n the 1960s and 1970s it cost effectiveness (what works currently make up the 'crime became commonplace to cheaply) have become its defining problem'. In the 1970s radical I assert that the end of principles. criminologists had already begun criminology was imminent. A Simultaneously, a left realism to advocate a deepening of the century of searching for the causes was convinced that the problem of criminological agenda to include of crime and of devising methods crime was growing out of control racism, sexism and economic for its control had seemingly come and that once more its causes exploitation. In many respects this to a dead end. We were no nearer needed to be established and important debate was foreclosed establishing causation than we theorised. In tandem a social by the growing hegemony of were in effecting any reduction in justice programme needed to be realist approaches. But it is a crime rates. Nothing seemed to initiated to tackle social and debate that remains unfinished. work. So the emergent wisdom of economic inequalities under the Indeed it has taken to the 1990s for the 1960s urged us to concern rubric of 'inclusive citizenship'. In questions of state crime and human ourselves more with processes of these ways criminology's historic rights to begin to be accepted as criminalisation and with new project to find cause and cure has legitimate issues for developments in social, political once more achieved an ascendancy criminological inquiry: not simply and legal theory, rather than being that is reflected in a host of new through extending conceptions of burdened with inconclusive criminology departments in higher 'what is crime?' but by recognising empirical projects. Yet this education, a succession of the legal transgressions routinely foundational critique appeared not academic/practitioner conferences employed by those wielding to signal criminology's demise, but and a burgeoning academic press. political and economic power. In its resuscitation in a myriad of At the end of the century a similar vein it has taken some reactionary, realist and reformist criminology has never seemed so twenty years of feminist enquiry guises. As law and order politics vital and flourishing. But where to have it acknowledged that swept through the political does this leave the radical critique danger and risk lie not just on the landscape of the 1980s, of the 1960s and 1970s: as an streets or in the corridors of power, criminology was rejuvenated: historical anomaly in the history of but in the sanctity of the home. focusing once more on untangling Recognising male violence and causes and formulating effective the discipline or as a vital point of resistance and theoretical renewal? opening up the vexed question of measures of crime management. violent masculinities, also carry with them the potential to split Breaking the mould asunder the narrow and myopic (again) concerns of much of what Contrary to many a criminological currently is understood to be the Deconstructing mentality, theoretical development 'crime problem'. has far from come to a standstill. There remains an important body of deconstructionist knowledge - New agendas: social originating in no small measure harm and social criminology from a European school of justice abolitionism - which continues to In the early 1990s a criminological move beyond the essentialist postmodern imagination John Muncie argues for a re- signifiers of crime, criminality and emanating to no small degree from forming of the discipline, as the criminology in order to facilitate feminism - had warned that the production of new and revised criminology would remain forever millennium approaches. critical insights. Nowhere is this narrow and self justifying unless most clearly seen than in the telling it began to deconstruct its key Criminological reminder that realist and referents (crime, criminality, administrative criminologies are discourse deviance and so on). trapped within a state and legally Postmodernism opened up a vital A resurgent radical right revived a defined notion of 'crime'. As space in which reflexive neoclassical vision of criminality abolitionists had established in the knowledge of the entire as voluntaristic - a course of action 1980s, if our concern with crime criminological enterprise could be willingly chosen by wicked is driven by fears for social excavated. For some this has calculating individuals, lacking in stability, personal safety and social meant not only the abandonment self control. In policy circles a justice, then we may be well of 'crime', but a rejection of all burgeoning administrative advised to look beyond crime to grand theory and the prioritization criminology argued that all that discover where the most dangerous of a wide variety of disparate and could be realistically hoped for threats and risks to our person and subjective positions. Such was to implement pragmatic property lie. positions may smack of an means of crime opportunity Poverty, malnutrition, unbridled relativism but they do reduction and to manage crime pollution, medical negligence, allow the sensitising concepts of through situational preventative domestic violence, corporate difference, diversity and localism measures. Efficiency (what works corruption, state violence, to enter the criminological domain. at some times in some places) and genocide, human rights violations And it is through such "Criminology's historic project to find and so on all carry with them more deconstructionism that the widespread and damaging possibility of subjugating the cause and cure has once more achieved consequences than most of the concept of crime to that of social an ascendancy." behaviours and incidents that harm has once more been raised.

