidant activity. (Rahmani et al., 2014)

Anti-ulcerogenic activity anti-ulcer principle named 6-gingesulfonic acid was isolated from the dried rhizome of This has both many benefits and drawbacks. ginger together with three new In albino rats ginger cytoprotective and monoacyldigalactosylglycerols named gastric anti-ulcerstudies have been carried gingerglycolipids A, B and C, by monitoring out. 80% ethanol, 0.6M HCl, 0.2M NaOH the effects on HCl/ethanol-induced gastric and 25% NaCl cause cytodestruction, lesions in rats. 6- gingesulfonic acid showed whereas Indomethacin, , and more potent anti-ulcer activity than 6- like ulcerogenic agents produce gingerol and 6-shogaol (Yoshkawa et al., gastric ulcers, beside hypothermic restraint 1992). stress and by pylorus ligated shay rat technique. The result demonstrate that the Immuno-modulatory activity extract in the dose of 500 mg/kg orally exert highly significant cytoprotection against Probably the immune-boosting properties of 80% ethanol, 0.6M HCl, 0.2M NaOH and the ginger have the beneficial effects in the 25% NaCl induced gastric lesions and also treating coughs, colds and flu (Khaki et al., prevent gastric ulcer induced by the anti- 2004). Immunomodulatory activity of ginger inflannatory drugs and hypothermic have examined in few studies. Non-specific rerestraint stress. These observations suggest immunity was increased in rainbow trout cytoprotective and anti-ulcerogenic effect of eating a diet containing 1% of a dried the ginger (Al-Yahya et al., 1989). A new aqueous ginger extract for three weeks

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(Dugenci et al., 2003). Higher study found a dose-dependent positive haemagglutinating antibody titre and plaque inotropic action of 6-, 8- and 10- gingerol on forming cell counts, consistent with isolated guinea pig left atria, and „gingerol‟ improved humoral immunity, found in mice stimulated the Ca2+- pumping ATPase fed a 50% ethanolic ginger extract (25 activity of fragmented sarcoplasmic mg/kg) for seven days (Puri et al., 2004). reticulum prepared from mammalian Ginger suppressed lymphocyte proliferation, skeletal and cardiac muscle (Kabayashi et found in in-vitro study which was mediated al., 1987, Shoji et al., 1982). by decrease in IL-2 and IL-10 production (Wilasrusmee et al., 2000). In a recent study a crude extract (70% aqueous methanol) of fresh ginger induced a Gastro-protective activity dose dependent fall in arterial blood pressure of anaesthetised rats; this effect was shown Peptic ulcer is a major threat in both male to be mediated through blockade of voltage- and female. Several factors including stress dependent calcium channels (Ghayur et al., food ingredients, drugs and helicobacter 2005). pyloric are responsible for gastric ulcer. There are lots of medicinal plants and Effect on female reproductivity constituents so antiulcer effects in various ways but the exact mechanism are not Labania, (2005) and Abu Baker (2013) known. Ginger plays a vital role in ulcer conformed the ability of ginger to improve prevention via increasing mucin secretion. the functional efficiency of the uterus and Earlier findings showed anti-ulcerative ovary. Ghusoon and Al-Neamah (2016) effect of ginger in experimental gastric ulcer investigated that cadmium chloride induce model (Yamahara et al., 1988). The major toxic pathological changes in uterus and constituents of ginger such as 6- gingerol ovaries of rats and these changes were and 6- shogaol suppress gastric secretion in- improved after giving ginger extract, which situ, 6- shogaol was more intensive provide a strong evidence for the beneficial (Suekawa et al., 1984). role of antioxidants plants in improving the effect of cadmium chloride toxicity in rat's Cardiovascular activity female.

Ginger has been described as great heart Effect on male reproductivity tonic. It has a great importance in the ayurvedic medicine. It protect the heart by Morakinyo, (2008) studied about using different way, by reducing blood clotting doses of 500 mg/kg and 1000 mg/kg and that can lead to plaque formation or find that extract of Zingiber thrombosis, by open the blockage in blood officinale possesses pro-fertility properties. vessels these decreasing peripheral vascular Ginger administration significantly resistance and hence blood pressure, by increased serum testosterone levels if lower the high blood cholesterol level given at 100 mg/kg b.wt, in rats (Khaki et making the heart healthy (Akoachere et al., al., 2009). Aleissa M.S. (2014) evaluated 2002). Ginger extracts as well as 6-and 8- protective effect of ginger against cisplatin- gingerol have been shown to modulate induced reproductive toxicity and resulted eicosanoid responses in smooth vascular that therapeutic efficacy of ginger increased muscles ex vivo (Hata et al., 1998). An early the activities of testicular antioxidant

