Lessons in Blackbody Minstrelsy Old Plantation and the Manufacture of Black Authenticity Amma Y

Lessons in Blackbody Minstrelsy Old Plantation and the Manufacture of Black Authenticity Amma Y. Ghartey-Tagoe Kootin

In 1901, visitors to the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York, could pay 10 cents to watch emancipated slaves and two generations of free-born African Americans reenact scenes of slavery in an attraction called Old Plantation. This live display was supposed to “amuse and at the same time instruct” (Ahrhart 1901:42) the visitor about what slave life was like on the “old plantation befo’ de wah.”1 During the seven-month run of this attraction, the cast numbering over 150 black performers — touted as “genuine southern darkies” who had “never been north

1. “Old Plantation Befo’ De Wah,” News (Buffalo, NY), 6 May 1900, Pan-American Exposition, Buffalo, New York, Newspaper Clipping Scrapbook, vol. 5, Buffalo and Erie County Public Library. Subsequent citations from the Buffalo News, the Buffalo Courier, the Buffalo Express, and the Commercial Advertiser that indicate a volume number are from the Pan-American Exposition, Buffalo, New York, Newspaper Clipping Scrapbook of the Buffalo and Erie County Public Library; date and volume are specified.

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4 - Journal of Journal “negroes —

3 , 12 May 1901, 1901, May 12 , Express of a school may be enough — was Fred McClellan, a show a show McClellan, was Fred 5 (Buffalo, NY), 28 July 1901, vol. 15; “Midway in Full Full in “Midway 15; vol. 1901, July NY), 28 (Buffalo, Laughing after Slavery: The Performances and The Laughing after Slavery: Express Express the mere suggestion — essential elements of the late-19th-century minstrel essential elements of —

lived in “real” slave log cabins, picked cotton while singing picked cotton slave log cabins, “real” lived in —

(Buffalo, NY), 12 May 1901, vol. 10. vol. 1901, May NY), 12 (Buffalo, 6 , 19 May 1901, vol. 11; “Midway Negroes Here,” Here,” Negroes “Midway 11; vol. 1901, May 19 , Express ] 1901a:20). For one month, McClellan taught his “pupils” McClellan taught his month, For one ] 1901a:20). (which was located in the South) to teach Southern blacks how to per the South) to teach Southern blacks how (which was located in 7 Courier JAI , 11 April 1901, vol. 9. 9. vol. 1901, 11 April Courier, to date, I have located no archival evidence that confirms the school’s existence no archival evidence that confirms I have located to date, 8

- the creation of a spe reportedly required the Sunny South” “veritable glimpse of this Yet “Old Plantation Befo’ De Wah”; “Old Plantation,” Plantation,” “Old Wah”; De Befo’ Plantation “Old “Slave 96 Years Old,” Old,” Years 96 “Slave To the modern-day mind, the scenario is outrageous: a white Northerner essentially estab- the scenario is outrageous: a white Northerner the modern-day mind, To Swing: The Old Plantation,” Plantation,” Old The Swing: vol. 10. Wah.” De Befo’ Plantation “Old Pan- the at Portrayal for Planned as Negro Southern the of Evolution Feature: Delightful Most “Plantation American,” Feature.” Delightful Most “Plantation furtherto per- the highlight “minstrel” adjective the add I primarythe While “school,” term the uses document instructionof place this upheld. genre formance Old.” Years 96 “Slave Feature”; Delightful Most “Plantation 3. 2. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. cial school by a Northern white showman to prepare the black troupe for their performances. the black troupe for showman to prepare by a Northern white cial school . [email protected] Ellington of Laughing Ben Times Amma Y. Ghartey-Tagoe Kootin is Assistant Professor in the Department of Theatre and Dance at Dance at and in the Department of Theatre is Assistant Kootin Professor Ghartey-Tagoe Y. Amma performance-centered creates writes about, teaches, and She Boulder. of Colorado, the University a historical musical about completing two projects: is currently methodologies of studying the past. She between ; and a book about the relation Buffalo black performers fair entitled At in the 1901 world’s experience, slave entitled laughter and the American Figure 1. (facing page) The front of the Old Plantation concession at the 1901 Pan-American Exposition Exposition Pan-American 1901 the at concession Plantation Old the of front The page) (facing 1. Figure Public County Erie & Buffalo permissionby the of reproduction Barry 1901; (From York. New Buffalo, in York) New Buffalo, Library, the report Still, or what took place there. to establish that minstrelsy had become a legitimate space for defining blackness, despite its legitimate space for defining blackness, to establish that minstrelsy had become a in which Unlike earlier forms of blackface minstrelsy obvious invention by white performers. Rice took lessons from their black inspi- Thomas Dartmouth (T.D.) white performers such as “authen- of the minstrel school suggests both that whites in 1901 possessed knowledge rations, At a and that real black people somehow had forgotten how to be themselves. tic black culture” disturbing and these propositions are were on the rise, time when Jim Crow laws and lynchings arts academy as a training ground for black peo- make the school not so much a performing That type that could be accepted by whites. “darkey” ple to learn how to embody the type of culture that not a caricature of black the minstrel stage, was a white creation from “darkey” of form their “authentic” selves. Although two newspaper articles briefly mention this place of Although two newspaper selves. “authentic” form their instruction, “The principal of the school,” as a Buffalo newspaper reported, as a Buffalo newspaper of the school,” “The principal work songs, and performed “camp style” meetings and cakewalks for visitors. and cakewalks meetings “camp style” and performed work songs, minstrel school lishes a minstrel

of the Mason and Dixie Line” of the Mason American Industries [ shades of black” sizes and of all ages, business veteran with 18 years of managerial experience, including a five-year stint at Madison stint at Madison including a five-year of managerial experience, with 18 years business veteran Theatre ( Buffalo’s Shea’s City and another five years at York Square Garden in New “negro melodies” them in singing rehearsed cakewalks and buck dancing, He taught them stage. and to reproduce the Southern negro at work “prepared [them] and songs,” “camp-meeting and fair. for the world’s at play”

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104 Amma Y. Ghartey-Tagoe Kootin authenticity McClellan andhisfellowwhiteconcessionairessuccessfullymanufacturedasenseofblack where actualbrownbodiesreplacedawhiteman’sblackenedface, OldPlantationrevealsthat was nowthebasisforacurriculumonhowtobeblack. formance actthatwasaconflationofblackauthenticityandwhitetheatricalconstruction structed blacknessitself. only cametobeknownasanaccuraterepresentationofblackpeoplebutalsodefinedandcon- 10. that itwasludicrousforwhitementoimitateplantationslaves, rathertheyweremore even actual African Americans. Criticsof minstrelsy frommainstreamaudiencesdidnotargue atrical constructionofblacknessquicklybecameinterchangeable withactualblackcultureand black, thefalsedialect, andthefalseculturethat minstrelsy presentedonstage. The whitethe- ify theterm “minstrelsy,” blackness wasdefinedbythefalsefacepaintedincolorofpitch and sheetmusicthatfeaturedsuchdescriptorsas “negro,” “Ethiopian” and “blackface” tomod- ers thataudiencesbelievedwerereal African Americans (Lott1996:8), totheadvertisements the linesoftruthandfiction(Nevin1867:608–9). From thewhiteblackfaceminstrelperform- of musicdestinedtoexcelinpopularityaboveallothers” butalsoatheatricalactthatblurred after borrowinganotherslave’sclothes, the “obscure actor” notonly “gave origintoaschool hearing ofasongtrolledbynegrostage-driver, lollinglazilyontheboxofhisvehicle” and perpetuated thisconflation. Anoft-citedAtlanticMonthlytalechronicleshow, after “the casual blackface minstrelsypopularinthe1830s, heensuredthatminstrelsywouldbeanartform black authenticity. When T.D. RicecreatedJimCrow, oneofthecharacters thatwouldmake the bodiesofwhitemen, itwastheparadoxicalconflationofwhitetheatricalconstructionand tate” theoriginal(73). that whatwaspresentedtruebecause “it [was]impossibletocounterfeit, orsuccessfullyimi- sentations ofSouthernblackculturegavecountlessaudiencememberslike Trux theimpression of somewearynegrointhecottonfields” (1855:72–73). Minstrelsy’ssupposedaccuraterepre- that theyaregenuineandreal[...,]theveritabletuneswordswhichhavelightenedlabor J.J. Trux declaredthat, “the truesecretoftheirfavorwiththeworldistobe foundinthefact to accuracyandauthenticityundergirdedmuchoftheenterprise. Writing ofminstrelsongs, argued inthelate19thcenturythatthiswasits “sole excuseforbeing” (Critic1884:308). Claims Old Plantationandthereportsofitsminstrelschool. issue ofTDR, areviewofonegenealogyhighlightskeydevelopmentsthatledtothecreation the historyofminstrelsyhavebeenestablishedincontemporaryscholarship, eveninthisspecial school weretheinevitableoutcomeof80yearsminstrelsy’sillogicality. Though variationson moniker (seeGhartey-Tagoe 2009:175). However, the1901displayandideaofaminstrel Old Plantationfollowedaspecifictraditionofpreviousworld’sfairdisplaysunderthesame Lessons fromtheMinstrel Textbook by nonblacks. 1999:123; Lott1993:39), butthatitisaconstructioncanbetaught, rehearsed, anddirected strate notonlythat “blackness” isperformable, asotherscholarshavelongcontended(Favor play ofSouthernblackculture. OldPlantationandthereportofaminstrelschooldemon- 9. Old Plantationisacompellingcasestudyofanironicshiftintheminstrelsygenre:per Yet, blackfaceminstrelsywastheultimatecounterfeit. Conceivedinthemindsandthrough Early minstrelsy’sgoal “was toreproducethelifeofplantationdarkey”;onewritereven I borrow the concept of “manufactured authenticity” from Sarah (2011). E. Lewis teach blackness that this minstrel school advances. Though an autobiography and satirical manual, the idea of Thurston’s book speaks to the idea of the ability to Interestingly, Baratunde as I was writing this article, Thurston publishedhis book 10 for1901viewers, whoregardedtheattractionasanaccurateethnographicdis- 9 An exampleofblackbodyminstrelsy, How to Be Black (2012). adamant - Old Plantation 105 Courier, all within the —