Cjm no. 34 Winter 1998/99 everyday risks as of decriminalising criminology workplace injury and may be lost through the avoidable disease. incorporation of (or indeed the In parallel, the criminalisation of) competing redefining of crime as concepts by the criminological and harm opens up the criminal justice mainstream. To possibility of dealing date, criminology's greatest with pain, suffering and limitation is that it has always injury as conflicts and allowed dominant and state troubles deserving defined conceptions of crime to negotiation, mediation run its agenda. And this remains and arbitration, rather perhaps the biggest hurdle to be than as criminal events faced in the search for a more deserving guilt, comprehensive and self reflexive punishment and replacement discourse in which exclusion. Within such harm might be reduced without a discourse we would be recourse to criminalisation and less concerned with social justice achieved without controlling, preventing recourse to criminal law. and punishing and more Yet such reconceptualisations with enabling and and reframings remain important empowering. Questions because they alone allow for a re- of crime control would imagining of criminology which be subordinated to those would enable it to break free of its of a wider social justice obsession with negativities and to agenda in which prioritise such alternative goals as governments and the trust, redress, dialogue, wider community empowerment and reconciliation. recognise disadvantage, Working with such concepts may difference and diversity be a source of unease and and acknowledge that discomfort but surely it remains they have a the case that it is only here where responsibility for the reconstruction of an unfettered enhancing personal and and unblinkered criminology can social development. A begin. _ concept of harm might routine part of everyday life. If the encourage conceptions of injury as John Muncie is Senior Lecturer Crime and power ubiquitous but it would be better criminological intent is to reveal in Criminology and Social Policy In a harm-based discourse the placed to pick out its most such misfortunes, risks and harms at the Open University. concept of 'crime' remains damaging forms beyond those important only in so far as it alerts then it must reject the concept of 'crime', as its sole justification and which are currently recognised by us to relations of power embedded the state. Moreover it would enable object of inquiry. 'Crime'itself has References: in social orders which generate a injury to be addressed by a wide no ontological reality. It exists only De Haan, W. (1990) The Politics whole series of social problems for variety of social responses and as a descriptor of those incidents of Redress, London, Unwin their populations, but of which without necessarily evoking or only a selected few are considered and behaviours that the state has Hyman. decided to criminalise. Moreover extending the penetration of the worthy of criminal sanction. A criminal justice system. Hulsman, L.H.C. (1986) 'Critical conception of crime without a many of these incidents (such as Criminology and the Concept of conception of power is petty theft, shoplifting, Crime', Contemporary Crises, meaningless. The power to render recreational drug use, vandalism, A replacement vol.10, no.l,pp.63-80. certain harmful acts visible and brawls, anti-social behaviour) Muncie, J. and McLaughlin, E. deftwe ihem as 'cnme', wViiUt would not seem to score discourse (eds) (1996) The Problem of maintaining the invisibility of particularly high on a scale of To do justice to such visions the Crime, London, Sage/Open others (or defining them as beyond serious harm. And yet it is often discipline may well need (yet University. criminal sanction) lies at the heart these 'minor' events that take up again) to reconsider its connection Muncie, J., McLaughlin, E. and of the problem of working within much of the time and to those self fulfilling and self Langan, M. (eds) (1996) notions of 'the problem of crime*. preoccupation of law enforcement justifying versions of criminology Criminological Perspectives: Notions of 'crime' offer a agencies and the criminal justice (or should it be criminal justice A Reader, London, Sage/Open peculiarly blinkered vision of the system. Conversely the risk of studies?) that currently occupy the University. range of misfortunes, dangers, many of those crimes defined by political and policy mainstream. It Nelken, D. (ed.) (1994) The the state as 'serious' would seem harms, risks and injuries that are a remains the case that important Futures of Criminology, London, negligible compared to such work will probably always need to Sage. be done in exposing the ways that Steinert, H. (1986) 'Beyond Crime 'crime', criminal justice and and Punishment', Contemporary "Notions of 'crime* offer a peculiarly criminological knowledges are Crises, vol.10, no.l, pp.21-38. built and activated. The danger will blinkered version of the range of Walton, P. and Young, J. (eds) also persist that just as social policy (1998) The New Criminology misfortunes, dangers, harms, risks and is being increasingly incorporated Revisited, Basingstoke, into criminal justice then the goal injuries that are a routine part of Macmillan. everyday life."

Cjm no. 34 Winter 1998/99