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Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2018) Special Issue-7: 4065-4077 and restored sperm motility of anti-oxidant, antimicrobial, antipyretic, anti- cisplatin-treated in rats. diabetic, anti-emetic etc. Ginger shows an important effect in the suppression of NFkB, Toxicity of ginger COX2, and LOX, induction of apoptosis, activation of tumor suppressor gene and also The use of Zingiber offficinale has been modulates various biological activities. listed in “Generally Recognized as Safe” Ultimately it can be concluded that ginger (GRAS) document of the US FDA. A dose can helps to prevent various diseases of 0.5 – 1.0 g of ginger powder ingested 2-3 effectively at lower price without any times for periods ranging from 3 months to adverse effect. 2.5 years did not cause any adverse effects in Rats. The British Herbal Compendium References documents no adverse effects of ginger. The acute oral LD50 in rats of roasted ginger is Abd El-Salam H.S. and A. A. Hassan. 2017. 170 g/kg body weight and for dry ginger is Phytochemicals Boost Anti- more than 250 g/kg body weight. (Langner inflammatory Effect Against Gamma et al., 1998 and Wu et al., 1990). Awwad Radiation: Activities of Ginger and and Elkhishin (2009) studied that high dose Coriander Extracts. Arab Journal of of ginger can be toxic by causing severe Nuclear Science and Applications, 50 hypotension and bradycardia with induction (2), 278-291. of hyaline changes and fainting of some Abu Baker, SO. 2013. Effect of Ginger on nuclei in cardiac myocyte fibers of a pre- the Histological Structure of Some necrotic stage. Administration of ginger to Organs of Female Rats and Their rats for 28 days in the low dose (50 mg/ kg) Embryos during Pregnancy. Life produced bradycardia with waviness of Science Journal, 10 (2). some cardiac muscle fibers. Ginger in a high Akhani SP, Vishwakarma SL, Goyal RK. dose (500 mg/ kg) for 28 days, produced 2004. Anti-diabetic activity of both hypotension and bradycardia with Zingiber officinale in streptozotocin- degenerative changes in cardiac myocyte induced type I diabetic rats. Journal of fibers. The hypotensive and bradycardic Pharmacy and Pharmacology; effects of ginger may partially, be due to 56(1):101-105. induction of vasodilatation by increasing Akoachere JF, Ndip RN, Chenwi EB. 2002. nitric oxide release or synthesis and partially Antibacterial effect of Zingiber due to a calcium channel blocking effect. officinale and Garcinia kola on respiratory tract pathogens. East The current trend of use of chemical drugs African Medical Journal; 79(11):588- for the treatment of various diseases is very 592. costly and most of them have sever adverse Al-Awwadi NAJ. 2010. Effects of Achillea effects on treated animals at prolonged Santolina extracts and fractions on consumption. On comparison, the human platelet aggregation in vitro are easily available and cheap. Their regular and on rat arteriovenous shunt use or consumption had no side effects and thrombosis in vivo, Thi-Qar Med. J. generally considered as safe on therapeutic (TQMJ). level. Ginger is a common most Aleissa MS. 2014. Effect of ginger available all over world and have many supplements on some reproductive medicinal properties like anti-inflammatory, parameters and spermatogenesis of

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Mice. Ind. J. of Fund.l an. App. L Sci. response, and resistance to Vibrio Vol. 4 (1),.271-277. alginolyticus in Pacific white shrimp Allaire AD, Moos MK, Wells SR. 2000. (Litopenaeus vannamei) juveniles. Cmplementary and alternative Fish Shellfish Immunology; 32(2):284- medicine in pregnancy: A survey of 290. North Carolina certified nurse- Chen IN, Chang CC, Ng CC, Wang CY, midwives. Obstetrics & Gynecology; Shyu YT, Chang TL. 2008. 95:19 -23. Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Al-Yahaya MA, Rafatullah S, Mossa JS, Activity of Zingiberaceous Plants in Ageel AM, Parmar NS and Tariq M. Taiwan. Plants Foods for Human 1989. Gastroprotective activity of Nutrition; 63(1):15-20. ginger in albino rats, Am J Chin Med, Choi EM, Kim YH. 2007. Effect of [6]- 17, 51-56. gingerol, a pungent ingredient of Awwad IA and Elkhishin IA. 2009. A Study ginger, on osteoblast response to of the cardiovascular toxic effect of extracellular reducing sugar. Food Zingiber officinale (ginger) in adult Science and Biotechnology; 16:807- male albino rats and its possible 811. mechanisms of action. Mansoura J. Danwilai K, Konmun J, Sripanidkulchai Forensic Med. Clin. Toxicol. BO, and Suphat Subongkot S. 2017. 17(2):109-127. Antioxidant activity of ginger extract Barnes KK, Kolpin DW, Meyer MT, as a daily supplement in cancer Thurman EM, Furlong ET, Zaugg SD, patients receiving adjuvant Barber LB. 2000. Water-quality data chemotherapy: a pilot study. Cancer for pharmaceuticals, hormones, and Manag Res. 9: 11–18. other organic wastewater contaminants Denyer CV, Jackson P, Loakes DM, Ellis in U.S. streams, 1999-2000: U.S. MR, Young David AB. 1994. Isolation Geological Survey Open-File Report of antirhinoviral sesquiterpenes from 02- 94. ginger (Zingiber officinale), J Nat Bone ME, Wilkinson DJ, Young JR, McNeil Prod; 57(5), 658-662. J, Charlton S. 1990. Ginger root, a Dhanik J, Arya N, VivekaNand. 2017. A new antiemetic. The effect of ginger Review on Zingiber officinale. Journal root on postoperative nausea and of and vomiting after major gynaecological ; 6(3): 174-184. surgery. Anaesthesia. 45(8): 669-71. Dubey RD, Verma S, Rane D, Wani VK, Chakraborty D, Mukherjee A, Sikdar S, Paul Pandey AK, Paroha S. 2010. A, Gosh S, Rahman A. 2012. 6- Comparative studies of anthelmintic Gingerol isolated from ginger activity of Zingiber officinale and attenuates sodium arsenite induced Cassia tora, International Journal of oxidative stress and plays a corrective and Pharmaceutical role in improving insulin signaling in Sciences; 1:1-4. mice. Toxicology Letters; 210(1):34- Dugenci SK, Arda N, Candan A. 2003. 43. Some medicinal plants as Chang YP, Liu CH, Wu CC, Chian CM, immunostimulant for fish. Journal of Lian JL, Hsieh SL. 2012. Dietary Ethnopharmacology; 88(1):99-106. administration of zingerone to enhance Eleazu CO, Eleazu KC, Awa E, Chukwuma growth, non-specific immune SC. 2012. Comparative study of the

