This Thesis is Dedicated to my
Beloved Parents
Extension :( 0571) 2701720 Prof. Mohd. Nafees Ahamd Ansari Internal: 1560 Department of Political Science, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh - 20 2002 (U.P.) India. Dated …………………
Certificate
This is to certify that Mr. Amir Mahmood, Research Scholar, Department of Political Science, A.M.U., Aligarh has completed his Ph.D. thesis entitled “Governance and Rural Development: A Case Study of Purnia District of Bihar ” under my supervision. The data materials, incorporated in the thesis have been collected from various sources. The researcher used and analyzed the aforesaid data and material systematically and presented the same with pragmatism.
To the best of knowledge and understanding a faithful record of original research work has been carried out. This work has not been submitted partially or fully for any degree or diploma in Aligarh Muslim University or any other university. He is permitted to submit the thesis.
I wish him all success in life.
(Prof. Mohd. Nafees Ahmad Ansari) Acknowledgement
I thanks to the Almighty for His great mercifulness and choicest blessings generously bestowed on me without which I could have never seen this work through.
Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Mohd. Nafees Ahmad Ansari for his continuous support in my Ph.D. work. I am deeply obliged for his motivation, enthusiasm and patience that always inspire me during the course of Ph.D. His guidance assisted me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better supervisor and mentor for my Ph.D. Without his spiritual support my research work could not be finalized smoothly.
I express my gratitude to Prof. Mirza Asmer Beg Chairman, Department of Political Science, AMU, Aligarh for his formal and informal cooperation, moral support and inspiring words at every stage of this work.
Last but not least; I would like to thank my parents Mr. Mushatque Ahamd and Mrs. Maimoona Khatoon for supporting me spiritually throughout my life.
There are a number of people without whom this work might not have been completed. I am also very thankful and greatly indebted to all the faculties of Department of Political Science specially Prof. A.R. Vijapur, Prof. Arif Hameed, Dr. Iftekhar Ahmmed, Dr. Farhana Kuasar, Dr. Mohammad Aslam.
I am also grateful to my family members and relatives Mr. Md. Shaukat Hayat (Adv.), Mr. Md. Wasique, Mr. Zubairul Hassan (Rtd. A.D.J), Mr. Zafarul Hassan, Mr. Aslam Hassan (IRS, GoI), Mr. Nizam Ahmad (Rtd. S.D.O., GoB), Mr. Nasir Mahmood, Dr. Anwar Hayat, Dr. Abul Kalam, Mr. Anwar Shamim (J.M, Bihar), Mr. Shamim Ahmad, Mr. Iftekhar Mahmood, Mr. Naushad Mahmood, Mr. Nehal Asif, Mr. Faisal Mahmood, Mrs. Rizawana Perween, Mrs. Rizwana Tabassum, Mrs. Azra Jalal, Mrs. Yasmin Siddique, Mrs. Gufrana Perween, Mrs. Rabia Khatoon, Mrs. Anjuman Ara,Mrs. Rehana Khatoon, Mrs. Shabnam Ara, Mrs. Naghma Tarannum, Mrs. Shagufta Kalam, Mrs. Sadaf Suzain, Mrs. Pinki Naznin, Baby Bushra Hayat, Baby Aleena Aslam
and Baby Barirah Hayat who morally supported and motivated continuously to accomplish my research work.
I am also thankful to my peer groups specially Dr. Ashraf Imam, Dr. Mushtaque Ahamd, Dr. Sarfaraz Javed, Dr. S.M. Uzair Iqbal, Mr. Nazeer Hussain, Er. Nadeem Ahamd, Mrs. Nida Fatima, Rakesh Khokar (Ministry of Labour), Aslam Farooqui (FCI), Md. Shahnawaz Irfan(BPM, Jalagarh, Purnia), Mr. Zeeshan Warsi, Dr. Parth Sharma, Mr. Rajmohan Sharma, Mr. Maherukh Bin Mohd Hasan, Mr. Naseem Ahamd, Mr. Faisal Kazmi, Mr. Arshad Iftekhar, Mr. Mohd. Azharuddin, Mr. Mohd. Afzal Hussain, Mr. Abdul Bari, Mr. Tahir Hussain, Mr. Dilnawaz Rashid Amani, Mr. Ravi Shankar and Mr. Alok Ranjan.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mr. Hammad Ahamd, Mr. Moquitur Rehman, Mr. Mohammad Asaf, Mr. Sulaiman Khan, and Mr. Afzal Khan and other staff member of Department of Political Science, AMU Aligarh.
I am also thankful to the staffs of Maulana Azad Library, AMU, Indian Institute of Public Administration New Delhi, Ministry of Rural Development Government of India, Department of Rural Development Government of Bihar and New Bookbinding works, Aligarh. I am also thankful to the Block Development Officers of the Blocks of Purnia District which I have visited during my survey.
Despite all efforts to make the thesis free from error, there may be errors still left unnoticed for what the Researcher takes all the responsibilities personally.
Amir Mahmood
Abbreviations
PRIs Panchayati Raj Institutions IMF International monetary fund MGNREGA Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act SSA ServaSikhaAbhiyan NPM New Public Management UNDP United Nation Development Programme NBA Narmada BachaoAbhiyan ADC Autonomous District Council IRDP Integrated Rural Development Programme OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal IT Information Technology SCs Schedule Caste STs Schedule Tribes PS PanchayatSamiti UZ UpzilaParishad SAP Structural Adjustment Programme DFID Department for International Development ADB Asian Development Bank WB World Bank CDP Community Development Programme IADP Intensive Agriculutre Development Programme GR Green Revolution RE Rural Electrification ARWSP Accelerted Rural Development Water Supply Programme DPAP Drought Prone Area Programme TPP Twenty Point Programme FWP Food for Work Programme TRYSEM Training Rural Youth for Self Employment
i
NREP National Rural Employment Programme DWCRA Development of Women and Children in Rural Area RLEGP Rural landless employment Guarantee Programme NFRD National Fund For Rural Development CAPART Council of Adcancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology JRY JawaharRojgarYojna MSY MahilaSamridhiYojna GLISRA Group Life Insurance Scheme for Rural Area SJGSY SwaranJayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojna JGSY Jawahar Gram SamridhiYojna PMGSY PardhanMantri Gram SadakYojna SGRY SampoornaGrameenRojgarYojna NRHM National Rural Health Mission NREGS National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme AABY AamAadmiBimaYojna PMSAGY PardhanMantriSansadAdrsash Gram Yojna MCBs Most Bachkward Class ULBs Urban Local Bodies DPRO District Panchayat Raj Officers DM District Magistrate GK Gram Katchery EO Excecutive officers BRC Block Resource Centre BPRO Block Panchayati Raj Officers ACO Accountant Cum Computer Operator BRGFs Backwards Regions Grant Fund Programme DRP District Resource Person BIDARD Bihar Institute of Public Administration and Rural Development ePMMP e-Panchayat Mission Mode Project GDP Gross Domestic Products BIMARU Bihar, Madhya Pardesh, Rajsathan, Uttar Pardesh
ii
NDA National Democratic Alliance GSDP Gross State Domestic Products NSDP Net State Domestic Products GoB Government of Bihar CSO Central Statistical Organisation SHG Self Help Group IAY Indra Awas Yojna BPL Below Poverty Line PHH Privilege household PDS Public Distribution System CSS Centrally Sponsored System WPR Work Participation Rate ADM Additional District Magistrate CD Community Development BDO Block Development Officer SDO Sub Divisional Officers MC Municipal Cooperation GP Gram Panchayat IAS Indian Administrative Services BPSC Bihar Public Service Commission DDC District Development Commissioner CEO Chief Executive Officers ZP Zila Panchayat GS Gram Sabha DPSP Directive Principles of State Policy
iii
List of Tables
Table Title Page No. No.
2.1 Elements of Governance/Good Governance by Various 62 International Agencies List of some of the Rural Development Programme initiated 2.2 97-99 by the Government 3.1 The important physical features of the state 113 Population of Bihar Break up with Respect to Rest of India 3.2 115 Population Literacy Levels in Bihar with Respect to Rest of India Literacy 3.3 115 Rates 3.4 Elected Representatives in Panchayati Raj Institutions in Bihar 116 3.5 Administrative Units 116-117 3.6 Three-tiers of Panchayats in Bihar 118-119 3.7 Financial Assistance under BRGF 125-126 3.8 Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of GSDP 136-137 Per Capita Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) at Constant 3.9 138 (2004-05) Prices of Major Indian States 3.10 Sectoral Composition of GSDP at Constant (2004-05) Prices 139-140 3.11 Performance of SGSY Programme 142 3.12 Performance of MGNREGS in Bihar 143 3.13 List of Category-wise Completed Works under MGNREGS 145-146 3.14 Year wise Covered Targets under IAY 146-147 3.15 Overview of PDS Dealerships (as on September 2014) 147-148 3.16 Working of Public Distribution System 149 3.17 Work Participation Rates in Bihar (2011) 150
i
3.18 Cumulative Disbursements under RIDF till March 2014 152-153 Sanctions and Disbursements in Bihar under RIDF till March, 3.19 153 2014 3.20 Estimated Benefits under RIDF –19 as on March, 2014 154 3.21 Performance of SHGs in Bihar (March 2014) 156 3.22 SHG-Bank Linkage in Selected States of India (March 2014) 157 3.23 Growth of Micro-financing in Bihar 157 3.24 Micro financing by RRBs during 2013- 14 158 4.1 List of the Blocks in Purnia District 171 Basic Demographic Indicators of Purnia District (as per census 4.2 172-173 2011) 4.3 Unmet Demand across States as per NSSO 66th Round 186 4.4 Current scenario of MGNREGA in Purnia District 188-189 5.1 Details of MGNREGA in BarbattaPanchayat 195 5.2 Details of MGNREGA in AdhangPanchayat 196-197 5.3 Details of MGNREGA in BhogaKariyatPanchayat 198-199 5.4 Details of MGNREGA in LalganjPanchayat 200-201 5.5 Details of MGNREGA in BishanpurPanchayat 202 5.6 Details of MGNREGA in BahoraPanchayat 203-204 5.7 Details of MGNREGA in RoutaPanchayat 205-206 5.8 Details of MGNREGA in AasiyaniPanchayat 207-208 5.9 Details of MGNREGA in AsjaMobaPanchayat 209-210 5.10 Details of MGNREGA in Baisi Panchayat 211 5.11 Details of MGNREGA in AdkhaliPanchayat 213 5.12 Details of MGNREGA in BelgachiPanchayat 215 5.13 Educational Qualification 217 5.14 Source of Income 218 5.15 Monthly Income 219-220 5.16 Aware of rural development programmes 221 5.17 Aware of given Rural Development Programme 222 5.18 The benefit of Rural Development programmes 223-224
ii
Medium of information about the rural development 5.19 225 programmes/schemes 5.20 The benefit from the rural development programme 226 5.21 The kind of benefits rural people gets 227-228 5.22 The reasons for not availing the benefit of the programme 229 5.23 The rural development programme is functioning properly 230-231 5.24 The Reasons for not proper functioning 231-232 5.25 Nature of services under MGNREGA programme 233 5.26 Wages Payment (Amount) 234 5.27 Mode of job under the MGNREGA Programme 235-236 The problem address by the government official at local level 5.28 237 (Block , Panchayat ) The MGNREGA as a programme helps in uplifting the quality 5.29 239 of people in rural area The scarcity of rural employment solved with the help of 5.30 240 MGNREGA in the locality. This programme has effectiveness in providing equity, 5.31 241 accessibility to the rural people. The MGNREGA programme provides women participation in 5.32 243 distribution of the employment. This programme will help in transforming the rural 5.33 244 development environment The MGNREGA programme should use innovative technology 5.34 245-246 for better implementation The MGNREGA Programme will help in generating higher 5.35 247 rural employment. This programme has the potential to deliver a quality life for 5.36 248 marginalized and deprived section of the rural area. The block level administration is following government rules 5.37 and regulations to provide better services through this scheme 250 of rural development.
iii
5.38 The wage administration under this scheme is satisfactory 251 This MGNREGA will lead to better governance in the locality 5.39 252-253 to improve the economic status. The block level officials are involved in corruption under this 5.40 254 programme. The MGNREGA programme is effectively implemented in the 5.41 255-256 rural area. The block level officers are performing their responsibility to 5.42 257 make this programme successful. This programme is capable of fulfilling the equity and 5.43 258-259 inclusiveness for rural development. The programme is consensus oriented towards the people of 5.44 260 rural area. This programme is having strategic vision for the rural 5.45 262 development. This programme is having transparency for the rural 5.46 263 development.