11 conflated education and entertainment, reality and theatri- conflated education and entertainment, — 1901).

departures from its authentic black roots derailed the genre from its original goal. goal. genre from its original roots derailed the from its authentic black departures

any In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, these expositions were scheduled virtually each these expositions were scheduled virtually In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Thus, minstrelsy underwent significant permutations in the late 1880s and ’90s that returned and ’90s that returned in the late 1880s significant permutations underwent minstrelsy Thus, 29 November 1894). Thus, by the late 19th century, minstrelsy was the most viable option for a professional per- professional a for option viable most the was minstrelsy century, 19th late the by Thus, 1894). November 29 1974:195). Toll (see career formance Billing themselves as “real” and “former slaves,” black minstrel acts as early as the 1850s and ’60s (Southern (Southern ’60s and the 1850s as early as acts minstrel black slaves,” “former and “real” as themselves Billing construction. theatrical white and authenticity black blackface of using Also conflation the furthered 1996:164) see 1980:1; (Sampson blacks” Southern of life plantation of imitation an of imitation “an presenting thus and the that idea the entrenching of the quagmire in caught performersblack these 2010:143), were Schroeder also performersblack talented the to turned Many Americans. African actual with synonymous was minstrel blackface performernewspaper negro black one unadulterated as “The lamented, because, editor precisely stage minstrel Parts. Great in Famous Been Have Who Some Actors. (“Negro house” theatre] [the from away patrons drives Performers,” Colored Various on Remarks Some with Editor, Negro a by Made Prediction Remarkable year across Europe and the United States. In the last quarter of the 19th century, over 100 mil- In the last quarter of the 19th century, year across Europe and the United States. to mea- lion people (Chappell 2012) entered these spaces of national and cultural comparison artists, showmen, scholars, businesses, sure their progress against that of other countries, it to its original goal of reproducing Southern black plantation life. The most formidable were life. of reproducing Southern black plantation it to its original goal American performers African of productions in which literally hundreds large-scale plantation Also and Seroff [2002] 2009). Abbott 2004; Webb black slaves (see played the part of Southern this form of min- authenticity, of white construction and black true to its original conflation legitimacy to both the art form a white presence in some manner to lend strelsy had to retain who backed predominantly It did so through white financiers blackness. and its definition of Webb America (1895; see Krasner 1997:22; such as Nate Salsbury’s Black black productions, which ran during the summer show, The and Seroff [2002] 2009:391–95). Abbott 2004:74–81; “costumed as they were in plantation Americans African featured 500 York, New in Brooklyn, and abandon as they did in and danc[ing] with as much zest and sing[ing] ‘befo’ de wah,’ days Toll Robert 1895). Times (New York owned by kind and appreciative masters” when those times, black America’ show left nowhere else for the plantation-centered ‘Black “the has argued that Negroes and It embodied the ultimate in white fantasies about Southern minstrel show to go. of the minstrel [...I]t symbolized the final culmination brought the living proof to Northerners. Old fair of the 20th century, at the nation’s first world’s six years later, Yet (1974:263). show” more but proved that the minstrel genre had one America Plantation not only replicated Black curriculum for 20th-century black Southerners to permutation to make: it would become the learn how to be a made-up version of themselves. cal construction. World’s fairs thrived on their ability to transport visitors to idealized worlds fairs thrived on World’s cal construction. of a nation; they were façades of stability and that envisioned the progress and future aspirations of usually less than a year. “run” dismantled after a imaginative possibility that would be swiftly William US president educative effects belied their ephemerality. the power of their However, [would] “buildings [would] disappear [...] their influence McKinley declared that though their Times (New York remain” 11. boundaries of a temporary city World’s Fairs World’s Where Ethnology Meets Minstrelsy These amalgams of a permutation to take place. A world’s fair was the best place for such and technology expos museums, the Olympics, today’s Disney’s Epcot Center, that such departures critic proclaimed, as one of the negro,” regard to the idiosyncrasies “Without (Nevin as an art form of minstrelsy “perversion” and “misapprehension” as a were regarded black of authentic a legitimate representation fulfill its claim to be For minstrelsy to 1867:611). form. participate in the art black performers to it had to allow actual culture, Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27September 2021

106 Amma Y. Ghartey-Tagoe Kootin of thenations Western hemisphere.” more thanfulfilledtheexpositiondirectors’goalsof “illustrat[ing]theprogressandcivilization lights weredevotedtoexhibitsofthelatesttechnologies, householdproducts, andart, andthey osophic, onthesurfacetheatric” (1901:87). Colorfulbuildingsoutlinedinthousandsofelectric in Buffalo, New York, athletes, andinventors. The 8millionvisitorswhoattendedthe1901Pan-AmericanExposition 14. 13. 12. The roleofMidwayconcessionairescannotbeunderestimated. They devoted$3million The Benefactor, the Architect, andthePrincipal Kingdom orthrillridessuchas Trip totheMoon, their “business,” asMaryBronsonHartt it wasahumanvillagesuchastheIndianCongressorzoological actssuchasBostock’s Animal lectively inorderto “amuse andatthesametimeinstruct visitors” (Ahrhart1901:42). Whether minstrelsy withethnologicallydefined African American performersandwhitedirectors. were deemedthebestdirectorstobringforththatknowledge. The stagewassetforaformof Ironically, threewhitemenwhowerenostrangerstoworld’sfairsortheentertainmentarena Concessions CommitteetoincludeOldPlantationinthePan-AmericanExpositionMidway. benediction” (125–26). planted blacks, whosepitifulhistoryisabittermemory, butwhosecheerfullifeisapassing eration [had]giventhe American peopleatasteformoreintimateknowledgeofthesetrans- There was “local interest,” asBarrywrote, because “school historiesandthenovels ofagen- most interestingandofferthebestinducementsforspectacularpresentment” (1901:125). were alreadymoreorlessfamiliarthroughstageexploitationandprintedfancy, thesearethe all thecuriouspeoplesof Western Hemisphere, asidefromtheIndiansof West, which in theattractionStreetsofMexico, were “essential toaPan-AmericanExposition, foramong Midway, fairgoerRichardBarryremarkedthatOldPlantation’sinhabitants, alongwiththose tion sodifferentfromour[i.e., white American] own” (Ahrhart1901:42). Inhisbookaboutthe with picturesquetypesofarchitectureandthecuriousinterestingevidencesciviliza- Old Plantationwascategorizedasanethnologicalexhibit, oneofseveral “foreign villages to beamoneymakerandwasappropriatelyconsideredconcession. As aplaceof Old Plantationoperatedasbothamusementandinstruction. As aplaceofamusement, ithad installed (136–37). center oftheexpositiongroundsandontostreetsMidway, whereOldPlantationwas racial progress” wentbeyondthewallsofDepartmentEthnologythatstoodnear exposition thename (1987:127).‘Rainbow City’” At theheartofexposition, “lessons about the selectionandplacementofsculpturalforms, and, aboveall, thecolorschemethatgave as henotes, “evolutionary ideasaboutraceandprogressdictatedthearrangementofbuildings, Darwinian ideasaboutracialhierarchy” thanthePan-AmericanExposition(1999:143). Indeed, “no world’sfairwasevermoreexplicitlyorganizedaroundethnologicallygroundedSocial of whitesuperiorityandbrown/blackinferiority. HistorianRobertRydell hasarguedthat Exposition,” “Midway at a Cost of $3,000,000: It Will Be the Greatest Amusement Feature Ever Attempted by an 153, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles. Exposition Annals: January-May 1901, Taylor Scrapbook, Box 12, Frederic William Taylor Papers, Collection “The Pan-American Exposition’s in All History Its Stage,” unknown source, 1 May 1900, Pan-American Erie County Historical Society [2001?]. The statistic is from “Pan-Am Trivia,” in This desiretohave “more intimateknowledge” ofSouthernblackspersuadedthe As partoftheMidway Also ondisplaywereSocialDarwinistlessons, fallaciesrootedinbiological Courier, 24 April 1901, vol. 9. 12 enteredaworldthatwas, inthewordsofEugene Wright, “at basephil- — the entertainmentsectionandmostpopularplaceinfair A Guide to the Pan-Am Grounds, a pamphlet put out by the Buffalo and 13