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phytochemical composition of the open sea. Acta Otolaryngol.105: 45- leaves of five Nigerian medicinal 49. plants. Journal of Biotechnology and Guptha S, Ravishankar S. 2005. A Pharmaceutical Research Vol. 3(2): comparison of the antimicrobial 42-46. activity of , ginger, carrot and Ensiyeh J and Sakineh MAC. 2009. pastes against E.coli in Comparing ginger and vitamin B6 for laboratory buffer and ground beef. the treatment of nausea and vomiting Foodborne Pathogens and Disease; in pregnancy: a randomised controlled 2(4):330‐ 340. trial, Midwifery; 25(6):649-653. Hassan, NA, Rohini Karunakaran*, Uma Ernst E, Pittler MH. 2000. Efficacy of Sankar A, Khin Mar Aye. 2017. Anti- ginger for nausea and vomiting: A Inflammatory effect of Zingiber systematic review of randomized officinale on sprague dawley rats. clinical trials. Br. J. Anaesth; Asian journal of pharmaceutical and 84(3):367-371. clinical research. Vol 10, Issue 3. Fuhrman B, Rosenblat M, Hayek T, Hata Y, Pancho LR, Nojima H, Kimura I. Coleman R, Aviram M. 2008. Ginger 1998. Endothelium dependent extract consumption reduces plasma potentiation of prostaglandin F2α- cholesterol, inhibits LDL oxidation induced contractions by (±)-[6]- and attenuates development of gingerol is inhibited by atherosclerosis in atherosclerotic, cyclooxygenase- but not lipoxygenase- apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. J inhibitors in mouse mesenteric veins. Nutr.; 130(5):1124-1131. Biological and Pharmaceutical Funk JL, Frye JB, Oyarzo JN, Chen J, Bulletin; 21:792-794. Zhang H, and Timmermann BN. 2016. Imanishi N, Mantani N, Sakai S, Sato M, Anti-Inflammatory Effects of the Katada Y and Ueda K. 2004. Inducible Essential Oils of Ginger (Zingiber activity of ginger rhizome (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) in Experimental officinale Rosc.) on the mRNA Rheumatoid Arthritis. expression of macrophage-inducible PharmaNutrition; 4(3): 123–131. nitric oxide (NO) synthase and NO Ghayur MN, Gilani AH. 2005. Ginger production in a macrophage cell line, lowers blood pressure through RAW264.7 cells. American Journal of blockade of voltage dependent Chinese Medicine.; 32(5):727- 735. calcium channels. Journal of Indian Vet. J., July 2015, 92 (7) : 19 - 21 Cardiovascular Pharmacology; Iqbal Z, Nadeem QK, Khan MN, Akhtar 45(1):74- 80. MS, Waraich FN. 2001. In vitro Ghusoon AK, and AL-Neamah. 2016. anthelmintic activity of Allium Protetive effect of ginger (Gingiber sativum, Zingiber officinale, Officinal) hyro-alcoholic extract on Curcurbita mexicana and Ficus cadmium chloride induced religiosa, International Journal of reproductive toxicity in rats female. Agriculture and Biology; 3(4):454- Euphrates Journal of Agriculture 457. Science-8 (1): 8-11. Iwami M, Shiina T, Hirayama H, Shima T, Grontved A, Brask T, Kambskard J, Hentzer Takewaki T, Shimizu Y. 2011. E. 1988. Ginger root against Inhibitory effects of zingerone, a seasickness: a controlled trial on the pungent component of Zingiber

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