iv
List of Figures
Figure Title Page No. No. 3.1 Figure of State of Bihar 110 3.2 Overview of Employment Provided to Households through MGNREG 144 4.1 Geographical Location and Area 166 4.2 Block Map of the Purnia District 171 4.3 Rural and Urban Population Percentage 174 4.5 Administrative Body 176 Elected body of Panchayati Raj Institutions 4.6 176
An overview of the performance of MGNREGA on demand (data as on 5May 4.7 187 2015) An overview of MGNREGA’s performance in terms of person-days (data as 4.8 187 on 5 May 2015) 4.9 The work site under MGNREGA in Rural Purnia 189 5.13 Graphical presentation of respondent’s educational qualification 217 5.14 Graphical presentation of respondent’s Source of Income 219 5.15 Graphical presentation of respondent’s Monthly Income 220 Graphical presentation of respondent’s awareness of rural development 5.16 221 programme Graphical presentation of respondent’s awareness of given rural development 5.17 223 programme Graphical presentation of respondent’s about the benefits of rural 5.18 224 development Graphical presentation of respondent’s medium information of rural 5.19 226 development Graphical presentations of respondent’s benefits from Rural Development 5.20 227 Programme 5.21 Graphical presentation of respondent’s kind of benefits people are getting 228
i
Graphical presentations of respondent’s not availing benefits of the 5.22 230 programme Graphical presentation of respondent’s awareness proper functioning 5.23 231 programme 5.24 Graphical presentation of respondent’s if not functioning 232 5.25 Graphical presentation of nature of services under MGNREGA 234 5.26 Graphical presentation of wage payments 235 5.27 Graphical presentation of mode of jobs 236 5.28 Graphical presentations of problems addressed by officials 238 5.29 Graphical presentation of the upliftment in quality of people in rural areas 239 5.30 Graphical presentation of scarcity of rural employment 240 5.31 Graphical presentation of effectiveness in providing equity and accessibility 242 5.32 Graphical presentation of women’s participation 243 5.33 Graphical presentation of transformation in rural development environment 245 5.34 Graphical presentation of use of innovative technology 246 5.35 Graphical presentation of generation of higher employment 247 5.36 Graphical presentation of quality of life for marginalized sections 249 5.37 Graphical presentation of better services at Block level 250 5.38 Graphical presentation of wage administration under the scheme 252 5.39` Graphical presentation of better governance 253 5.40 Graphical presentation of level of corruption 255 5.41 Graphical presentation of effective implementation 256 5.42 Graphical presentation of Responsibility of the officers 258 5.43 Graphical presentation of equity and inclusiveness 259 5.44 Graphical presentation of consensus orientation 261 5.45 Graphical presentation of strategic vision 262 5.46 Graphical presentation of Transparency 264 6.1 Jan Sampark Sewa Kendra Model 278 6.2 Smart e-MGNREGA card 280
ii
Governance and Rural Development: A Case Study of Purnia District of Bihar
Dedication
Certificate
Acknowledgement i-ii
Abbreviation i-iii
List of Tables i-iv
List of Figures i-ii
Chapter I
Introduction 1-40
1.1 Problem of the study 1.2 Objective of the study 1.3 Hypothesis 1.4 Source of the study 1.4.1 Research Methodology 1.4.2.Method of Data Collection 1.4.3.Research Design 1.4.4. Sample Design 1.5 Importance of the Study 1.6 Review of Literature 1.7 Chapter Scheme
Chapter II
Conceptual Frame Work of Governance and Rural Development 41-109
2.1 Introduction 2.2 Governance: Concept and Genesis 2.2.1. Governance as a Concept 2.2.2. Genesis of Governance 2.2.3. Definitions of Governance 2.2.4. Theoretical Aspects of Governance 2.2.5. Shifting from Government to Governance 2.2.6. Governance and International Agencies 2.3. Governance in the Context of India 2.3.1. Glimpses from Ancient India on Governance 2.3.2. Glimpses from Medieval India on Governance 2.4. The Development: Concept 2.5. Rural Development : Concept and Genesis 2.5.1. Rural Development as a Concept 2.5.2. Rural Development: The Genesis 2.6. Rural Development: Definition and Approach 2.6.1. Rural Development: The Definitional Aspect 2.6.2. Approach of Rural Development 2.7. Rural Development in the Context of India 2.7.1. Various Rural Development Experiments 2.7.2. Community Development Programme 2.7.3. Various Important Committees set up by the Government 2.8. Panchayati Raj Institutions through the 73rd Constitutional Amendment of 1992 2.8.1. Features of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 of Indian Constitution
Chapter III Governance and Rural Development in the Context of Bihar 110-162
3.1. Bihar: As a State in India 3.1.1 Geography of the State 3.1.1.1. The North Ganga Plain 3.1.1.2. The South Ganga Plain 3.1.2. The Rivers System 3.1.3. The Physical Features 3.1.4. The Land 3.1.5. The Agriculture 3.2. Socio-demographic Profile of Bihar 3.3. The Administrative Set-up 3.4. PRIs in the State of Bihar 3.4.1. Three-Tier Structure 3.4.2. Panchayati Raj in Bihar under the Act of 2006 3.5. Governance and the Panchayati Raj and Backward Regions Grant Fund Programme (BRGF) 3.6. Governance in Bihar 3.7. Development of Bihar and its Challenges 3.7.1 The Growth Performance and Governance in the State 3.8. The Economic Profile of Bihar State to Strengthen the Rural and other Development Programmes 3.8.1. The Economic Growth and performance of Bihar 3.9 Rural Development and Social Welfare Programmes in the State of Bihar 3.9.1 Swarnajayanti Grameen Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) 3.9.2 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) 3.9.3 Indira AwasYojana (IAY) 3.9.4 Public Distribution System (PDS) 3.9.5 Labour Resource and Welfare in Bihar 3.10. Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF)
Chapter IV A broad Approach of Governance and Rural Development in Purnia District: 163-193
4.1. The Purnia: Historical Perspective 4.1.1. Muslim Period 4.1.2. British Period 4.2. Purnia: An overview 4.2.1. Geographical Location and Area 4.2.2. Physical Features and Climate of Purnia District 4.2.3. Population of Purnia 4.2.4. Agriculture 4.2.5. Animal Husbandry 4.2.6. Communications 4.2.7. Industries, Trade and Commerce 4.2.8. Languages and Religion 4.2.9. Education 4.2.10. Social and Cultural Activities 4.3. Administrative set up of Purnia District 4.4. PRI to Strengthen the Governance mechanism in the Purnia District 4.5. The Mahatma Gandhi National Employment Guarantee Scheme 4.5.1. Socio-economic Context 4.5.2. Sharing of funds between Centre and State for MGNREGA 4.6. MGNREGA and the Governance Process 4.6.1. Planning at the Gram Sabha 4.6.2. Fulfilment of Demand accurately is required 4.6.3. MGNREGA’s performance 4.7. Status of MGNREGA in Purnia District
Chapter V
Analysis and Interpretation 194-264
Chapter VI
Conclusion, Suggestions and Recommendation 265-284
Bibliography i-ix Appendixes i-xiii Annexure i i-iv Annexure ii i-v
CHAPTER -I
Introduction
The term governance is increasingly prominent in discussion of changes in the nature and the role of state. It has become a topic of concern to the political and non-profit actors as well. Governance includes new ways of thinking about the social coordination and pattern of rules as they appear in civil society, political institutions and the international arena. It is an attempt to people friendly with the government.
The local governance is a subject to realize the potential of services to the people, both in rural and urban. In the context of India, the local governance is an empirical description of local reality. India, at global platform emerging as big economy structure but the pattern of governance is a big challenge before the government. To widen our vision that the revival of Panchayati Raj Institution has been paralleled by a proliferation in the number and variety of factors involved in governance at the local level. Many governmental and non-governmental institutions are increasingly engaged in delivery of public services. The emergence of these institutions along with the constitutional institutions of local self-governance suggests that there has occurred a transformation in the complexities of the institutions.
In the context of India, local democracy incorporated in 73rd and 74th constitutional amendment, has been invested with big hopes, even global context also helps to explain the local democracy for all that is desirable—more people‘s participation, greater public accountability, concentration of social and economic equity and effective poverty alleviation programmes etc. The idea of decentralization, both in international agencies and many part of the world, was only a result of revisiting of the idea of local democracy or governance. It has also reflected a strong disillusionment with centralized pattern of governing process. Institutions of global governance have come to supplement the traditional understanding of governance as an activity that takes place at the national level. There are multiple criteria by which institution of local governance can be assessed and appraised. Equity through redistribution, social welfare, poverty
1 alleviation, effective development by locale in development planning and monitoring, responsiveness of the State as well as local administration, transparency, greater participation, gender equality are the bases of governance to strengthen it.
In India, after the attainment of independence, committee‘s reports and recommendations emphasized the importance of Panchayats with a view to making development more effective through local participation. The enactment of the 73rd amendment in December 1992, of the constitution of India was made a landmark to strength the Panchayati Raj and tried to remove the biases at grass-root level. As Rajive Gandhi remarked in 1989 that it is necessary in the following terms ―a wide chasm separated the largest body of the electorate from a small number of its elected representative. This gap has been occupied by the power brokers, the middlemen and vested interest…with the passage of this Bill, the Panchayat would emerge as a firm building block of administration and development…as an instrument in the consolidation of democracy at the grassroots‖.
The amendment to the Indian Constitution clearly intended that Panchayats should be institution of self-government through which the people would participate in the process of planning for economic development, social justice and also in the implementation of schemes for these purposes.
The picture of inadequate functions, financial aspect and its jurisdiction increasing the large variety of bodies, make the Panchayati Raj institutions more complex. It creates hue and cry in the success of programme develop for a large number of rural masses. Apart from these the emergence of new types of groups as Non-governmental organizations, Self-help groups active in both rural as well as urban local governance, through public partnerships in service delivery, includes user groups for natural resource management and various other livelihood creation activities. Many of these institutions have been the creation of international donor agencies and funded by them in addition to being supported by the state. The reason to create these bodies is that such groups provide greater opportunities for the common citizens at the grass roots level to influence the decision making process that affect them.
2
Indeed, the presence of these bodies on the other hand, at local level is a symbolic of disinclination of elected representative in the state legislature and the Parliament to shack power, at the another point, the determination of local government functionaries to subvert the objective of the constitutional mandate. The denunciation of power and resources to the Panchayats connotes the former, while the involvement of the official in the creation of these bodies is clearly the evidence of latter. As an evident, government is powerful and perhaps appropriate construct to meaningfully define the changing shape of contemporary governance.
The present study will be an attempt to investigate the problem of governance and rural development focusing on the working of institutions at grass root level in that particular area of research field. The vision of good governance and rural development lies in the efficient and responsive functioning these institutions. But the incompatibility of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) have rejected this; despite having legal status under the 73rd constitutional amendment act.
1.1. Problem of the Study:
Governance is the need of hour. A considerable attempt has been made by the scholars, researchers and policy makers as well as policy executors to make the institutions politically and administratively more responsive, accountable and efficient in their functions. Despite these efforts, good governance seems a distant dream in India. Whatever the reason may be, it has become clear that the dream of governance can be achieved only by strengthening the visions of participatory democracy and citizen oriented administration. Besides this, the citizen as well as the administrators should understand the necessary social and moral values.
The first generation of development had ‗growth‘ as it was central objective. The developing countries replicated the models, programmes and projects of the developed nations. Importance was given to the industrialization and modernization. This optimism receded when it was realized in the 70s and 80s that development was not able to remove the poverty and inequality. The reason was that development did not address the issues of equity. It was not participative, responsive and accessible. No attention was
3 given to the development of poor. Hence, there was a need to redirect development efforts towards the poor and those at the grass-root level i.e. rural development. Development was to address the priorities of the masses, especially the poor, and the efforts made were to be sustainable, efficient, and equitable.1
Decentralization addresses the question of sustainable, efficient and equitable development through improvement in service delivery by targeting the beneficiaries, identifying their needs, enabling their participation and delivering and satisfying their needs. Development requires a variety of institutions for empower and uplift the marginalized and the poor. The Panchayati Raj Institutions, the private sectors and civil society organizations, all play an important role in governance. A new framework of governance for the society can be laid down by taking the following measures: 2
I. Providing the people the opportunities and the forums to articulate their views (rural as well as urban) and perception which can be expressed in future policies, thus enabling them to participate in the formulation of the policies. II. Strengthening the local government as a unit of self-government.