determinism instruction, 14 col- —

Old Plantation 107 - - - complete with the “James River complete with the 18 He constructed cabins that were not “mere “mere He constructed cabins that were not 19 helped Dundy defeat his competition, which included his competition, helped Dundy defeat 16 Record of Minutes of Concessions Committee Pan American Exposition: From March March From Exposition: American Pan Committee Concessions of Minutes of Record The “dignity” of Thompson’s mansion design framed the visitor’s jour Thompson’s mansion of “dignity” The 17 1901c:18). The Concessions Committee granted Dundy the Old Plantation Concessions Committee granted Dundy The 1901c:18). JAI Reportedly “the most monied man on the Midway” (Barry 1901:144), Dundy 1901:144), (Barry monied man on the Midway” “the most Reportedly 15

:233, 235, Frederic William Taylor Papers, Charles E. Young Research Library, Library, Research Young E. Charles Papers, Taylor William Frederic 235, 1900:233, 2nd, May to 1899 25th, Angeles. Los California, of University Wah.” De Befo’ Plantation “Old Feature.” Delightful Most “Plantation Here.” Negroes “Midway See also “Plantation Days of Old South: ‘Skip’ Dundy of Omaha Has Set Men to Work on His Pan-American Pan-American His on Work to Men Set Has Omaha of Dundy ‘Skip’ South: Old of Days “Plantation also See 9. vol. 1900, June 9 clipping, unidentified Concession,” 1900, EntryJanuary 17 for Elmer “Skip” Dundy could meet both of these requirements. The wealthy son of a judge wealthy son of a The requirements. meet both of these Dundy could “Skip” Elmer But, as Milton Epstein writes of Dundy, he “could do more than just raise money and keep “could do he as Milton Epstein writes of Dundy, But, and electrician born in Ohio and raised in Nashville a trained architect Thompson, Frederic may have drawn upon his experience of grow- Thompson In the case of Old Plantation, show places, but [...] the real article built of logs with stick chimneys built out of one end and but [...] the real article built show places, thereunder raised from the ground on posts so that the pigs and chickens [could] find shelter lazily wend[ing] its way between two green banks.” concession based on his financial capabilities. His “proposition being 2% better than the [other “proposition His his financial capabilities. concession based on at least $10,000 in the construc- “to invest and his promise gross receipts” applications] on the the concession” tion and equipment of financed at least half a dozen attractions, including novelty acts such as Bonner, the educated the educated acts such as Bonner, including novelty a dozen attractions, financed at least half simulation rides such as Aeriocycle; and illusionary ride called the horse; a Ferris wheel–type sensation on “the most startling spectacular as which was regarded to the Moon (146), Trip the ( the Midway” 17. 18. 19. 15. 16. from Omaha, Nebraska, Dundy knew what world’s fairs audiences wanted after successfully par wanted after successfully fairs audiences knew what world’s Dundy Nebraska, from Omaha, and International Exposition in 1898 (Epstein Trans-Mississippi ticipating in his hometown’s 1993:6–7). wrote at the time, was “to study the whims of the public and to give it what it wants.” Not only Not only it what it wants.” public and to give study the whims of the “to was time, wrote at the “sci- “beautiful,” whether it was a point to it,” “novelty with have to provide did a concessionaire even and thousands, prepared to put his “be he also had to but novelty,” “ingenious or entific,” (Hartt 1901:1097). the investment” into of thousands, his hundreds ney to the South, serving as a proxy for absent white slaveholders and the portal through which serving as a proxy for absent white slaveholders and the portal ney to the South, cheerful scenes of slavery behind the big house. the visitor was to make his/her way to the “as far as where slavery a pretty picture (197), Thompson’s plantation setting literally made extend[ed] a cotton field in full bloom” the eye [could] reach, E.W. McConnell, a rival concessionaire who owned eight Midway attractions (Barry 1901:146). who owned eight Midway attractions a rival concessionaire McConnell, E.W. had a nose for a winning combination and the good sense Dundy He could judge talent. books. forged a formi- Dundy Indeed, (1993:5). unlikely” to forge a partnership when it seemed most two other men to create Old Plantation: Frederic dable partnership when he teamed up with Thompson and Fred McClellan. (Epstein had met Dundy two years earlier at the 1898 Omaha exposition (Groff 1915:134), a carnival create “To He had a knack for ingenuity that placed him in a class of his own. 1993:6). “a showman may use other means than ballyhoos [...] bands, Thompson told his peers, spirit,” designs transported visi- His (1908:384–85). I use architecture” and free circuses. shows, freaks, tors to other worlds. plantation He erected an impressive the South. ing up in Nashville to transport visitors to effectively portraying the South in an honor 1), mansion as the concession’s entrance (fig. the edifice One enthralled visitor described 2009:188). able and majestic light (Ghartey-Tagoe green win- “old time Southern homestead of colonial architecture with the white walls, as an lacking in the whole typifying the dignity which was never dow shades and stately colonnades, the Southern home.” Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27September 2021

108 Amma Y. Ghartey-Tagoe Kootin South. with “special qualificationsassingersandbanjoplayers” tohelppopulatetypicalscenesofthe would cometotheworld’sfair. him theperfectcandidatetodirectOldPlantationformore thaneightmillionvisitorswho amusement placesinthecountry” (20). McClellan’s extensiveperformanceexperiencemade 23. 22. 21. 20. Strong™, Rochester, New York) of the Brian Sutton-Smith Library and Archive of Play™ at The of American Industries, Special Rochester Edition 1901; courtesy Plantation and “principal” of the minstrel school. (From Figure 2. Fred director McClellan, the performance of Old Dundy spentayearpreparingfortheattractionbycarefullyselecting Southernblacks “Old Plantation Befo’ De Wah.” “Plantation Most Delightful Feature.” “Plantation Most Delightful Feature.” “Plantation Days of Old South.” 23 Newspapersreportedthathehad “the reputationofnot toleratinganythingshiftless Journal Midway.” from thenoiseanddinof ful entertainmentremoved offered visitors “a placeofrest- lazy enjoyment,” OldPlantation that “breathe[d] comfortand burden oftheday.” from thenoontideheatand Thompson’s design. added tothe “realistic effect” of formers “singing attheirwork” tones” oftheover150blackper of thebestandmostpopular popular theaterinBuffalo, one Pitou andhad “conducted Shea’s theatre luminariesas Augustus est. Hehadworkedwithsuch McClellan wouldshinebright- ing newones,” thenameofFred ideas andareconstantlyinvent- men whomakethemostofold smile tothefaceofmillions[,] whose foresighthasbroughta [Midway] managers[...]men the “aggregation ofbrilliant article predictedthatoutof Industries ( of American cle intheJournal the questionposedinanarti- vided byFredMcClellan?” was somewhere whichwaspro- enjoyed someentertainment Old Plantation. “Who hasnot formance collaboratorforthe McClellan theperfectper director. Dundyhadfoundin McClellan wasthetheatre architect ofillusion, Fred preneur and Thompson the While Dundywastheentre- 21 JAI The “low mono- The“low 1901a:20). The 20 22 As aspace - - Old Plantation 109