Governance seeks to tap local initiatives and practices by involving grass-root organization such as self-help groups. Collective efforts are thus articulated. It leads to the empowerment of the local people through decentralization and devolution. It brings service delivery closer to people through field agencies. Devolution redistributes power to the local communities via local bodies and enables them to participate in the policies affecting them. Thus, both representative and participatory democracy become possible. It would be, therefore alternative strategy of development which is people centered, participatory and bottom-up.3
In the context of India, 73rd and 74th amendment of 1992; major steps have been taken in this direction. They made development people oriented and regionally relevant. For the first time, self-government is located at the Panchayat level. Locality has become the basis of planning. The amendments aimed at creating responsible institutions and provided control and ownership of the resources to the people. The Gram Panchayat is entrusted with the responsibilities of planning which is done by the people. The 73rd
4 amendments provides for decentralized governance at the district level and even at lower levels. It has created people centred institution at the district, Block and village level. The Panchayats are to be directly elected for the territorial constituencies for a period of five years. The state election commission is responsible for conducting the elections. The state finance commission is responsible to review the financial matter of the Panchayats. Thus, Panchayats are responsible for the planning and implementation of programmes related to social justice and economic development. State election and state finance commission have been set up with the setting up these institutions in the states; there is considerable degree of financial discipline, cost consciousness, transparency, resources mobilization, and regular election.4
However, there are certain constraints in the operation of this decentralized pattern of governance. The states can dissolve rural local bodies without giving them a reasonable opportunity of being heard before such dissolution. The eleventh schedule of the constitution assign the same type of responsibilities to all the three tiers at the panchayat level. Thus there is an overlapping of jurisdiction. There is no attempt to differentiate the level of responsibility as per the organization and the finance of these bodies. This creates problems in determining the basis of distribution of resources by the finance commission in favour of each level. Local level planning is also not effective, as it is mostly the state‘s planning priorities and sectoral allocations that have the decisive force. Local planning has to be liked with local resource mobilization and should involve the support of local people.5
Development is the objective of governance, the mechanism or means. In this view there is need to see, what are the various factors that would contribute to the overall development of the country. It has to function through various systems and processes of the government machinery and private initiatives, the prerequisite is that the machinery and the process should be good, flexible, sound, efficient, cost-effective and objective in approach. A nation‘s governance plays most important role in shaping the destiny of the people. Weak governance and slow economic development go hand in hand, observed by the international Monetary Fund (IMF). Within the India, some of the most
5 prosperous regions have a history of having better governance‘ observes the IMF. Local self-government is one way to operationlised the better governance system.6
In discharging the role of governance for development, the state [Bihar] is facing with the issues of directing the benefits of development to all section of the society, to all sectors of the economy and to all regions of the state. In order to achieve these goals, development schemes are conceived keeping in mind various target groups of the society and different sectors of the economy. Development programmes such as MGNREGA, Serva Shiksha Aviyan, Anganwadi, health services in rural areas through ASHA, various schemes for girls and Adolescent girls in rural areas etc. are the examples of the schemes benefiting the rural people.7 It the cumulative result of a combination of factors such as superior management of government machinery and public resources on the one hand and regulatory conducive environment to efficient private sector activities on the other hand. Since the most challenging task before the government is to generate an environment for efficient functioning of various activities the focus should be on:
I. Empowering the people with the skills that would enable them to contribute to the economy and society at large II. Facilitating the economy and markets III. Regulating the environment in a transparent manner.8
It is admitted by all who believe in democracy that a democratic form of government in a country must be sustained by a system of local governing institution. Lord Bryce said, ―the best school of democracy and the best guarantee of its success is the practice of local self-government.‖ J.S Mill supported local self-government because it was an easier method of public education than taking part in national affairs. Lord Ripons approach to local self-government was: it is not primarily with view to improvement in administration that is measured is put forward. It is chiefly designed as an instrument of political and popular education.9
After taking a look at local self-government institution, if we examine the extent to which local self-government promotes sustained democracy, we discover that the
6 administrative role and functions local bodies in India have been very limited and confined. The Panchayati Raj Institutions need to be analyzed according to these criteria. The lack of people‘s participation in Community Development Programmes made by Balwantrai Mehta Committee; suggested to introduce the Panchayti Raj Institutions. The committee felt that there would be a revival of public enthusiasm for community development with the coming of PRIs. They ascribed non-association of people and their representatives in the planning and execution of development programmes as lack of support of people.10
Since the study is based on the field observation, henceforth, there may be some problem would come across in the research.
I. This study is restricted to Purnia District of Bihar only. II. The study will be based on the available data. So it due care would be taken to remove any biases in work. Even though it is a manual work. So it is possible to have error or any bias in collecting primary data. III. The aim of the study is related to the developmental aspect as well impact of governance in the rural areas of Purnia District. The secondary data would be collected from the government offices, institutions, reports, channels and printed materials etc. So if any constrain or limitation at any stage may occur bias in data collecting stage and will be resulted in inferences.
1.2. Objectives of the Study:
The present study will have following objectives:
I. To strive for citizen centric governance with a vision of participatory democracy. II. To investigate the failures of rural development programmes initiated by the central as well as the government of Bihar. III. To identify a possible model for attaining an effective level of peoples participation in the implementation of development programmes in that particular area. IV. To identify the factors which are affecting the rural development in particular area of study.
7
V. To make Bihar particularly the district of Purnia, the next destination of investment in the agriculture field, industries and fuel the development of the state. VI. To explore the participation of people and add values to the governance and maximize the outcomes of development work particularly in the rural area of Purnia District.
The researcher has tried to explain the major objectives of the study. So this type of the study purely depends upon the availability of data and other resources. Therefore some items have been dropped to analyze in our study.
1.3. Hypothesis:
The governance is the purely decision making process. This decision making process based on the ethics, moral values, honesty, rationality and qualitative approach towards the assigned work, effectiveness, responsibility and accountability as well. Henceforth, the first hypothesis was designed as follows:
H1: To testify the effective implementation of law in the realm of governance and rural development.
After the formulation of the policy and programme the major process is to execute the policy and programme successfully. The implementation process of the policy faces many obstacles like corruption, diversity, influence of local people and so on,. It creates mismanagement in the policy execution processing at grass root level. So the second hypothesis was designed as follows:
H2: There is a huge gap between the policy formulation and process of policy implementation at grass-root level due to mismanagement.
At the implementation level, policies are comes through the various stages, to fulfill the necessities of the needy people. Most of the needy people are unfamiliar with the rationality of the programmes which are formulated for them. So, they cannot get optimum benefit of this. So the hypothesis will be based on above shortcomings:
8
H3: There is no awareness of policy and programme of the government to the people in selected blocks of the Purnia District.
The prerequisite of the programme and policy is overall development, social and economic prosperity of the rural people. In this concern the government official plays very pivotal role to provide them more & more benefit of the programme. Allocation and distribution of the funds and schemes to the needy people are in the hand of these officials. So the hypothesis designed as:
H4: The relationship between the government official and the locale related to governance process and task of overall rural development.
1.4. Sources of the Study
1.4.1. Research Methodology
Research methodologies have been defined as a tool to be used for answering specific questions for solving rational and practical problems prevailing in the research. It paves the way to explore concealed obstructions in the progress of research work.
The present study is primarily investigating the effectiveness of the mechanism of governance related to the rural development in selected blocks of Purnia district. There are 14 Blocks in Purnia district out of which 6 Blocks namely Amour, Baisa, Baisi, Banmanki, Purnia East and Dagarwa, have been selected on the basis of random sampling. While selecting the sample, all social, cultural, political, economical and geographical variations were given due representation. In the order to accomplish the study the effectiveness of the governance on rural development, 150 respondents in each blocks has been selected.
1.4.2. Method of Data Collection:
As stated above, there has been interactive programme in the research field which will provide participants with opportunities to freely exchange their ideas, thoughts, local problems with each other and resource persons concerned. The research work would primarily be based on primary information given by local people through
9 questionnaire and personal interview. The questionnaire has been structured with both open-ended and close-ended questions. In order to facilitate better results of the questions from local respondents, the researcher has used Hindi as a communication language. It has been framed under the following broad heads:
1. Background information 2. Educational qualification 3. Family income 4. Occupation 5. Benefits of schemes of the government 6. Participation in the developmental activities 7. Infrastructure development 8. Social structure/status
In order to reach the conclusion of the research secondary data has also been used. It will facilitate in the completion of the work after going through the various governmental reports, records, journals, data available, books written by the renowned scholars, article of news papers.
1.4.3. Research Design:
In order to study the effective assessment of governance and rural development through the injection of the contemporary approaches of the central and the State governments and to find out the substantial way to sort out the existing problems. The study has an exploratory cum descriptive research design. A detailed and appropriate research design is devised for the entire research work to make the study more useful and presentation more rational and easy to understand. Since the study is of micro level, the researcher has selected a district of Bihar i.e. Purnia which also a commissionary.
1.4.4. Sample Design:
The sampling of the questionnaire is based on the general perception on the rural development. It has also been framed in a close ended format. Tippett‘s Random Sampling method has been used to collect the information. The Likert‘s method of
10 scaling has also been followed to reach the result. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee scheme (MGNREGA) has been selected as independent variable to check the mechanism of governance in the locality of the research area i.e. rural area of Purnia District of Bihar.
1.5. Importance of Study:
The discussion explains different aspects of the governance and its impact on rural development. In fact the idea of governance was initiated in the developed countries and developing countries are late comers in this direction. In the context of India better governance still required specially in rural areas.
In the fundamental approach of this study is to assess the impact of governance on rural development, particularly where the research is conducted through the observation of different implemented programmes and policies.
The conducted research would be helpful to highlight the real scenario of the rural areas of the Purnia District. It will also help the policy formulators in the formulation of rural development policies.
It is expected that the assessment will provide answer to question like
I. How far the mechanism of governance is successful in that particular area; II. Is rural development project really stands up to the expectation of the Rural people of Purnia District; III. To ensure that the allocated funds and efforts made in rural development projects provide commensurate values to rural people in that particular area; IV. The results of the study can be used to create benchmark for the future rural development programmes and policies; V. The results would be able to guide to make mid-course correction if necessary; VI. The studies of successful and failure programmes will be able to highlight key element that can aid in planning of future rural development projects.
1.6. Review of Literature:
11
Literature Review is an important phase of research work; it helps in understanding specific problems and in drawing hypotheses. In this view, it has been reviewed and scrape together it from various sources, viz., relevant books, journals, dissertations, reports, research projects, surveys, etc. In this chapter, different parts taking into consideration to draw the conclusions and views of various scholars and researchers on the overall performance of governance and Rural Development Programme and causes of its success or failures. Thus, the major issues related to the criteria of identification of mechanism of governance in rural development programmes and its related aspects, viz., genuineness/ fairness of procedure, various loopholes, technical flaws, utilization of allocated funds suggestions for improvement etc. have been given due attention in the review.
In the discourse of E. Vayunandan (2003)11 it is observed that there is a need to redirect priorities towards the core human development concern, viz. basic human needs of the poor, provision of efficiently targeted social safety nets and major redistribution of such productive assets such as land and credit.
Secondly he observes that there is a need for revitalizing existing state institutions by fair representation to all sections, represented and well paid civil services and independent and accessible judiciary. He also observes that new partnerships between the state and society have to be forged for any major turnaround; viz. Government must provide a supportive framework to aid meaningful civil society initiatives and private sector enterprises. The success of governance depends on the reinvention of the government, re-engineering of the bureaucracy and the re-invigoration of non- government sectors, with social motive. There is also need to have political will, normative concerns and organizational flexibility. The state, the private sector and the non-governmental organizations, especially the community based organization should cooperate and coordinate with each other to make good governance possible.
R.N. Prasad and Lalneihzovi (2003)12 identify that the 73rd constitutional Amendment provides for institutions of self –government at the district, Block and Village level and regular election to them. Fairness of election is ensured through the setting up of a State Election Commission. It also gives substantial financial power to levy, collect and
12 appropriate taxes, duties, toll and fees. It mandates panchayat to prepare plans for economic development and social justice. The Act provides for devolution of 29 subjects to Panchayats. Briefly, this Act seeks to enshrine democracy at the grassroot level it also intends to give power to the people. Thus, the greater power of the Panchayats, the better it is for the people. It will end corruption and eliminate powerbrokers and middlemen from politics.
M. Moni and V. Ragupathy(2009)13 observes that 73rd Amendment to the constitution of India provides an opportunities to change the paradigm of development from the supply to the demand driven mode, from exclusive to inclusive strategy, from top down planning to bottom up planning and from Bureaucratic activities to people centric activities. It alters the character of our democracy from the representative to the participatory. All the above are only opportunities provided by the Constitution of India through Amendment. But the outcome of these opportunities depends on how these opportunities are utilized by the people. Limited experience from case studies shows that panchayats have potential to bring about transformation and needed change in the society. But there is an array of hurdle in the process. It is natural that people who hold the power want retain the same. To change the scenario the state governments have political will. The elected representatives have to sensitize on administration management and development. They have to be trained. The needed support structure has to be created. Official at all level have to be trained. A linkage between self-help group and Panchayats has to be established. By using these models Panchayats have to be activated throughout the country. When more activities are carried out by the Panchayats it can win over the community. Though the decentralization process is certainly drive, to reach the target it should be made a people‘s Programme. The potential has to be tapped by making it a mass movement. Civil society organization, development organization and institutions, media, academic and research institutions have to play a vital role in the transformation process.
By the observation of C.L. Baghel and Yogandra Kumar (2006) 14 argues that for democracy to be successful at national level, the grass-root level have to be strong. The local authorities have to be responding to the felt needs of the people. The citizens have
13 to faith in the efficacy of the administrative system so that the distance between people and the government is reduced. The administration, for good governance has to be accessible. In developing countries it is the government, which initiates and implements development programmes. It must gain support of the people in the discharging of these programmes, particularly at the cutting-edge. Such support would strengthen democracy as well as a positive response of the community to development programme which should be the ultimate goal of good governance.
A book by Srivastva (1986) 15 presents overview of the socio-economic changes in rural areas and describes the historical process of development and the various programmes and strategies developed for the development of rural areas. A novel feature of the book is that it presents the empirical realities regarding our rural development efforts.
Barthwal (2003)16 highlights the various aspect of governance in process of development specially focused on rural development, Pancahyati Raj Institutions to make a participatory democracy in the context of India.
Shri N. Vittal (2002),17 Distinguished civil servant; published articles in the Economic Times on wide ranging of issues such as government to governance, corruption, public sector, Globalizations and economic reforms, education, science and technology and environment has been covered . He analylised the issues in detail with examples and own experiences, and then comes out with original point of views and solutions. Even suggestion is provided with implementation guidelines. Mr. N. Vittal has wide experience in governance and updated with latest technology news around us. All these qualities make the articles interesting and readable.
He provides thought provoking process, new manifestation to look around and try to find solutions. Vittal proposes RAMA formula to bring transformation. (RAMA is articulate as first rejection or resistance (R), the annoyance (A), mellowing (M), and finally acceptance or achievement (A). If the ideas suggested in this book are implemented there will be significant improvement in the quality of governance.
14
The “Facets of Good Governance” (2005)18 is a collection of articles presented by eminent scholars. In which all aspects of good governance have been touch. Today in India number of efforts have been made to attain the goal of good governance. The administrators, political leaders persistently making great efforts in this field but still good governance far away particularly in the context of poor, the deprived and the disadvantaged sections of the society. We cannot neglect them all the time. Philosophers, scholars and historians had penned down the saga of mankind with full of struggles and achievements, with their comments and advice to next generation. This has been preserved in epics, scriptures and writings. The Kautilaya‘s concept of Rajdharma and Emperor Asoka‘s concept of Yogkshema and Bhishma's advice to Yudhishitir in Shantipuram, showed the Indian tradition of Good Governance followed by our forefathers. Indians understood Good Governance as the ultimate objective of human life. The essays recount chronological study of good governance right from early part of stone study and study of leading civilizations. The contributors have manifold changing form of Good Governance along with its parameters.
The contributors suggest that good governance can only be achieved if the institutions, leadership and bureaucracy are committed for ensuring responsiveness, accountability, and transparency, decentralized and people friendly administration at all levels of government. There is a ray of hope as shown by 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments, the central and state governments would encourage people‘s participation in all the schemes for the delivery of essential services. Good Governance is a process that is to be thought with proper steps and Government of India is moving in right direction.
Pradeep Sahni and Uma Medury (2003)19 the book is a collection of articles from academicians and administrators of repute. The articles present history of governance, its growth and present day practices with its achievements and shortcomings. The book mainly focuses on the governance for sustainable development and its four pillars i.e. accountability, transparency preventability and participation. This can enhance country‘s social and economic resources. Changes in attitude is one of the approach suggested under administrative reform is necessary for good governance.
15
The perspective of New Public Management (NPM) began early in 1980‘s when global phenomenon witnessed transformation of economies and the traditional model governance failed to justify the values around which reforms revolved are three E‘s that is Economy, Efficiency and Effectiveness. The pursuance of NPM is quite widespread. It has resulted in creating new agencies or restructuring, privatization and contracting of existing agencies. All these reforms are directed towards building effective governance. The United Nation Development Programme (UNDP), World Bank and other donor agencies focused on concept, characteristics and critical elements of good governance as conditions to be fulfilled by third world countries which enlarged role of governance as an exercise of economic, political and administrative authority for managing nation‗s affairs or governance as a process of establishing reciprocal interactions between and within government, market- economy and people. Good governance itself is a concept of accountability and it is essential perquisite for both public and private sectors. The third world countries are subject to administrative and financial vigilance of the donor institutions and instructed to maintain the accountability of government through unambiguous formulated and transparent policy process. All this has resulted in increasing pressure on the political systems, administrative apparatus generated by civil society to share information and make decisions transparent. This led to a change in developmental model into techno-managerial model with exclusive emphasis on growth. Economic reforms started re-recognizing the role of the state. The unrest in sixties took the form of movements such as Civil Liberties and Democratic Rights movement, Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) etc. In the first, the legitimacy of state and it‘s justification of governance was questioned while in case of NBA the poor people gathered and challenged the state power and questioned the very model of development.
The volume highlights recent and real life happenings with live data examples makes the book interesting. The book is very useful to the students, teachers, and public administrators as a reference book.
Ramesh K Arora (2001)20 ―People centred Governance‖ is a collection of articles written by eminent scholars and well experienced practitioners in the field of Public
16
Administration. The focal of the essays is on the rationale strategies, actors and consequences of people centred governance in reference to India and Bangladesh.
How can we configured the governance systems so that system can be more people- oriented and will persuade their needs? How can an administrative culture be evolved that could be conducive to peoples participation in planning, implementation and evolution of different schemes? These questions are answered in these essays. The essays touched many more dimensions of people-centred governance such as policy, progress and inadequacy. Some of the main points covered by scholars are noted below.
In the shifting pattern governance system the place of people has been changing. People‘s development is the centre of the governance system. People centred governance aims at transforming initiative for governance to the ordinary people and helping in the process of their capacity building to undertake their responsibilities and obligations. According to 1991 census 74% of India‗s population living in village and village poverty is about 39% which is alarming. So, rural development is an important issue in all development schemes. To achieve this, there has been paradigm shift in development thinking from capital-centred to alternative development or people- centred development model with decentralization, delegation of powers and resources from high level of government to a lower level of government. The governments established Panchayat Raj institutions; the functioning of the panchayats reveals both positive and negative trends. In order to ensure that Panchayats and Panchayat Raj Institutions function as independent instruments of local government their functional and financial autonomy is to be ensured. In order to strengthen Panchayat Raj Institutions, 73rd amendment was passed by Government of India in 1993.
Mizoram‗s Autonomous District Councils (ADC‗s) tried to maintain autonomy customs and traditions along with legislative and executive powers. The Andhra Pradesh experiments namely Janmabhoomi and Tribal Development Blocks are both people- oriented programmes. Such programmes try to rebuild villages and villagers and tribes with their participation in implementation, evaluation and in decision making process. This is the core principle of rural development strategy put into practice.
17
Bangladesh is facing widespread and dehumanizing poverty. NGDOs have played a lasting impact to improve the situation. But NGDO can play an intermediately role and can‗t substitute a state.
The above are some of the issues discussed in that book with proper explanation and examples. It is obvious that people centred governance would require a transformation in the attitudes of the governing elite as well as of the governed who were mere spectator for too long period now they have to lead the development process. With successful experiments and its proper evaluation, taking corrective steps will guide to rebuild India.
M.N. Srinivasan (1993)21 and other sociologists and anthropologists from India, the United Kingdom and the United States of America conducted ―A study on India's villages‖. It was an effort to understand the social life of the villages in various parts of India. The study conducted in the villages of Mysore, Orissa, Kerala, the Himalayas, the Western Udaipur, Shimla, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh. It was observed that villages, even the neighbourhood villages, differed considerably in economic, social, cultural, religious and political dimensions. In spite of several divergences seen in the study, there was a thread of unity. Unity in diversity, caste linkages and village self-sufficiency were the dominant themes that formed the core of these studies. The unity of the village through harmony of caste was pointed out by many of the authors. The study also revealed the tendency of the indigenous scholars to take important social realities for granted.
M.S. Dhadave and others (1996)22 conducted a study in the context of rural- urban disparity, a collection of studies on rural and urban societies in India. It has perfect blend of conceptual contexts that are deeply rooted in the case studies from all over India. It includes areas like family, caste, religion, occupation, education, industries, mobility, and migration. The thread that ran through these analyses highlighted the process of transformation of societies in India. The changes in economy, social, cultural, educational, political and other spheres succeeded in initiating/establishing structural changes or the changes in the above realms have been accommodated into the existing social structures. Another important viewpoint that requires further research is that
18 whether the changes have affected the core of the social structure or just touched the periphery or there is no effect at all.
Paranjape, P.V and others (1984)23 conducted a study on Shramik Sanghatana (Toilers' Association) in the Shahade region of the Dhule district with the objectives to investigate the historical background and activities of Sanghatana with reference to associate the problems of grassroots self-reliance. Majority of the people in the region were the landless and illiterate 'adivasis' (Tribals). The method of study was participatory research in which have selected Nine villages - three each from three types of area - were selected: four workshops were organized for investigating perspectives of self-reliance. The study revealed the fact that the tribals themselves had taken initiatives to strengthen the Sanghatana in the locality. Direct democracy and human approach were observed to be quite strong not only in the administration of Sanghatana but also in their social relationships. The study gtried to highlight the fact that the tribal young women were so introvert to come out of themselves that educing participation from them was a major barrier in achieving self-reliance.
S. Galab (1993)24conducted a study and examined the functioning of Rural Employment Programmes in Anantapur district, a drought-prone and backward of Andhra Pradesh. As per guidelines the community workers should be carried out by the local agencies like Village Panchayats, Gram Panchayat and Village Development Council and ensure benefits to the local workers. This study comes to the conclusion that exploitation of worker at its high level by professional contractors. It recommended that the inclusion of NGOs in the implementation of the programmes would ensure the flow of benefits to the exploited groups.
Nirmala Murthy et al. (1988)25 conducted a comparative study of two different non- governmental organizations in two neighbouring blocks - Dholka and Dhandhuka of Ahmedabad district, Gujarat. The Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) and Mahiti were the two NGOs having different ideologies and approaches to rural development. SEWA is well-known for its exclusive services for rural women; whereas Mahiti worked for the development of an entire area. Diagnosis of problems approaches towards rural development, strategies of intervention, and responses to situations as
19 practised by SEWA and Mahiti were different from each other considerably. The activities of SEWA were centred on income-generation, skill-development, weaving, tailoring, dairy, agricultural training, vocational training, health education, legal education, literacy programmes, dairy cooperatives, and village women's associations. While the Mahiti was primarily working as a link between the government and the rural poor by creating awareness about the various rural development schemes of the government; providing drinking water, afforestation, and other rural developmental projects. The study exposed the fact that both the NGOs were able to improve the economic status of the targeted groups. The interventions in the social, cultural and political spheres were still challenging of the local people. Self-reliance seemed to be a distant dream.
Thippaiah and Devendra Babu (1986)26 have identified in their study with some major defects in the implementation of the programmes Non-identification of right persons as beneficiaries, untrained personnel, misuse of loans and poor repayment position and lack of infrastructural development are some of such defects.
Rao (1987)27 pointed out that serious handicap at the grassroots level of the implementation of Rural Development Programme is the lack of sufficient time and staff. Lack of technical staff is a serious problem to implement the programme. Each agency has given a clear-cut idea that additional staff is required but the selection and posting have not yet been done. Further, he mentions that the family income survey is rarely useful because of lack of suitable working or skilled staff. The study also focuses on malpractice by the officials in the implementation of programme.