28 27 1901b:19); that Thompson’s architecture would Thompson’s 1901b:19); that JAI and that “in this production,” McClellan had “wrought “wrought McClellan had “in this production,” and that 26 In the absence of archival evidence, we cannot be sure if we cannot be of archival evidence, In the absence Dundy’s contract with the exposition stipulated that he had stipulated that with the exposition Dundy’s contract 25 24

“Plantation Days of Old South.” Old of Days “Plantation Concessions Pan-American of “Briefs 1900, March 20 Dundy, S. Elmer with Plantation 15, Old No. Contract Research Young E. Charles 153, Collection Papers, Taylor William Frederic 7, Folder 11, 25, Box Contracts,” Angeles. Los California, of University Library, Feature.” Delightful Most “Plantation Feature.” Delightful Most “Plantation Feature.” Delightful Most “Plantation Old.” Years 96 “Slave A new school has been started in Charleston, the graduates of which are designed as fea- the graduates of which are designed A new school has been started in Charleston, of the school The principal Pan-American Midway. on the “the Old Plantation” tures of They sizes and shades of black. of all ages, is Fred McClellan and his pupils are negroes rehearsing camp-meeting songs and preparing to buck dancing, are learning cakewalks, at play. reproduce the Southern negro at work and Another party of Midway folk arrived at the Exposition grounds yesterday, a delega- the Exposition grounds yesterday, Another party of Midway folk arrived at The negroes have never been north of the Mason tion of nearly 100 Southern negroes. For a month they have been rehearsing songs, and are an interesting lot. and Dixon line, who under the direction of Fred McClellan, dances and plantation melodies at Nashville engaged them. Publicity for the exposition never questioned if Dundy’s ensemble was really comprised of never questioned if Dundy’s ensemble Publicity for the exposition It should be noted that the two newspaper articles differ in their identification of the location of It should be noted that the two newspaper Charleston as April article reports The in the South. although both locations were the school, The possibility of two schools the location while the May article states that it was in Nashville. being operated simultaneously cannot be ruled out. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. The Report of a Minstrel School The Report of a Minstrel School one of Buffalo’s both times in the Courier, of McClellan’s school appeared only twice, Word a month before the Old Plantation April 1901, was on 11 The first mention main newspapers. attraction opened at the Pan-American Exposition: or degraded about him” and, accordingly, selected the participants of Old Plantation “from the “from of Old Plantation the participants selected accordingly, and, about him” or degraded of Southern darkies.” best classes to “employ as performers at least fifty (50) genuine negroes, of whom at least twenty (20) shall at least twenty (20) of whom negroes, least fifty (50) genuine as performers at “employ to lived in of whom shall have all (10) children, at least ten at least twenty (20) women, be men, states all their lives.” the Southern Although the second newspaper article, which was printed on 12 May 1901, did not specifically which was printed on 12 May 1901, Although the second newspaper article, McClellan as a director who trained the Old Plantation it still positioned “school,” mention a performers: out of the more than 150 Old Plantation ensemble members all were actually from the South. from the South. members all were actually ensemble more than 150 Old Plantation out of the through census records that they and we can verify mentioned by name, Some performers were and the town of Dublin. including DeKalb County in Georgia, came from various places for and McClellan had Thompson, it emphasized the plans Dundy, Instead, Southern blacks. no money to make this attrac- “spared everyone that Dundy had reminding Old Plantation, ( Life as possible” tion as true to Southern entertainment”; “a place of restful offer out features which [would] appeal to all” (1901a:20). “No one should miss an attraction which “No (1901a:20). appeal to all” out features which [would] newspaper a Buffalo Soon thereafter, an article declared (20). is fathered by Fred McClellan,” of a principal when he created a that McClellan had also taken on the role informed the public performers of Old Plantation. for the “new school” Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27September 2021

110 Amma Y. Ghartey-Tagoe Kootin number ofbuckandwingdancers, andahostofclever peopleinspecialtyacts.” scenes, andaverylaughablecake-walk, withwhichtheshowconcludes... Ther [sic]arealsoa Plantation publicitypromised1901fairgoers: “a greatvarietyofmusic, dancing, camp- “whose impersonationofthedarkeyashereallyis,” asanewspaperdeclared, “[has] neverbeen this “oldest coloredtroupe” wereCharlesHoward andBilly Williams, whitemen inblackface the negrointheirhomelyelement” ( the blackfaceminstrel. Though OldPlantationwassupposedtobetheopportunity “study his theatricalbackgroundandknowledgeofwhatwouldbemostpalatabletoawhiteaudience: and definitelynopersonalexperienceofbeingaslave, hiscurriculumcouldonlydrawupon duce theSouthernnegroatworkandplay.” SinceMcClellanhadnoknowntiestotheSouth pal,” suggestingthathewastheonewhocoulddesignpropercurriculumwould “repro - order toeffectasuccessfulOldPlantation. The firstarticledesignatedMcClellanasthe “princi- school’s creationimpliesthattherewerecertainlessonsSouthern African Americans neededin edly livedinoldentimes. that ofthepast, therewouldhavebeennoneedforaschooltoteachblackshowtheysuppos- This publicitypresentsacuriousconundrum:ifthe “South oftoday” wasnotsodifferentfrom United Statesnegroesorothersinimitationofsuchnegroes.” duce scenesoflifetypicalplantationinthesouthernstates, ortogiveentertainmentsof Dundy’s contractthatitwouldnot “grant toanyotherconcessionaireaconcessionrepro- 37. 36. 35. 34. 33. 32. 31. 30. mately 70blackandwhiteperformers, shows suchasBlack so greatlydifferentfromtheSouthofoldentimes,” rhetoricthatwasusedinotherplantation happy despitehisbondage.” Finally, thefourthgoalwastoshow “the Southoftoday[as]not of slaverywhenthedarkeytoiledandsangincottonfield, thecornpatchorcanebrake, tle knownasthoseofsomefarforeigncountry.” Third, theconcessionwastoshow “the days homes, theirindustries, theiramusementsandcustoms,” whichthearticleassertedwere “as lit- the Northerner;specificallySoutherners’ “mannerofliving, theirmeansofsubsistence, their all themesoftheexposition. Second, theconcessionwastorevealmysteriesofSouth played “to capacityof[Buffalo’s]Lyceum Theater ateachperformance.” 1894, Whalen andMartell’spopulartouringplantationproduction, TheSouthBefore the War, direct competitionwiththegenuine. with “genuine southerndarkies.” glimpse ofthesunnySouth,” wheretheywouldhaveauniqueopportunitytoseeandinteract in variousBuffalonewspapersinformedthepublicthatOldPlantationwouldgive “a veritable cession. Nonetheless, ifweassumethatthetwoarticlesaboutminstrelschoolweretrue, thenthe The Buffalotheatricalscene, ofwhichMcClellanwasapart, knewthat “imitation” well. As Ihaverecountedelsewhere(Ghartey-Tagoe 2009:177–82), afull-fledgedpublicityblitz “At the Theatres...Notes,” 6 December. “At the Theatres...Notes,” “At the Theaters...Notes,” but transforming the city into a “home”troupes in the mid-to-late 19th century for minstrelsy (2001:104). of Christy’s Minstrels “would permeate Buffalo society” not only opening the door for more touring minstrel (see Anderson 2010:103). As Virginia Anderson recounts in her chronology of Buffalo theatre, the performances As it has been noted, Buffalo was where the famous blackface troupe Christy’s Minstrels in 1842 got its start Contract No. 15. Negro“Wild Chants and Dances.” “Old Plantation Befo’ De Wah.” “Old Plantation Befo’ De Wah.” 31 First, OldPlantationwastobe “interesting andinstructive,” inkeepingwiththeover America Courier, 6 December 1894. Courier, 13 December 1894. 32 (seeGhartey-Tagoe 2009:213;Rydell 1987:147;Silber1993:124). 30 A Buffalo A JAI 36 theshowfeaturedexactkindofperformancesOld 1901b:18), theConcessionsCommitteeaffirmedin News article statedthefourmaingoalsofcon- 33 Thus, the “imitation” stoodin 35 Featuringapproxi- 37 Headlining meeting 34 In - Old Plantation 111