Taneja (1989)28 in their research reached that despite various anty-poverty successful programmes, such as IRDP, NREP, RLGP, and TRYSEM most of the labour households are still not able to meet their minimum consumption requirements. These are the people who do not have a bare sufficiency of anything neither food, clothing, nor shelter, leave alone education or medical care. The author observes that the fact we find such utter destitution here in Panjab raises doubt about the designing and implementation of the poverty eradication programmes.
20
Kulkarni et al (1989)29 conducted a study in Bijapur district of Karnataka. They find that various socio-economic factor affect the success or failure of different schemes of Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP). According to them the success of IRDP mainly depends upon the level of education, family size, livelihood, occupational structure and durable assets. The study highlighted that one of the reasons for poor performance of IRDP was the delay in actual sanctioning of loans and releasing of the subsidy amount by the development authorities. They suggested that single window approach both for subsidy and loan would reduce the time gap and transaction cost of borrowing for the beneficiaries.
Maheswari (1985)30, On the loopholes of rural development programmes, that in India suffer from a high degree of centralization as illustrated by the Integrated Rural development Programme . These programmes have been formulated in great detail at the central level with little flexibility permitted at the implementation level. So much so that it may not be inappropriate to say that these programmes are for the people but certainly not by the people and of the people. India is a country where the promotion of rural development purely through its regular bureaucracy with little involvement or participation by the people.
Prasad (1986)31 conducted a study for the removal of rural poverty in India. He made a critical assessment of various policies adopted for this purpose like the tricle-down strategy, beneficiary-oriented programmes, land redistribution for the poor such as the IRDP, NREP and so on. The observation articulates itself against the persistence of the uniform approach in different part of the country because of wide variation in socio- economic and techno-economic conditions that makes it a case of more flexible approach. It is concluded that poverty alleviation is possible if concerted efforts are made in terms of change in the strategy and objectives of planning and set an interrelated policy measures.
Manrai (1986)32 articulates in the identification of beneficiaries and bringing out problems in implementation of Rural Development Programmes that the selection of beneficiaries was arbitrary. To him, a common reason for this was that the programme was implemented in a hurry without adequate preparation and sufficient time for proper
21 identification of eligible families. The development staff at the field level was also observed with the idea of target achievement. The traditional power structure in the rural areas was another major reason for this circumstance.
Sharma (1985)33 argues that experience of implementation of Rural Development Programme clearly shows that while the Rural Development Programme has helped the targeted families in augmenting their income and to cross the poverty line, despite the quality of life has not been fulfill upto the desired expectation. It is, therefore, obvious that other services, particularly social inputs, have not been delivered properly. This underlines the need of convergence of services and inter-linking of economic and social development programmes for the poor.
Subbarao (1989)34 made an attempt to critically examine the impact of Integrated Rural Development Programme on the basis so field work done by various agencies like NABARD. He says that wrong identification of beneficiaries is one of the major failures of the programme. He further says that wrong identification is related not so much to the efficiency of administrative infrastructure as to the method adopted in identification of the poor. A part from the difficulties also arose because of the absence of any preparatory work and the apprehension for target to be fulfilled.
Tewari (1985)35 analyzes the issue of IRDP on the basis of data collected by the State Bank of India. Chair at the Public System Management Center, Xavier Institute of Management and Labour Studies, Jamshedpur. Regarding deficiencies of IRDP and shortage of staff he observes that: (a) Field staffs are very few and assignments too many. As a result they concentrate on such assistance that render quick and conspicuous results, and have no time to ascertain beneficiaries‘ genuine interest or for innovating activity. Further, follow up of the investment is almost non-existent. (b) Considering the role, responsibility and labour in promoting activities for rural poor, functionaries feel that the reward and advancement system (a facet of personnel policy) is unattractive Field level staff particularly VLWs, do not have much choice but to manage transfers and do not like the existing organizational structure and duties as compared to options available to them. (c) Intensive and specialized training of Directing Staff in business
22 promotion and development is not a prominent feature. They happen to be in the DS; therefore, presumption is that they can promote it. Absence of induction training is felt.
Guhan (1986)36 in his article, point out that there is rampant corruption among government and bank officials with political brokers. So they are taking advantage of the situation. It has reduced the real benefits to the beneficiaries.
Judge (1989)37 says that the corruption in officials who often take bribes include veterinary doctors, bank personnel and block staff. Further, the provision of subsidy has brought in corruption among the officials, as also among the beneficiaries.
Nagaraja (1987)38 observes the prevailing conditions of poverty in rural India. He observed that the basic objective of the eradication of poverty is to provide the minimum standard of food, clothing, shelter, education and health for the people. In 1938, the National Planning Committee of the All India National Congress started the programme for eradication of poverty all over India. The majority of the rural population in our country lived below the poverty line (50.82%) in 1977-78. However, overall poverty was 48.13 per cent. Owing in the process of implementation shortcoming and weaknesses in the receiving system, there is unemployment and poverty among the rural weaker sections. It is suggested that the rural weaker sections should be provided the education which may enable them to attack the deceptive and exploitative middlemen and intermediate agencies. It would enable them to become a force to reckon with to fight against corruption and malpractice in the rural society.
Singh (1987)39 investigated the problems and prospects of poverty alleviation programmes. He says that although these programmes are basically for the upliftment the socio-economic conditions of the rural poor and the downtrodden sections. The implementation of the programmes suffers from a large number of problems and bottlenecks. Owing to the lack of suitable and sufficient infrastructure in the rural area, these programme have not been able to benefit the needy section of the population upto the level of expectation. It is suggested that adequate regional planning, strong central coordination, effective local level organizations and participation of the rural people in
23
the planning process can be helpful to make these programmes more effective and success.
The Agricultural Credit Review Committee (Report August 1989)40 has highlighted the major limitations of Intergrated Rural Development Programme and has given useful suggestions to improve the efficiency. They are stated as under:
I. Selection procedure for the needy one has been faulty and banks have not been involved in the same banks must be given a greater say in the selection of the needy people. II. Targets must be linked with the resources, opportunities and capabilities of the needy. III. Repayment schedules should be reasonable and there is lack of working capital. IV. There should be check on the misuse of subsidy and other financial support. V. Project approach is more viable. VI. High targets for high incidence of poverty areas are not suitable. VII. Very needy people prefer wage employment to self-employment because normally they cannot manage the assets properly.
Murari (1988)41 on the various rural development programmes in a historical perspective he advocates that all development programmes should be started after understanding of the ―totality‖ that includes social, political and operational aspects of the approach. He assumes that without proper understanding of totality in the approach repeating mistake might be occur as in the community development programme had have. In the implementation of Rural Development Programme the operational, political and bureaucratic infrastructure should be understood in totality.
Singh and Deb (1986)42 conducted a study to find out the nature of people‘s participation in Rural Development Programme, by choosing two clusters - one from Bhatinda and the other from Ludhiana district. In the study reveals that more people from amongst the big farmers participate in larger numbers in rural programme than others. The participation of the functionaries and agricultural labourers are minimum in both the areas. The researchers assert an imperative effort to educate the people and
24 aware about the objectives of the programme. It is also an effort to create better employment opportunities for landless and small farmers under Rural Development Programme for rural people. The functioning of Rural Development Programme and the formulation of various facets of the schemes shows better participation of the people.
Dasgupta (1997)43 observes that it is necessary to formulate various poverty alleviation programmes for providing supplementary employment to the poor and underemployed. To him, the increasing population growth cerates hurdle in all the rural development efforts, and need to solve this problem on a war footing, it will be futile exercise to bring about the changes as envisaged.
The policy document of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)44 on "What Future for Our Countryside? A Rural Development Policy" - the first of its kind - was a stepping-stone in the history of rural development because it provided a broader overview of rural conditions in member countries; and it enabled the evolution of a common international framework for analysis of rural policies. Of the two parts of the document, the first dealt with the findings and conclusions of the Group of the Council on Rural Development and the Rural Development Challenge, while the second focused on Rural Development Policy: Opportunities and Options.
Identifying different types of rural areas, the document analyzed rural assets and potentialities, symptoms and causes of rural poverty. It elucidated the response to the challenges by pinpointing the fact that rural development is a complex blend of economic and social goals. The term 'rural area' was more than a mere geographical parameter; it was an economic and social entity that fulfilled various public functions. The final chapter dealt with the institutional dimension of rural development such as leadership, co-ordination and partnership.
V. Shanmugasundaram and V. sankaran(1985)45 In the state of government of Tamil Nadu a seminar on "Social and Economic Pianning for integrated Rural Development" organized by the State Planning Commission, presented by V. Shanmugasundaram and V. sankaran. The conclusion was that the government was in the right direction of social and economic development and also a policy document that
25 shaped the planning and implementation of the rural development programme running in the state. In earlier period social and economic institutions had not allowed the rural people to drag out of the ferocious circle of poverty. Rural Development approaches and strategies played a role to reduce the gap between the rich and the poor. In the seminar the government and experts focusing on the key issues of rural development programme like Agriculture, Village Industries, Health Services, and other resources available in the locality. But the issue is that to set out a concrete line of action and programmes of development by opening up opportunities in a balanced and integrated pattern of resource mobilization. The challenge is to harmonize the potential of science and technology for the optimum utilization of all our natural assets available in the locality for banishing poverty.
Mahesh chander (1996)46 conducted a study on farmers' participation in rural development programmes to understand the modus operandi of three NGOs in Central Himalayan Region of Uttar Pradesh. The Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) method was widely used in assessing participation and performance. This study revealed the existence of closer interaction and better understanding of NGOs with the farmers. The initiatives of NGOs to ensure the farmers' participation, particularly in planning and implementation were remarkable. The NGOs explained the issues of the rural development facing by the farmers.
Yatish Mishra (2002)47 conducted a study on grassroot level organizations and rural development in Gaya district, Bihar with the primary objective of analyzing the existing system of decentralization and propose an all-round development of rural areas. The people's participation in the local administration and rural development programmes was minimal; targets were not achieved at all set by the government central as well as state. In his study he highlighted a high level of flexibility and dedicated human approach of NGOs that could hasten the momentum of rural development. Panchayati Raj Institutions were proficient of responding to the needs of people promptly and put into action the rural development programmes efficiently but for the intervention of the politicians.
26
S.S. Khera (1964)48 the author describes in his book about the district administration. The field administration is the basic unit of administration in India that is based on his long experience as a District magistrate, Collector, Divisional Commissioner, and from various government departments. The approach to the subject has been described to illustrate, the practices and to identify the principles of the local administration.
He postulates law and order as a central purpose of district administration; he has committed a special effort to inquire about and to establish basic principles and precepts. The author describes principles, followed by aphorism or precepts for guiding law and order methodology. The processes of law and order should be fair and just at every level and common people should see it as fair and just. The changes are great, far reaching and tasks are new to district administration. These tasks demand new approaches, new skills and new way of thinking new modes of relationships between the government, the people and administration.
The author has supported his writing with case studies, arising out of real life, how they are dealt with and with consequences. He provided the benefit of his long experience and looks to the younger generation to tackle the new tasks effectively.
The book is very helpful as a reference book to new generations of administrators and researchers to understand the principles and practice followed by district administration. The author stresses the place of the common people in all processes of administration, as it is necessary for good government and better administration.
R.K. Iyyar (2007)49 a book based on different aspects of global governance he observes that the Increasing globalization has generated a need for better global governance. Therefore, it demands serious attention from world communities. Present system political, economic and social affairs are required to rearrange at global level. Values like freedom, security, diversity, transparency and solidarity need to be redefined in the global context. The new system approach should be focused on human rights and international rules of law and democracy.
27
The global governance and Good Governance are distinct from each other. Good Governance is at national level while global governance at international. It involves ideas, culture western norms developed by the western world.
Glocalization is the focus of orientation of the global governance. It is trying to connect local with global approach. It leads to increasing into number of interstate connections, public choice approach, market orientation and decreasing the role of state. Globalization endorses economic freedom, open market, security and welfare of labour. It has diluted government‘s ability to influence the public, reduced the trade and commerce barriers to controls the capital and accommodates international agreements. Consequently it increases the employment but cuts in social welfare activities.
DR. M. C. Minimol (2007)50 E-Governance and Rural Self Government is a book based on complete history of rural self-governments in Kerala. It is a detailed study of e- Governance activities to strengthen the functioning of rural self-governments in Kerala. The study would be helpful for the researchers, planners, administrators and technocrats in policy formulation.
The betterment of the citizens is the prime concern of any government, so it must have effective administrative set up to cop up with the problems of the citizens promptly. In this concern the emergence of e-Governance put forward an opportunity to governments to solve the old problem with new solutions like usages of internet era and modern technology etc. With the implementation of 73rd Amendment Act, Panchayats in rural areas established the constitutional legality of rural self-governments. Still, it fails to be accountable to the local people.