—

literal bodies of then the mission 39 from “old Uncles and from 40 Genuine Southern Darkey —

and, I would argue, “blackness” argue, I would and, —

, 9 December 1894. 1894. 9 December Courier, 41 For the “imitation” to have bested the genuine in this earlier production meant that in this earlier production bested the genuine to have “imitation” For the 38

“Old Plantation Befo’ De Wah.” De Befo’ Plantation “Old Feature.” Delightful Most “Plantation South.” Old of Days “Plantation Wah.” De Befo’ Plantation “Old If Eric Lott’s assertion is correct that “black performance” that assertion is correct If Eric Lott’s place in those rehearsals at accounts of what might have taken In the absence of published The South today is not so greatly different from the South of olden times. In many sec- In many from the South of olden times. The South today is not so greatly different darkey still The methods and modes of living prevail. tions the same primitive customs, knowing naught of thinking not of the morrow, lives in the same happy-go-lucky fashion, in the little sphere bounded by the limits of the dwelling the great busy world about him, father’s father; toiling often for the descendants where dwelt his father and his horizon, by his of those who years ago held his forefathers in bondage and living the very life led bonded forefathers. If Old Planation aimed to portray “southern negro life befo’ de wah’,” If Old Planation aimed to portray of the school would have been to offer one degree: the “GSDD” degree: the of the school would have been to offer one They had to Americans was not enough. African were The fact that the performers Degree. The 1901. which none of them were by slave, present an image of the Southern plantation about American performers were all free people with varying degrees of knowledge African sizes and shades of black,” “pupils [...] of all ages, With actual slave life. Buffalo audiences may have already had a palate for the image of blackness propagated through propagated through the image of blackness had a palate for may have already Buffalo audiences act. the minstrel bodies” installed in black not some precious essence “‘performative,’ invention, a cultural is a process through which school would be the that McClellan’s then it would appear (1993:39), act) in the the minstrel install that precious essence (i.e., white director could the minstrel school functioned as a For potential audiences, performers. Old Plantation’s black had given their stamp of approval: Dundy and McClellan of blackness. site of white certification In being to put on a good show. been chosen and they had been trained the best of the best had asked to see the work of the white the audience was McClellan played, told of the central role define blackness and teach it the act; to acknowledge that whites could concessionaires behind themselves accordingly. that blacks could learn how to present to blacks; and to appreciate we are put in the same its existence, and with no concrete evidence even of the minstrel school, newspaper reports: we must 1901 audience member who read those position as the potential like. imagine what the process might have looked Lesson One: Live in a “Happy-Go-Lucky Fashion” Fashion” “Happy-Go-Lucky in a Lesson One: Live “Theatrical,” 38. “Theatrical,” 39. 40. 41. 42. The Minstrel School Curriculum The Minstrel School Imagining Rehearsals McClellan’s school to conjure in your imagination I entreat the reader to allow the report of theatrical My process is to draw upon my personal how his lessons might have taken place. conjecture about the minstrel school’s curriculum experience of what rehearsals can entail and the Old Plantation publicity Dundy’s contract stipulations, from the two newspaper accounts, and visitor accounts of their experiences. claims, excelled.” Aunties” (Ahrhart 1901:43) to children whom the publicity called “pickaninnies,” certain lessons “pickaninnies,” (Ahrhart 1901:43) to children whom the publicity called Aunties” “real [...] old company on the same page of being would have been necessary to get the entire time darkies.” Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27September 2021

112 Amma Y. Ghartey-Tagoe Kootin its toils, itsmortificationsandhardships, butespeciallyitsjoys”? get themto “illustrate beforetheeyesofvisitorsplantationlifeinSouth War, picking was “authentic” enough? What werethepromptsMcClellangavetohisperformers field. Didheuseformerslavesorsharecroppersasteachingassistantstomakesurethecotton potential audiences. Onewondersiftheprincipalrehearsedstudentsinanearbycotton it wouldseemthatpartoftherehearsalhavefocusedonperfectingcatchymelodiesfor in frontofthecabin”? pany to “Play agameofcrapsortwoonthegrounds”?Or, totheoldermen, “Just sitandrelax that wouldmostappealtoaudiences?DidMcClellaninstructthelittlechildrenofcom- strate whattheyreallydidintheirhomelivesandthensimplyselecttweaktheactivities enoughforthedirectorofminstrelschool?Didhehavehisstudentsdemon- be yourself” segregated eatingrooms(OmahaDailyBee1901:2). would sleepinorwhotheirbunkmatesmightbeexplaintothemtheyhaveeat tions onhowtheywouldlivethecompound piano prodigyBlind Tom andtheFiskJubileeSingerssuggeststhatDundy andMcClellan The factthatDundywouldtrytosecurepopular African American musicaltalentssuchasthe these activitiesgivenhisextensivebackgroundofperforming on stageatShea’sMusicHall. work [adding]totherealisticeffect,” engaged inpickingthefluffybloom” and “thelowmonotonesofthenegroessingingattheir age.” Ifobserving cottonpickingmeantseeingthecombinationof “the darkiesindustriously toiled andsanginthecottonfield, thecornpatchorcanebrake, happydespitehisbond- involved pickingcottoninamannerthatwouldshow “the daysofslaverywhenthedarkey darkey The studentshadtolearntheactualperformancesthatconstitutedimageofgenuine Lesson Two: Picking Cotton essential tostudentsforachievingtheirGSDDs. the hardestaspecttocontrol, andthatwouldhavemadelessonstwothreemuchmore come feelingself-conscious. The improvisationalqualitiesofeverydaylife-nessmayhavebeen an audience, puttingtheminsmallgroupstoperformforeachothersothattheycouldover would literallyhouseandfeedthem. been aneasythingtodirect;theperformerswouldbelivingonare-createdsitewhereDundy to lifewasforafullstomachandcomfortableplacesleep” ( look liketheywerelivinglifewithoutacareintheworld, asif “the onlythoughtthenegrogave black slaves(Barry1901:125), OldPlantation’sstudent-actorswouldhavehadtolearnhow Based onpublicityandvisitors’repeatedreferencestothe “cheerful life” ledbyantebellum 47. 46. 45. 44. 43. buck dancing, andcamp-meetingsongs. Reproducing theSouthernnegro “at play” involved avarietyofentertainments:cakewalks, Lesson Three: SingingandDancing bloom,fluffy Tannie.” John.” Perhaps: “Hum alittlelouder, Henrietta.” Oreven: “Smile alittlewhenyoupickthe The actorsofOldPlantationalsohadtoperformeverydayliving. Was thedirection “Just “Plantation Most Delightful Feature.” “Plantation Days of Old South.” “Plantation Most Delightful Feature.” ‘Cullud Gemmen.” See (1901:156) for an image of Barry children playing a dice game and (157) for a photograph titled “Three Contract No. 15. — the reproductionsof “Southern negroatworkandplay.” The “at work” aspect 44 PerhapsMcClellantaughthispupilshowtoactnaturallyinfrontof 43 45 Partofthislessonmighthavebeentogivetheminstruc- aspublicityanticipatedthisscenewouldbeplayed, then 47 McClellanmayhaveexcelledinhisdirectionof — to tellthemwhichre-createdcabinthey JAI 46 “Bend downalittlelower, 1901b:18). This wouldhave - Old Plantation 113 A key feature of that Or as another news- 50 49 Publicity described a theatre within Old Publicity described a theatre within Old 48 1901b:18). JAI Old Plantation.” Old —