Kerala has unique social fabric, socio-economic development, high level of literacy rate and information infrastructure and suits introduction of viable services involving the citizen and the community at large. The government has set up a state level agency— Information Kerala Mission to promote e-Governance in the thrust areas such as education, healthcare, poverty eradication and providing public utilities.
28
The author has described historical aspect of rural self-governments in India and role of Panchayats, Gram Sabhas and how e- governance can create a possible change. The author discussed the history of e-Governance, principles of successful e-Governance in detail.
Dr. P L Sanjeev Reddy, Prof. Rajesh Singh (2006)51 in the last two decades witnessed many changes occurred to manage the public sector. These changes impacted public organizations structures and management. Citizens are demanding smaller, effective and efficient governments to fulfill their requirements. Citizen Service with satisfaction is a principle around which strategy of any administrative function is framed. Information Technology has been recognized by governments to augment administrative capacity and the efficiency of organization. The new public service with the use of IT created new ―Information Logic for public administration. Information flows through computer networks, usages of internet. It facilitates the innovative process in public administration.
The launch of E-Seva in Andhra Pradesh represents three important dimensions i.e. New Managerialism, Public Private Partnerships and the use of technology for the benefits of its citizens. The case study of e- Seva is presented as an attempt to examine and analyze e-Seva with reference to Andhra Pradesh. The role of E-Governance is to improve the citizen services and to study citizen awareness activities in E-Seva and people‗s satisfaction index. The case study is laid down detailed objectives, methodology used and indicators relating to time and efficiency put in to calculation. The author has pertinently noted that public organizations should keep abreast of changing needs and aspirations of citizens. E-Seva case can guide public organizations in what to do and what to avoid.
The book describes the journey of New Public Management and the use of computers in administration. Information Technology (IT) can break down hierarchy, reduce the tendency toward bureaucratic organizational structure and it can coordinate all activities in single chain of command. In short, IT is changing the face of administrative process and facilitates administrative decentralization by involving citizens through wide access
29 and by building citizen involvement. Administration is facing greatest challenge from technology providers and citizenry. In the case study descriptive stages, factors, incidents, actions, reactions and impact of stages involved in administrative task. Certain steps such as to identify objective, planning of case study, collection of data, scanning, analyzing of data, drawing inferences and lastly presenting the report. All these steps are to be carried out systematically.
Anwar Shah (2005)52 Governments play a big role to influence the welfare of their citizens. The main yardstick of judging good governance has always been the efficient and effective delivery of public services. In the developing countries poor public delivery system has always resulting in lowering good governance values. The developing countries face many challenges like lack of resources and technical manpower. The system has loopholes of graft and corruption.
In contrast, the western democratic systems have built a system of checks and balances. It has created necessary structures for good governance and empowerment of citizens. The incentives, rewards and sanctions motivate policy makers and public servants to improve public management, mobilization as well as utilization of available resources.
The developing countries continue to suffer from poor governance system, inappropriate allocation of available resources, poor delivery of necessary public services, inefficient revenue and fiscal system. Such poor governance system leads to difficult access of public services to the citizen and other disadvantaged members of community. The World Bank and other donor international agencies are continuously trying to learn lessons from practices around the world. They are striving to establish better governance environment for work.
The book advances our knowledge by providing tools and lessons for improving the efficiency of public services and making governance transparent and accountable. It highlights framework for creative incentive environments to achieve good governance. It outlines institutional mechanism for empowering citizens to demand accountability and suggest approaches to deal with corruption and bad governance. The author suggests alternative service delivery frameworks for extending reach and access to poor, women
30 and disadvantaged groups. it also illustrates tools of analysis for measuring performance of government at various levels. The book addresses two basic questions, whether the public manager is doing the right thing? And whether they are providing services of given quality at the lowest cost? Author suggests empirical tests to measure the performance. The book is very useful for public officials, development planners, students and all those who are interested in public governance.
Basu (1988)53 supposes that Rural Development Programme, has brought a strong policy instrument for poverty alleviation. It has mixed consequences in the district of Nadia. Its performance has assorted in various areas and sectors. From identification of beneficiaries to raising and sustaining them above the poverty line, there has been incidence of satisfactory as also those of poor results.
Devi’s study (1986)54 observes that the Rural development Prpgramme as an anti- poverty programme is good. But the [intention] alone is not enough to gratify to the needs adequately. Measurements of poverty in absolute terms, i.e. in terms of per capita income, calorie parameter etc. required to meet subsistence needs of the family. It is essential but it has limited utility. The measurement and definitions of the poverty that is purly in economic term, there is no need to categories on the basis social parameters such as SCs, STs, backward Classes and others. It should be categories in rational and appropriate way of capital assistance to the landless agricultural labourers, small farmers and artisans. To him exclude even those small farmers, if they are having more than one hectare of land from the category of poor; because they have potential to develop themselves independently without any external assistance.
Since the immediate objective of the antipoverty programmes is to improve condition of the poor, and freed them from all exploitative elements of the system in economic, social and political terms. The poor become poorer due to some serious constraints and there is a cumulative effect of disadvantages that leads to deprivation, resulting to dependency at the end. There must be a proper process to organize the identified poor, encourage their own leadership and get them involved in decision making process. It will ultimately encourage them with a view to avoiding the feeling of hostility and
31 poorlessenss. Therefore, it is necessary to create a sense of competence that would help in the success of any anti-poverty programme.
The Regional Experts Meeting on held at Suweon, Republic of Korea, from 14th to 17th, March 198955, on the Review of Integrated Rural Development Strategies. The meeting highlighted the policies and strategies on Integrated Rural Development. The participant experts presented the evolution and experiences of Rural Development programmes in the context of their countries. The presentation encompassed the strategies adopted, successes achieved, and problems encountered in the process of planning and implementation of rural programmes. The experts reiterated that NGOs had made valuable contributions in building up people's organizations, enhancing people's participation in rural development, and developing appropriate technology for the benefit of the poor. Significantly, they are playing important role in the field creativity, information and education, consultation, training, flexibility in operation, rich experience in micro-level planning of development activities, mobilization of resources for development and generating public awareness. The experts asserted that rural poverty alleviation and participation of the poor were inextricable linked to the success of the relevant programmes and decided to sharpen more effective strategies in the future.
Md. Taufiqul Islam & Koichi Fujita (2012)56 say that decentralization is extensively used concept. It is closely associated with democracy, development and good governance. The findings authors clearly demonstrate that decentralization provides an institutional mechanism through which citizens can organize themselves and participate in the decision making process at various levels. The study examines the facet of the decentralization process in the administration of rural areas in India as compared to Bangladesh. Both the countries have three tiers local administration i.e. lower, middle and upper. The previous study examined that the lowest-tier rural administration in Bangladesh has huge dependency on the middle level. However, rural administration in India has been empowered by decentralization. The rural local governance or Panchayats Raj Institutions has been empowered by the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act and facilitates three tiers rural self-governance in India. The roles and functions are
32 prescribed in detail. Therefore, the authors investigate the decentralization process at the middle-tier (Panchayat Samiti) rural administration in India weather it would be applicable to the middle-tier (Upazila Parishad) rural administration in Bangladesh. The study also examines the panorama of building a decentralized rural administration at the Upazila Level.
Sutiyo Banyumasan (2014),57 the author describes the potentiality and challenges brought by decentralization for the rural development. There are many arguments on decentralization despite it creates successful story of rural development. The studies find that the adoption of decentratlisation does not always make rural development more effective in many countries. The decentralsation only theoretically offer substantial opportunity for successful rural development. The implementation of policies and programmes are often hampered by various challenges. It is also emphesied on paying attention on several factors like formulation of local budget, community participation, social capacity, local resources.
Margie Brand (2015)58 in his paper argues that technologies have enough potential to enable households, communities and firms to improve their yields and income, food security, and participation in the economy. Throughout the literature, it is a clear assumption that technology and development are closely tied. The huge poor population of the world lives in rural areas. They are facing lack connections to information. They have limited access to many goods and services. In such contexts, small technology improvements can have big impacts and transformative effects. But the technology adoption rates among the rural people are often low. The Systematic scaling explores potential scaling-up pathways throughout the program cycle that Henceforth, the authors, is to generate insights into how to use market systems development to improve the scaling up of technologies for the benefit of food security and poverty reduction.
Aswini Kumar Dash (2015)59 in his Article observes that agriculture has the potential for regenerating the rural economy. Some of the important factors that could drive agricultural and rural‐based opportunities included latest technology, non‐farm goods, and services that provided value‐addition. Lessons from past experience highlighted the
33 importance of a policy environment that provided for the right incentives. The well‐functioning of rural markets helps to increase productivity. The rural employment, incomes would ensure product and markets work. The infrastructure connectivity will help to expand rural markets. The distribution of income can change as average incomes rises, becoming more or less equal. The expansion of small holder farming reduces poverty quickly. The incomes from rural cultivation will reduce their food bill. Growth in labour-intensive manufacturing also raises the incomes of the poor. The expansion of capital-intensive mining industries, on the other hand, can result in jobless growth, making little impression on poverty. The author is emphesing on the importance of agriculture, market economy as well as rural jobs. Ultimately it will be charismatic step towards rural development.
The studies conducted by the scholars on overall performance of impact of governance and latest information technology and various aspects of the rural development, by and large views shows that desired results has not been achieved yet. The researchers have highlighted several loopholes and deficiencies prevailing in the programme, like shortcoming in policy formulation, lack of coordination, over-centralization, inadequate philosophy of the programme, lack of methodological knowledge, lack of flexibility for implementation of the programme, lack of political will and so on. However, some of the studies have shown encouraging results too. The scholars have given a number of suggestions which may be helpful for effective implementation of the programme.
Identification of the needy people of that particular area of research is another important aspect of the study discussed too. Substantiating with empirical data, most of the scholars are of the view that identification is faulty due to one reason or the other. Some have concluded that the procedure for selection of beneficiaries is not systematic and has many loopholes so that non-deserving people getting benefited. Another section of researchers has noted that political interference, lack of will and lukewarm attitude of staff as well as officers concerned. However, there is no consensus among the researchers and other scholars with regard to selection of beneficiaries, but there is a general idea that identification may be done with the help of local governing body at grassroot level.
34
Broadly, all the scholars have inferred that there is shortage of staff also affect the implementation process. Special training for the very purpose of rural development is necessary, and frequent transfers, especially of project officers, hamper the effective implementation process. Skilled staff should be recruited so that functioning of Rural Development Programmes can be made increasingly dynamic.
Researchers have indicated in their studies that corruption is deep-rooted in the system. The poor are not able to receive their dues without paying bribes. There is need to curb this practice. Most of the studies indicate that minimal participation of the real needy people in the development programme. Rather well-off sections from amongst the lower strata manage to take the benefits of governmental efforts for development. Beside other factors, lack of courage and confidence among the people hampers their involvement in the programme. Studies pertaining to the proper flow of allocated funds, facing bureaucratic monopoly as well as hold of local powerful people in the rural development programmes.
Though, as above stated note, the major issue is that mismanagement of the funds that indicates misgovernance of the system and ultimately it hampers the rural development. That is to be covered in this research work of that particular area of Purnia District of Bihar.
1.7. Chapter Scheme: The study will be divided in five sections as per the following way: I. Introduction Introductory part will be covered in this chapter and review of literature is made here. Research methodology of the study is postulated in this chapter. Problem of the study has also been described in this chapter.
II. Second Chapter illustrates the governance, its meaning and various aspects and approaches are covered as a whole. In this chapter the mechanism of governance also has been described in Indian context. About the rural development also has been covered in this chapter, emphasized in the context of India.
35
III. The third chapter contains detailed information about the governance and rural development in the context of Bihar. It is tried to cover the state governments approach for grass-root development. IV. Chapter four describes major portion of the research that is to be covered. The detailed information about the research area i.e. Purnia District of Bihar has been framed through rural development progammes. V. Fifth Chapter this is based on the empirical study. After going through the detailed study based on the field survey and secondary information. VI. Chapter Six In this chapter conclusion and suggestions will be proposed in a descriptive format.
36
References:
1) Vayunandan, E., & Mathew, D. (Eds.). (2003). Good Governance Initiative in India (p. 7). New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited. 2) See Note no.1, pp 7-8 3) See Note no.1, p 8 4) See Note no.1, pp 28-29 5) See Note no.1, pp108-109 6) See Note no.1, p 110 7) Baghael, C.L. (2006), Good Governance Concept and Approaches (p.231). New Delhi: Kanishka Publication. 8) See Note no.7, pp 21-23 9) See Note no.7, pp 25-26 10) See Note no.7, pp133-134 11) See Note no.1 12) Prasad, R. (2003). Perspectives on Democratic Decentralized Governance for Rural Development in Mizoram. In Good Governance Initiatives in India (p. 127). New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited. 13) Moni M. (Ed).(2009). Rural India Achieving Millennium Development Goals and Grassroots Development, (pp 231-232). New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. 14) See Note no.7, p 238. 15) Srivastava, A.K. (1986). Integrated Rural development Progarmme in India (p 68). New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publication. 16) Barthawal, C.P. (2003). Good Governance in India (p 70). New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publication. 17) Vittal, N. (2002). Ideas for action, New Delhi: Macmillan India Ltd. 18) Chaturvedi, S. K. & Sharma, S. (Ed.). (2005). Facets of Good Governance. New Delhi: Publisher Originals. 19) Pradeep, S. &Uma, M. (Ed.). (2003).Governance for Development: Issues and strategies. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
37
20) Arora, R.K. (Ed.). (2001). People Centred Governance, Jaipur: Aaklesh Publication. 21) Srinivas, M.N., (Ed.). (1993). India's Villages, Bombay:Media Promoters & Publishers. 22) Dhadave, M.S. (Ed.).(1996). Rural and Urban Studies in India, Jaipur: Rawat Publications. 23) Paranjape, P.V. (1984). Grass-Roots Self-Reliance in Shramik Sanghatana, Dulia District India, in Md. Anisur Rahman, (Ed), Grass-Roots Participation and Self- reliance: Experiences in South and South-East Asia - A study, New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. ; prepared for the International Labour Office within the framework of the World Employment Programme in collaboration with Society for Participatory Research in Asia. 24) Galab, S. (1993). Rural Employment Programmes - Case for Involving Voluntary Organizations, Economic and Political Weekly, (Vol.28, pp 409-13), Number 10. 25) Murthy, N. (Et al). (Ed). (1988). Two Approaches to Rural Development: Case Study of Sewa and Mahiti,(pp 283-309).Asian Seminar on Rural Development - The Indian Experience, New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, 26) Thippaih (1979). Poverty, Income Inequality and their measures, Econometrica, (Vol.47, pp-747-760), May. 27) Rao V. K. R. V. (1987). Measurement of Poverty, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XVI, No. 35, August. 28) Taneja, (1979). Poverty in Income Inequality and their measures, Econometrica, (V. 47, pp 761-766), May. 29) Kulkarni, S. (Et al). (1980). Demographic Aspects of the Problem of Poverty and Inequality, Social Change, (Vol. II No.1) December. 30) Maheshwari, S. (1985). Measurement of General Cost of Living, November 31) Prasad. (1986). Sprawling slums in Madras – Insoluble problem, Times of India, August. 19. 32) Manrai S. (1986). Housing Demand in Developing Countries, World Bank Staff working paper, no. 733, World Bank: Washington.
38
33) Sharma M. (1985). The Politics of In-equality, Competition and Control in an Indian Village, Honolulu: University of Howaii. 34) Subbarao, K. (1989). Improving nutrition in India programmes and policies and their impact, the World Bank discussion, paper – 49. 35) Tewari, K. (1985). Economics and Information theory, V.7, Amsterdam:North Holland Publication. 36) Guhan (1986). Measurement of Poverty, pp. 258-309. 37) Judge (1989). The Household trap (pp. 1175-78).New Delhi:Vikas Publishers. 38) Nagarjuna (1987). Household Income and Its disposition, New Delhi. 39) Singh, (1987). Poverty and Social change: With a Reappraisal, New Delhi:Orient Longmans. 40) Agri credit Review committee Report (1989). 41) Murari (1988). On the quality of Indian consumption, Ahmedabad. 42) Singh & Deb (1987).Poverty and Social change: With a Reappraisal. New Delhi: Orient Longmans. 43) Gupta, B. D. (1987). A Typology of Village Socio-Economic System, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 10. 44. OECD. (1991). What Future for our Countryside? A Rural Development Policy, Paris: OECD. 45. Shanmugasundaram, V. & Sankaran, V. (Ed), (1985). Social and Economic Planning for Integrated Rural Development - Seminar Papers and Proceedings, State Planning Commission, Government of Tamil Nadu. 46. Mahesh, C. (1996). Farmers' Participation in Rural Development Programmes: Case Studies of some local NGOs in Central Himalayan Region, Journal of Rural Development, (Vol.15 pp.393-408.), Number 3. 47. Yatish, M. (2002). Empowering People - Grassroots Organizations and Rural Development. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers& Distributors. 48. Khera, S.S. (1964). District Administration in India. Bombay: Asia Publishing House. 49. Iyyar, R.K. (2007). Global Governance. New Delhi: Mahaveer & Sons Publication.
39
50. Dr. Minimol, M. C. (2007). E-Governance and Rural Self Government. New Delhi: Sonali Publications. 51. Dr. Reddy, P.L. S. & Prof. Rajesh S.(Ed.).(2006).Good Governance –Case studies in Administrative Innovations. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers Distributers, 52. Anwar, S. (Ed).(2005). Public Sector Governance and Accountancy Series Public Services Delivery, Washington, D.C: The World Bank. 53. Basu, (1985). Trends in Employment in Indian Agriculture, I.J.E. 42(4) pp. 537- 560. 54. Devi, (1986). Quality, quantity and spatial variation of prices, American Economic Review, 78(3) pp. 413-430. 55. UNICIRD, (1989). Integrated Rural Development in Asia and the Pacific – A Framework for Action for the 1990s, United Nations Interagency Committee on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific, Suweon. 56. Islam, M. T., & Fujita, K. (2012). Dimension of Decentralization Process and Rural Local Government in India: A Comparison with Bangladesh. Kyoto Working Papers on Area Studies No. 130. 57. Banyumasan, S. (2014). Decentralization: Potentiality and Challenges for Rural Development, Journal of International Development and Cooperation, 20(3).pp 5-12. 58. Brand, M. (2015). Applying a Market Systems Lens to Technology Scale Up. Retrieved from http://acdivoca.org/sites/default/files/attach/2015/04/LEO Technology-Scale-Up.pdf. 59. Dash, A.K., (2015). Inclusive Growth and Development with Specific Reference to India. International Journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering &Management,(Vol.4),67-69.Retrieved from http://www.ijaiem.org/Volume4Issue4/IJAIEM-2015- 04-09-26.pdf
40
CHAPTER –II
Conceptual Frame Work of Governance and Rural Development
2.1. Introduction:
Public administration as a subject of discipline has been a convergence of many discourses. The very assorted nature of its subject of study it covers a wide range of areas as organizations and actors. The government is a formal action arm of it to regulate the society. In this concern, in therecent time the emphasis on governance has become a wider historical sociological perspective centredaround relationships between the state and society.
Theconcept of governance has three preliminary points in the area of public administration. First governance as a concept can be traced in World Bank‟s flaunting of the concept in the context of Sub Sahara Africa, where they failed to repay the World Bank‟s loan, among other things led to its formulation. Second the definition of governance by the World Bank is very limited and is associated with administrative and managerial provisions seeking to introduce „efficiency‟ in public administration.Third governance is political as well as persistence on competitive democracy of western assortment. Its historical root cannot be ignored, it was articulated when the state led development paradigm, at the behest of the former Soviet Union, collapsed. The governance well defined administrative set up that drew its sustenance from participatory democracy. The conceptual roots of governance are located in neo-liberal theoretical discourses to identify the significant intellectual inputs that informed the alternative to the state- directed development paradigm.1 The concept of governance is not new. It has a long experience in the maintenance of law and order of a nation-state as well as people oriented development. The term „governance‟ has a long contribution from ancient to modern time in the process of development either it is economic, socio-political whatsoever. It is an expression of the government‟s act. It is a mirror whose
41 reflection falls upon society as an approach of development and prosperity.With the passage of time the need of governance changes as per the necessity of the society and its development. It is as old as human civilization. Simply „governance‟ means: the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented or not implemented. Governance can be used in several contexts such as corporate governance, international governance, national governance and local governance.
2.2. Governance: Concept and Genesis
2.2.1. Governance as a Concept:
There is no trace in international encyclopedia of the social sciences on Governance. It shows that it is clear evidence of the term‟s new entry in social scientific debate. As the neo-liberal view started downplaying the role of the state and overvaluing the „market‟ and the trend was set to decentralize the state from its monopoly status from it social control. The idea of governance gained a prominence, connoting a plurality of rules replacing the monopoly of state. The transitional form of „government‟ theories to „governance‟ theories implies a more procedural view of politics. In the view of Fedrickson“in a government perspective it is used in a place of public administration to distant the writer from the tradition of public administration and from criticism of bureaucracy”.2
Governancelike New Public Management (NPM)3 indicates the emergence of a more plural political world.The decliningrole of the nation-state, and a more complex set of societal problems and various issues related to public affairs are the concern of the governance mechanism. The mounting acceptance of governance with thechanges in the society sometimes theorized as a shift fromgovernment to governance. In the context of globalizationthe coordinated hierarchical structure of the society is a process of network-based exchange and negotiation. It isa network of negotiating units and compositions varies, from power structure, over time and subjects. In the perspectiveof the „government‟ a logical structure is presupposed thus,it is possible to identifyrelatively clear distinctions and connections, implications andderivations between policies and 42 programmes. In the view of 'governance' the policy process must constantlynegotiate logics and rationalities.A widest definition of governance is given in theReport of the Commission on Global Governance, entitled, OurGlobal Neighbourhood.
Governance is the sum of the many ways individuals and institutions, public and private, manage their common affairs. It is a continuing process through which conflicting or diverse interests may be accommodated and cooperative action may be taken. It includes formal institutions and regimes empowered to enforce compliance, as well as informal arrangements that people and institutions either have agreed to or perceive to be in their interest.4
According to Goran Ohlin in the context of internationalcooperation, “what some may have in mind is a vague perception ofsomething less than government but more than chaos-regimes that already exist for many reasons.” But, one could alsounderstand it more than government not only global, central and local government, but it should relate with civil society, thefamily, the market, citizenand private sector etc, insofar as these relations bear ongoverning a society. That civil society and civic culture (as it hasevolved through hundred years) are particularly important for goodgovernance is shown for Italy in Robert D. Putnam's excellent book,Making Democracy Work.5To him what he calls civic normsand networks of social engagement facilitate the working ofdemocracy. The social capital of trust and reciprocity that is investedin norms and networks of civic life is seen as a vital factor of effectivegovernment and economic progress. The market is an importantinstitutionfor governance.6
There are many views of „good governance‟7for the panacea of 'bad governance'. In a transforming world it demands more dynamic,transparent, accountability and result-oriented, on the one hand, and a networking of formal institutions of government, civil society,the market and the private sector, on the other. Good governance has also its pitfalls. It has a tendency of depoliticizethe government and more focus on techniqueism and expertise at the cost of citizens‟age-old and
43 democratic right to govern them politically. The concern for good governance arose in international development particular in politics at the time when there were major arguments regarding the need to down-size the role of state. Throughout the 'governance' discourse, the current approach of improving the governance is to reduce the act of governing to an apolitical and technical exercise. However, governance is about power and politics. The various forms of confrontations and people's struggles for their rights in different parts of the World clearly point out, for democracy to survive.The governance has to be seen as a project of continuous struggle for social construction, which includes issues of inclusion, social equity, development and equality.