Also, see “Plantation Most Delightful Feature.” To date, I have found no evidence to confirm if Dundy was suc- was Dundy if confirm to evidence no found have I date, To Feature.” Delightful Most “Plantation see Also, acts. these acquiring in cessful Feature.” Delightful Most “Plantation $3,000,000 of Cost a at “Midway Plantation where “the evolution of the negro [would] be shown, from the day of weird songs “the evolution of the negro [would] be shown, Plantation where a bunch of ragtime songs.” of slavery days to the latest black swell with 48. 49. 50. were trying to deliver top-notch acts ( Figure 3. McClellan’s purported graduates of the minstrel school in the Old Plantation attraction. “A Cake Cake “A attraction. Plantation Old the in school minstrel the of purported graduates McClellan’s 3. Figure unknown; (Photographer Stereograph. 1901. Exposition.” Pan-American Plantation, Old the on Walk collection) private www.earlypics.com, Pictures, courtesyEarly of “evolution” would be the cakewalk, the high-stepping dance created by African Americans that African the high-stepping dance created by would be the cakewalk, “evolution” polyrhythmic African music through its traits of syncopation or suspended beat, “roots in had Americans African (Baldwin 1981:211). and responsoriality” improvisation, signifying, structure, reinvigorated the “genuinely black cultural product” who performed this dance ensured that a the dance became an expected staple of plantation and late-19th-century minstrel act (211), If McClellan’s students could master the 2004). productions and other popular stage acts (Webb in no time. they would surely get their GSDDs cakewalk, paper stated: “In the theater is shown the old slave and the new ‘coon.’” “In the theater is shown the old slave and the new paper stated: Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27September 2021

114 Amma Y. Ghartey-Tagoe Kootin “ben[ding] lowerandstepp[ing]higherastheexitwasmade.” Plantation reenactors, who “were delightedandredoubledtheirenergiesinthedance” The audience’sgrowingapplausehadadirecteffectontheperformanceeffortsofOld parade ofMidwayacts. Two newspaperarticlescapturethescene: the cakewalkbeforeanaudienceof8,000, theminstrelschoolgraduatesstolelimelightina at thefairgrounds, newspaperscelebratedtheauthenticityofblackperformers. Dancing would puttoshamethegyrationsofaNorthernpastrywalker” paring themtotheirNortherncounterparts. Somenotedthattheperformershad “steps that Southern blackperson. Viewers declaredtheauthenticityof theseSouthernperformersbycom- responding totheauthenticnatureofminstrelactratherthana isms”? What preciselywas “authentic” fromtheaudience’spointofview? They mayhavebeen laude as “real Southernnegroes.” The outcomeofthisminstrelschoolwasthatitsgraduatesshouldhavegraduatedsummacum “They Camein True EthiopianStyle” Graduation Day 56. 55. 54. 53. 52. 51. blacks were. they stillwalkedawayfromtheperformancespraisinghow “genuine” and “real” theSouthern and directorsbehindtheacttheyknewthatblackperformers hadbeenrehearsed, yet sive reportageofOldPlantation, fairgoersknewthatthree whitemenwerethemasterminds attraction. That ispartoftheconundrumthis manufacturedauthenticity. Basedontheexten- the performershadattendedaminstrelschoolandthatMcClellan andDundyhadcreatedthe came intrueEthiopianstyle” isintriguinginlightofthe factthatithadbeenmadeknown tic thanthe “machine-made coon” andthatnoone “doubted therealityofnegroes, forthey picture ofrealSouthernlife” (Barry1901:126). stage” becausehe “has moreoftherealgingergenuineenjoymentandgivescorrectlya performer “is amorevaluableacquisitionthanthesomewhatmachine-madecoonofvariety from Dundy’sOldPlantationcameintosight. which wasdiscoursingafewbarsof “A Hot Time intheOld Town,” whenthepeople The merrynotesofrealSouthernnegroes’laughterroseabovethestrainsband, How didNorthernviewersknowwhatwas “true Ethiopianstyle” or “genuine” “negro- The factthattheaudiencecouldreceivethesepubliclytrained performersasmoreauthen- “Pastry walker” “Pastry is perhaps performer; a term for a cakewalk Shamed.” Cakewalkers “Stadium Opened”; “Pastry Shamed.” Cakewalkers “Pastry Shamed.” Cakewalkers 16 May 1901, vol 10. “Stadium Opened. Exposition Workmen and Midway Folk Join in the Sports. 8,000 Persons Look On.” “Pastry Shamed.” Cakewalkers “Pastry Shamed,” Cakewalkers negroisms andidiosyncrasiesofthecoloredman’snationalsport. stepping highandwitharchedbodies. Itwasagenuinenegrocake-walkwithallthe other shows, doubtedtherealityofnegroes, fortheycameintrueEthiopianstyle, Not apersoninthewholeassemblage, exceptperchanceastrayforeignerofonethe ing, pirouetting. laughing andcheering. [...]Outonthefieldtheywent, toes-tapping, side-stepping, bow- garb anddancingcakewalkingwithanabandongracethatbroughtthecrowdup bucks, 25wenchesfromtheOldPlantation, pairedcouplebycouple, cladingrotesque Out ontothearena, likeashowerofseedsfromburstingmelon, spread50negroes. 25 53

Courier, 16 May 1901, vol. 10. 51 Upontheirperformancedebutfourdaysafterarrival 52

56 andthattheSouthernblack 54

— Express,

Old Plantation 115 direction emphasis on emphasis on - while a min Thus, 57 (Marvin 1903), one of the only films to document this (Marvin 1903), wrote, “but underneath the skin they are “but underneath wrote, Buffalo Express

Descriptive adjectives such as “real,” “genuine,” and “true” routinely peppered responses to responses peppered routinely “true” and “genuine,” “real,” adjectives such as Descriptive In the film, a male baton twirler, clad in a lighter-shaded suit (which appears white in the suit (which clad in a lighter-shaded a male baton twirler, In the film, the Old Plantation performers throughout the seven-month fair. The attraction’s The attraction’s fair. throughout the seven-month performers the Old Plantation ethnology succeeded in positioning Southern blacks as foreigners and audience members as as foreigners and audience Southern blacks succeeded in positioning ethnology But work and at play.” Southern negro at “the upon to study anthropology called students of even the spectacle, the inauthenticity of remind fairgoers of would occasionally newspapers pol- are spruced up and of Old Plantation “The inhabitants its success. as they acknowledged the days,” ished since reconstruction fought.” Lincoln championed and for whom Grant the same negroes that strel school could be taken as a necessity for a good show, prolonged observation would remind taken as a necessity for a good show, strel school could be Even so, McClellan’s direction. “underneath” time darkey was still there fairgoers that the old could teach Southern blacks demonstrated that a white Northerner Old Plantation effectively of audience admiration of themselves that would reap the reward how to perform a version and appreciation. “Old 57. “Old Plantation.” Ballyhoo Cake Walk Ballyhoo Walk Cake and black authenticity. American the was created by (Baldwin 1981:214), popular dance of the turn of the 20th century Fair. World’s of several short clips made of the Mutoscope and Biograph Company as one to enter the the ballyhoo was supposed to entice visitors Filmed just in front of Old Plantation, The film was inside the pillared mansion’s doors. attraction by giving them a glimpse of what that brought the 8,000 audience members to their affords us a glimpse of the very dance style feet at the debut of the Old Plantation performers. effortlessly maneuvering the baton moves forward toward the camera, black-and-white film), then down- Upward and time to a rhythmic song. around his body as his marching feet keep of couples who prance forward on the same beat. ward the baton twirls as he leads a procession prance- American women holding the fronts of their skirts away from their bodies African who wear They smile toward their male partners, march as they lean back at various angles. suspends a swooping-bowing movement momentarily Suddenly, suits and hats and hold canes. torsos downward to their left in a brief curtsy and con- The ladies sweep their the procession. away from their partners while the gentlemen remove leaning tinue moving in an arc back up, Never vary- the camera at the end of the sweeping beat. one turning directly to face their hats, the ladies come out of their hats to their heads, the men return their ing from the rhythm, to their forward prance as more couples pass in and the couples return leaned-back postures, Some of the men twirl while unique style of movement. Each dancer has a front of the camera. and other prance-march backward with a slight lean, some ladies prance-marching forward, male-female couples pass in front of the camera, Eleven performers kick their knees up high. and the procession is concluded by two tall, some even smiling in acknowledgment toward it, then The film runs for less than a minute, high-kicking men clad in what looks like pajamas. abruptly goes to black. Black Agency Black there is usually a moment when the director and the choreographer In theatrical productions, When that of the performance and its techniques. must entrust performers with the execution Dundy may have While McClellan and the performance can take on a life of its own. happens, or give instructions about which songs to sing, been able to teach the moves of the cakewalk there indeed something Was of the song or dance? were they as capable in teaching the quality act that went beyond McClellan’s instructions? extra that these performers brought to their reveals this tension between white One of three extant short films of Old Plantation Extra Credit Extra Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27September 2021

116 Amma Y. Ghartey-Tagoe Kootin 58. of the Library(1903). (Courtesy of Congress) Figure 4a. Still shots (1–12) captured by the author from film the Arthur Marvin both seemtoplaytheroleofa directorandIwillrefertothemassuch. about thedynamicsofconflation ofblackauthenticityandwhitetheatricaldirection. They most ofthefilm. Observingtheiractionsduringtheprocession mayprovidetellinginformation 9 5 1 and Martell’s claim the actual director) for one of the most prominent black talents in these types of shows, as the musical director served (and some sources It was not unusual for plantation productions in the 1890s to have black directors. For example, Billy McClain, The South Before the War (Webb 2004:74, 76). 10 6 2 Black America (1895), and had previously been assistant stage manager for Whalen 11 7 3 are inthebackgroundthroughout men, oneblackandwhite, who onscreen a morepertinentactionhappening former dancesareenoughtoeclipse and thefinessewithwhicheachper on themen(andsomeofwomen), the variationsoflargeandsmallhats Library of Congress) of the film. (Courtesy the Arthur Marvin (1903) still image taken by author from in the background. passes. White director (with hat) stands gestures with right hand as baton twirler Figure 5. Black director (foreground) The flowingdressesofthewomen, — the interplaybetweentwo 58 Ballyhoo Cake WalkBallyhoo 8 4 12 Ballyhoo Cake WalkBallyhoo - Old Plantation 117 Ballyhoo Cake Walk Ballyhoo Walk Cake 16 24 20 15 19 23 Ballyhoo Ballyhoo 18 22 14 (1903) still image taken by by taken image still (1903)

The black director makes his way 17 13 21 downstage on a diagonal, in line with downstage on a diagonal, direc- as the white the baton twirler, tor makes his way upstage toward the entrance of the performers just off The black man’s attention is screen. 4a, clearly on the baton twirler (fig. As the twirler crosses in stills 1–5). the black man’s front of the camera, right hand comes up as if gesturing he looks like moment, For a 5). still 6 & fig. 4a, to the twirler to follow a certain footpath (fig. but this is he too is prance-marching alongside the baton twirler as they both exit off camera, the white director intently watches the procession Simultaneously, still 7). 4a, uncertain (fig. He takes a few steps stills 7–10). 4a, downstage (fig. and begins to move that crosses the camera, moves forward more and then at the moment of the first sweeping movement, halts, forward, 6) and still 19 & fig. 4b, clearly pointing with his right hand (fig. stills 16–18), 4b, quickly (fig. the As soon as he speaks, speaking as if telling the performers to move quickly past the camera. Figure 4b. Still shots (13–24) captured by the author from the Arthur Marvin Arthur the film from author the by captured (13–24) shots Still 4b. Figure (1903). (Courtesy of the Library of Congress) of (Courtesy(1903). Library the of Cakewalk Marvin Arthur the film. from author Congress) of (CourtesyLibrary the of Figure 6. White director (in hat, near near hat, (in director White 6. Figure dancers as hand right with gestures center) suspended-bows. their complete Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27September 2021

118 Amma Y. Ghartey-Tagoe Kootin cess informtheoutcome? really happeningintheperformances atOldPlantation. To whatextentdidtherehearsalpro- thing theperformersbroughtto thetable? This filmraisesaseriesofquestionsabout whatwas more “authentic” representation ofblackpeople? Was thisadirector’s pointofvieworsome- school studentsdirectedtobe individuals intheirperformancequalitiesordertopresent a in thesensethattheydonotconformtoonlyonemodeofperformance. Were theminstrel ity totheseperformers. Notnaturalinthesensethat danceisinherentinthem, butnatural former broughttotheact. There doesseemtobe anatural(forlackofbetterword)sensibil- camera. Yet juxtaposedwiththisdirectionisthe individuality anduniquenessthateachper evidence thatdirectionofthisblacktroupehappenedinpublic view, evenifitwasjustforthe presence compellinginconsideringtherehearsedaspectofOld Plantation. This filmisclear they weredirectingjustforthiscamerashootordidinall ballyhoos. ButIfindtheirdual still 36). era asthelasttwopajama-cladmenpassbyandarealmostoff camerabeforeblackout(fig. 4c, era (fig. 4c, stills32–35), leavingtheblack directorstandingdownstagecentertowardthecam- begun walkingdiagonallyupstagelefttoexitwherethecouplesentered, disappearingoffcam- couple astheypass(fig. 4c, stills25–35). Astheblackdirectorwatches, thewhitedirectorhas hand towardonecouple(fig. 4b, still24)andthenstoppingdownstagecentertowatcheach are pausingtodotheirsweepingbowmovement, thistimeobviouslygesturingwithhisright The blackdirectorre-entersfromoffcamera(fig. 4b, still23), stoppingbehindthecoupleswho (fig. 4b, stills20–22), andthewhitedirectorstopsgesturingspeakingtoperformers. couples, whoaresuspendedintheirsweepingmovement, begintoprance-marchforwardagain of the Library(1903). (Courtesy of Congress) Figure 4c. Still shots (25–36) captured by the author fromCake Walk film Ballyhoo the Arthur Marvin 29 25 33 We donotknowwhatthesetwodirectorssaidtotheperformers, whotheywere, orwhether 26 30 34 27 35 31 28 36 32 - Old Plantation 119 - - - When 62 1907:6). 1907:6). From the reports of a minstrel 63 Laughing Ben knew how to entice Laughing Ben knew 61 Elsewhere, I have examined the mean- I have Elsewhere, 60 His claim to fame was his loud and extraordinarily long laugh, which his loud and extraordinarily long laugh, His claim to fame was 59 , 27 July 1901, vol. 15. vol. 1901, July 27 , Advertiser Commercial (Dublin, GA), 23 May 1901:5. Oconee Regional Library, Dublin, Georgia. Dublin, Library, Regional Oconee 1901:5. May 23 GA), (Dublin,

1906). In some records, Fred McClellan is listed as the manager of Luna Park, but I have not been able to able to been not have I but Park, Luna of manager the as listed is McClellan Fred records, some In 1906).

“Midway Negroes Here.” Negroes “Midway Ben,” Uncle “Old Here.” Negroes “Midway Swing”; Full in “Midway important most the of one to partner led illusion amusement spectacular for penchant - Thompson’s and Dundy popular the created they generation,” their of Barnums P.T. “[the] Nicknamed century. 20th early the of ships Inter- (Chicago Exposition Pan-American the of years five within Island Coney at Park Luna center amusement Ocean Times partner fair (Washington world’s Buffalo the as same the is McClellan this that confirm Courier-Dispatch Old Plantation performers might have introduced “authentic possibilities,” as Barbara Webb Webb as Barbara “authentic possibilities,” have introduced performers might Old Plantation Robert Townsend may have been on to something when he created an infomercial for a may have been on to something when he created an infomercial for Townsend Robert his audience members to pay him five cents for his laughs, five more cents just to stop, and then five more cents just to stop, to pay him five cents for his laughs, his audience members long laugh. deserved ten cents if he’d laughed a particularly slyly announce that he (2004) argues about other large-scale plantation productions; black innovation and original per and original black innovation plantation productions; about other large-scale (2004) argues formances could have occurred even within the constraints of McClellan’s direction. One per One direction. of McClellan’s even within the constraints could have occurred formances level of key agency had a certain Old Plantation participants demonstrates that former who former slave a 96-year-old he was reportedly “Laughing Ben,” Nicknamed is Ben Ellington. and oldest man on the plantation “the him, as newspapers described and Georgia, from Dublin, [...] also the merriest.” but what Kootin 2011), 2009:200–203; Ghartey-Tagoe (Ghartey-Tagoe ing of his laughing act He had of his performances. here is that Ben appeared to be in control is important to note and he had his own personal manager, prior to coming to the fair, already created this character named Hardy Smith. Georgia, a white man from Dublin, school to the construction of the site, these men had taken steps that compelled audiences to these men had taken steps that compelled school to the construction of the site, and believe an rehearsal and the natural, and realism, look past the contradictions of instruction caricature that it has persisted until this day. image of blackness that was such an extreme a satire about the challenges present- (1987), Shuffle in his film Hollywood Acting School” “Black dearth of acting opportunities and the stereotypical day black actors encounter because of the Acting School” “Black Townsend’s them to play. roles that Hollywood and its audiences want “walk and “talk” teaching black actors how to commercial features white instructors literally The school offers courses and street punks. movie muggers, TV pimps, and how to play black” to play “I had to learn preface sums it up well: Townsend’s like Jive 101 or Epic Slaves 400. It teaches you these slave parts and now you can too at Hollywood’s first black acting school. 59. 60. 62. 63. 61. Applied Learning Education Continuing and rehearsal, as the outcome of instruction, Old Plantation was intended to be experienced into the act, Even if what audiences saw was the result of genuine black input white direction. Thompson’s sys- and McClellan, Dundy, authenticity. this would only help to buttress claims of was a foreshadowing of the kind of spectacular illu- tematic manufacture of black authenticity a few years later. sions for which they would become famous Eb Huntington, a visitor from Minnesota, took a picture of him, Laughing Ben demanded: of him, took a picture visitor from Minnesota, a Eb Huntington, Onlookers remarked that the laugh now you’ve got to give me 10 cents.” got my picture, “You Ben was 1901:7). (Minneapolis Journal over the dime” who forked “on Huntington, was then How many of the Sun 1901:8). as one newspaper writer asserted (New York “nobody’s fool,” a sense of agency in their performance? other over 150 performers also demonstrated mance in the context of the minstrel show, Laughing Ben’s laugh and slave autobiography made Laughing Ben’s of the minstrel show, mance in the context character of the entire Midway. him the most famous peppered his tales of the good and bad times he had as a slave. A vaudevillian type of perfor the good and bad times he had as a slave. peppered his tales of Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00263 by guest on 27September 2021

120 Amma Y. Ghartey-Tagoe Kootin ing it?Evenmoreimportantly, whobelievesit? the modernblackexperience. Who’s writingthecurriculumforblacknesstoday? Who’s learn- tors andwritersgivetoblackactorsinfilmstelevisionshowsthatpurportdemonstrate the ethnologicalspacesofourpresentday?Onewonderswhatinstructionstoday’swhitedirec- that, dangerouslyenough, thrivesbecauseofblackparticipation. Havereality TV showsbecome there isafalseimageofblacknessthatconstructedandpropagatedbythemainstream school nearly100yearsearlier. everything.” Littledidviewersandperhapseven Townsend knowthatthereactuallywassucha Ghartey-Tagoe, Amma. 2009. “The Battlebefore ‘The SoulsofBlackFolk’:Performance inthe1901 Favor, J. Martin. 1999. Authentic Blackness: The Folk intheNewNegro Renaissance. Durham, NC:Duke Express Epstein, Milton. 1993. “The New York Hippodrome:SpectacleonSixth Avenue from ‘A Yankee Circuson Critic. 1884. “Banjo andBones.” Critic Courier-Dispatch Courier Courier Commercial Advertiser (Buffalo, NY). 1901. “Old UncleBen,” 27July. Chicago Inter-Ocean. 1906. “The HippodromeBuilders Tell HowItHappened,” 18February. Frederic Chappell, Urso. 2012. “ExpoMuseum: The World’s FairMuseumsince1988.” www.expomuseum.com Buffalo andErieCountyHistoricalSociety. [2001?] “Pan-Am Trivia.” InAGuidetothePan-Am Grounds, Barry, RichardHayes. 1901. SnapShotsontheMidway ofthePan-Am Expo, IncludingCharacteristic Scenesand Baldwin, Brooke. 1981. “The Cakewalk: A StudyinStereotypeandReality.” Journal 15, ofSocialHistory Anderson, Virginia. 2010. “‘You HiptoBuffalo?’ The HiddenHeritage ofBlack Theatre in Western Ahrhart, Charles. 1901. OfficialCatalogueandGuideBooktothe Pan-American Exposition, withMapsof Abbott, Lynn, andDougSeroff. (2002)2009. OutofSight: The Riseof African-American Popular Music, References As Townsend’s fictionalactingprogramandOldPlantation’sreportedschooldemonstrate, Pan-American Exposition.” PhDdiss., New York University. University Press. Plantation,” 19May; “Old Plantation,” 28July. Midway FolkJoinintheSports. 8,000PersonsLookOn,” 16May; “Midway inFullSwing: The Old University. Mars’ to ‘Better Times,’ aCompleteChronologyofPerformances, 1905–1939.” PhDdiss., New York Literature, Scienceand Art (London), 7June:739–40. “Pastry CakewalkersShamed,” 16May. Greatest Amusement FeatureEver Attempted byanExposition,” 24 April; “Slave 96 Years Old,” 12May; Planned forPortrayalatthePan-American,” 11 April; “Midway ataCostof$3,000,000:It Will Bethe 13 December. ber; “At the Theaters...Notes,” 6December; “Theatrical,” 9December; “At the Theaters...Notes,” Prediction MadebyaNegroEditor, withSomeRemarkson Various ColoredPerformers,” 29 Novem Thompson ClippingFile, BillyRose Theatre Collection, New York PublicLibrary, New York, NY. (14 January). pamphlet. Buffalo, NY: BuffaloandErieCountyHistoricalSociety. Pastimes ofEvery Country There Represented. Buffalo, NY: R.A. Reid. 2:205–18. January):102–21. ( New York.” Exposition andIllustrations. Buffalo:Charles Ahrhart. 1889–1895. (Buffalo, NY). 1901. “Midway NegroesHere,” 12May; “Stadium Opened. Exposition Workmen and (Buffalo, NY). 1901. “Plantation MostDelightfulFeature:EvolutionoftheSouthernNegroas (Buffalo, NY). 1894. “Negro Actors. Some Who HaveBeenFamousinGreatParts. Remarkable Jackson:UniversityPressofMississippi. Theatre Studies2010: History African and African American Theatre Past andPresent 30 (Dublin, GA). 1901. 23May. 1, 28June:308–9. OriginallypublishedinSaturday Review ofPolitics, Old Plantation 121 Performing Arts Arts Performing Resources 2, 4 (August):1097–101. Available in Available 4 (August):1097–101. 2, ( July):133–48. ). 1901a. “The Old Plantation: Fred McClelland’s Beautiful and Chaste “The Old Plantation: Fred 1901a. ). An Exact Representation of a Southern “The Old Plantation: 1901b. ). W. Frederic The Feature of the Midway. to the Moon: “Trip 1901c. ). JAI JAI JAI

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122 Amma Y. Ghartey-Tagoe Kootin Wright, EugeneRichard. 1901. “Aspects ofthePan-AmericanExposition.” AtlanticMonthly88:85–92. Webb, BarbaraL. 2004. “Authentic Possibilities:PlantationPerformance ofthe1890s.” Theatre Journal Washington Times. 1907. “Megaphone-Maddened, Coney’sNewPoliceBossSaysHowlsMustStop,” 4July. Trux, J.J. 1855. “Negro Minstrelsy Townsend, Robert, dir. 1987. Hollywood Shuffle.Distributed bySamuelGoldwinCompany. Toll, RobertC. 1974. Blacking Up: The Minstrel ShowinNineteenthCentury America. New York: Oxford Thurston, Baratunde. 2012. HowtoBeBlack. New York: HarperCollinsPublishers. Thompson, Frederic. 1908. “Amusing theMillion.” Everybody’s Magazine (September). Repaginated Southern, Eileen. 1996. “The GeorgiaMinstrels: The Early Years.” InInsidetheMinstrel Mask:Readingsin Silber, Nina. 1993. TheRomanceofReunion:Northerners andtheSouth, 1865–1900.ChapelHill:Universityof 56:63–82. http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84026749/1907-07-04/ed-1/seq-6/ (17 January2013). University Press. (17 January2013). version availableathttp://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/gilded/people/text2/thompson.pdf 163–75. Hanover, NH: Wesleyan UniversityPress. BlackfaceNineteenth-Century Minstrelsy, eds. Annemarie Bean, James V. Hatch, andBrooksMcNamara, North CarolinaPress. — Ancient andModern.” Putnam’sMagazine, January:72–79.