Governance is a conceptual enigma. It refers togovernment-run administration. Hence, it should be studied withinthe format of public administration. its roots of emergence found in the World Bank, for recovering 'loans' given to the Sub- Saharan African states in 80s.It has become integrally linked with the 'neoliberal'thrust in contemporary global politics. It is a specificmode of institutionalized administration.Governance is rooted inwhat is generally known as „a network of society‟. It also articulates a paradigmseeking to conceptualize the global society. As Manuel Castellsbriefly remarked,
[t]oward the end of the second millennium of the Christian era several events of historical significance transformed the social landscape of human life. A technological revolution, centredaround information technologies, began to reshape, at accelerated pace, the national basis of society. Economies throughout the world have become globally interdependent, introducing a new form of relationship between economy, state and society, in a system of variable geometry. The collapse of Soviet statism, and the subsequent demise of the international communist movement has undermined for the time being, the historical challenge to capitalism ... reduced the risk of nuclear holocaust and fundamentally altered global geopolitics. Capitalism itself has undergone a process of profound restructuring, characterized by greater flexibility in management ....As a consequence of this general overhauling of the capitalist system,
44
still underway, we have witnessed global integration of financial markets ...the incorporation of valuable segments of economies throughout the world into an interdependent system working as unit in real time.8
In an interdependent world, governance is projected as the most appropriate device to tackle and mitigate the challengesof the interconnected society. It is identified as a perception of the goodsociety and the means to attain it.It is a construction of rationalities anda range of political technologies constantly negotiated among actorsin a network.9Governance is thus sought to be universalized a perquisite condition for the overall development. It also implies that failures indevelopment efforts have largely been resulting into 'poor governance' means less democratic, inefficiency, and inadequacy in a democratic process.Governance generally means 'the act or process of governing,explicitly authoritative direction and control.10 To be moreprecise, governance can be further defined as “the political directionand control exercised over the actions of the members, citizensor inhabitants of communities, societies and states”.11 While conceptualizinggood governance in the context of debt-ridden Sub-Saharan Africa, the World Bank was guided by the awareness that,
efforts to create an enabling environment and to build capacities will be wasted if the political context is not favourable. Ultimately better governance requires political renewal. This means a concerted attack on corruption from the highest to lowest level. This can be done by setting good example, by strengthening accountability, by encouraging public debate, and by maturing a free press. It also means ... fostering grassroots and nongovernmental organizations such as farmers' associations, cooperatives and women's groups.12
Underlining the above goal, the World Bank defined good governancein the following manner:
Good governance is epitomized by predictable, open and enlightened policy making, a bureaucracy imbued with professional ethos acting in
45
furtherance of the public good, the rule of law, transparent processes and a strong civil society participating in public affairs. 13
There are four key elements: (i) public sector management,(ii) accountability,(iii) legal framework for development, and(4) information and transparency,to improve the governancewhich determinesthe patrimonial profile of the country.It is alsocontrasted with 'poor governance' which is responsible for lackof sound development in Sub-Saharan African countries. according to the World Bank Poor governance ischaracterizedby arbitrary policy making, unaccountable as well as unskilled bureaucracies,un-enforced or unjust legal systems, the abuse of executive power, acivil society unengaged in public life and widespread corruption.14 According to the World Bank, some of the symptoms identified for poorgovernance are as follows: 15
1. Failure to make a clearseparation between what is public and what is private, hence, a tendency to divert public resources for private gain; 2. Failure to establish a proper framework of law and government behaviour conducive to development, orarbitrariness in the application of rules and laws; 3. Excessive rules, regulations, licensing requirements, and soforth, which obstruct the functioning of markets andencourage rent-seeking; 4. Priorities inconsistent with development, resulting in misallocation of resources; and 5. Excessively narrowly based or non-transparent decisionmaking. The problem of the development of Africa is 'a crisis of governance'. The World Bank expressed it 'the lack of official accountability, the control of information and a failure to respect the rule of law'. Since governance is the conscious management with a view to enhancing the public realm. Thus, the World Bank insists on 'independent judiciary, scrupulous respect for the law and human rights at every level of government, transparency, accountability of public monies, and
46
independent public auditors responsible to a representative legislature, not to an executive .16
Forthe efficient governance, another World Bank document, Governance and Development (1992),17defines governance as the manner inwhich power is exercised in the management of a country's economicand social resources for development. It denotes,
I. Any form of political regime (parliamentary or presidential, military or civilian, and authoritarian or democratic), II. The process in which the power is exercised, and III. The capacity of the government to design, and implement policies-to discharge the government functions.
While the first aspect of governance falls outside the World Bank's ambit, the second and third aspects, as claimed by the World Bank, appear critical to the bank.18
However, thesubsequent explanation of the concept by other international agenciessupports the World Bank agenda, it is clear that these three aspectsremain integral to governance. At another point, UNDP elaborates theconcept of governance asthe essence of economic,political and administrative authority to manage a country's affairsat all levels. It comprises mechanisms, processes and institutions,through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercisetheir legal rights, meet their local obligations and mediate their differences.19 The nature of governance is thus reliant on thehistorical circumstances in which it is articulated simply becausethe relations between rulers and ruled differ in every country. Asmentioned in a working paper of the World Bank,
history, custom, law, society and political economy affect the way in which the ruled in a country hold rulers to account for their performance, the relative openness of a socio-political system or an
47
economy, and the degree of predictability in government decision- making and interaction with the public.20
2.2.2. Genesis of Governance:
Historically, the governance is a product of public administration. It is a conceptualized form of the government to cop up with the assigned work successfully. The development of governance has been found in the formulation of OECD. There have been four sets of developmental aspect that influenced the shifts in governance: The first is the impact of struggles for greaterdemocracy or democratic governance and competitive markets. The second set is changes in economic productivity and other available resources. The third is the demand for the reformation in administrative system. Finally, thefourth is about managerial innovations and its application, institutional design and organizational structure ofadministrative operation.21The search for new conceptualization of governance could be found in the collapse of the Soviet Union wherealternative management practices, stranded in Marxism-Leninism. In the developedcapitalist countries, theanti-bureaucratic and anti-state criticism arose against the government that was called as 'government overload' as a consequence of 'welfarebacklash'. The state captured a large array of activitiesthat have exaggerated its budgetary andfinancial commitments.This intervention of the state led to overgrowth ofbureaucracy. It was a need to downsizethe role of government and allowmore free play to the market and civilsociety giving rise to the new ideology of neo-liberalism.
With the emergence of globalization, the traditional bureaucraticmodel lost its significance,because ofgrowing importance of the non-state actors in administration. The increasing role of transnational forces even in domesticadministration, the centre-state theories of bureaucracy seem tobe inadequate in addressing the issues both in the developed and in the developing countries.Government is being 'reinvented' structurally as well as ideologically in an environment where neo-liberal values seem tohave triumphed. Globalizationhas led to interconnectednessbetween corporate discipline and entrepreneurial spirit. The government has discarded its traditional image of a doer. The government has
48 become an enabler to accommodate the market impulse. Globalization restrictsthe national governments and limits its policy options. The state is increasingly being directed byneo-liberal values supports globalization of the capital. Public administrationis now 'governance', which is nothing but checkpoint ofcertain activities of the government.The distinction between public and private administrationis no longer significant in conceptualizing public administration.Citizens are customers, and those involved in public administrationare functionaries seeking to approximate the „corporate‟ culture.
Accountability in public bureaucracy is determined by internal issues as well as various external agencies, including citizen‟scharter. To take undue credit on globalization, the Structural AdjustmentProgramme(SAP) led to economic reforms in the developing countries. The conditional loans provided to developing countries by transnationalagencies to make them dependent on global capital.In the 1989 World Bank report, to be eligible for financial assistancefrom the World Bank, countries need to recast their socio-economicand political goals in accordance with the World Bank prescriptions.The report thus insists that the countries;
„that had adopted a sound medium-term economic policy framework would be eligible for Bank support. Support would be decided on a case- to-case basis, taking into account the strength of the medium-term adjustment program (sic) the severity of the debt burden, the scope for voluntary market based operations, the medium-term financing plan, and the potential benefits from Bank support, particularly for investment and growth.‟22
In late 80s at the time of emergence of governance, the loans provided by various international agencies,including the World Bank, adoptedStructural Adjustment Programmes (SAP). The aim ofadjustment programme was to provide an effective option by promoting open andfree competitive market economiesby minimal interference of the states.23Thisstructural adjustment programme based on two processes.Thefirst is to stabilize economic prospects by immediate devaluation
49 and drastic public expenditure cuts.Second, the process of adjustment through transformation of economic structure and institutions of deregulation, privatization, downsize the public bureaucracies, reducing subsidies, greaterefficiency and productivity, especially for export .24
2.2.3. Definition of Governance:
Governance is anauthoritative process in which power isexercised, as the following definitions illustrate:
UNDP: Governance is viewed as the exercise of economic, politicaland administrative authority to manage a country's affairs at alllevels. It comprises mechanisms, processes and institutions throughwhich citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise theirlegal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences(UNDP 1997).
World Bank: Governance is defined as the manner in which poweris exercised in the management of a country's economic and socialresources. The World Bank has identified three distinct aspects ofgovernance: (1) the form of political regime, (2) the process by whichauthority is exercised in the management of a country's economicand social resources for development, and (3) the capacity ofgovernments to design, formulate and implement policies anddischarge functions (World Bank 1997).
OECD: The concept of governance denotes the use of politicalauthority and exercise of control in relations to the management ofits resources for social and economic development. This broaddefinition encompasses the role of public authorities in establishingthe environment in which economic operators function and indetermining the distribution of benefits as well as the nature of therelationship between the ruler and ruled (OECD DAC 1995).
DFID: The Department for International Development adopts thesame approach as that provided by the OECD's DevelopmentAssistance Committee (DAC) which identifies four key elements ingovernance: (1) legitimacy of government (political
50 systems),(2) accountability of political and official elements of government(public administration and financial systems), and (3) competenceof governments to formulate policies and deliver services (publicadministration) and (4) economic systems and organizationalstrengthening.
Asian Development Bank (ADB): The definition of governance,adopted by the ADB echoes that of the World Bank. Accordingly,the ADB regards good governance as synonymous with sounddevelopment management. It involves both the public and privatesectors. It is related to the effectiveness with which developmentassistance is used, the impact of development programmes andprojects (including those financed by the Bank). Thus irrespectiveof the precise set of economic policies that find favour with agovernment, good governance is required to ensure that these policieshave their desired effect. In essence, it concerns norms of behavior that help ensure that governments actually deliver to their citizenswhat they say they will deliver.
USAID: Governance encompasses the capacity of the state, the commitment to the public good, the rule of law, the degree oftransparency and accountability, the level of popular participationand the stock of social capital. Without good governance, it isimpossible to foster development. No amount of resource transferredor infrastructure built can compensate bad governance.
Institute of Governance, Ottawa, Canada: Governance comprisethe institutions, processes and conventions in a society, whichdetermine how power is exercised, how important decisions affectingsociety are made and how various interests are accorded a place insuch decisions.
Commissions on Global Governance: Governance is the sum of themany ways individuals and institutions, public and private, managetheir common affairs.It is a continuing process through whichconflicting or diverse interests may be accommodated or cooperativeaction may be taken. It includes formal institutions and regimesempowered to enforce compliance, as well as formal arrangementsthat people and institutions either have agreed to or perceive to bein their interest.
51
Governance is also articulated by the UNDP broadly, in terms of major eight characteristics.25It is participatory, consensus oriented,accountable,transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitableand inclusive, and follows the rule of law. It assures that corruptionis minimized, the views of minorities are taken into account, andthat the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decisionmaking. It is also responsive to the present and future needs of society.Governance is a complex phenomenon underlining the abovecharacteristics which are elaborated as follows:
Participation: Participation by both men and women is the cornerstone of goodgovernance. Participation could be either direct or through legitimateintermediate institutions or representatives.It is neededto be informedand organized. It is important that in a representative democracy.Thedecision making process the most vulnerable in society would be taken intoconsideration.It means freedom of association and expression,on the one hand, and an organized civil society, on the other hand.
Rule of Law:Good governance requires fair legal frameworks.It should be enforcedimpartially. It also requires full protection of human rights,particularly those of minorities. An independent judiciary is requiredto enforceimpartial laws, an impartial and honestpolice force.
Transparency: Transparency means fairness in the decisions taken by the authority.The enforcement is to be made in a manner that follows rules and regulations. It also meansthat information is freely available and easily and directly accessible to thosewho will be affected by such decisions and their enforcement. The provided information should be easily understandable forms and media. Responsiveness: Good governance requires that institutions and processes try to serveall stakeholders within a reasonable time frame. By being responsive,governmental institutions gain legitimacy in the public realm, whichwill automatically ensure their wider acceptance and, thus,effectiveness in governance. Apart from well-designed structuraldevices, responsiveness of public
52 institutions can be meaningfullyascertained only if there is a serious civil society engagement in Public affairs.
Accountability:Accountability is a key requirement of good governance. It is not only for governmental institutions but also for the private sector and civil society. It must be accountable to the public and to theirinstitutional stakeholders.In general, an organizationor an institution is accountable to those who will be affected by itsdecisions or actions. It cannot be enforced withoutthe rule of lawand transparency.
Equity and Inclusiveness: The well-being of a society depends on ensuring that all its members feelthat they have a stake in it. They do not have feelings of exclusion from mainstream of the society. It requires that all groups, especially themost vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or maintain theirwell-being.
Consensus Oriented: In a society there are several actors and as many viewpoints exists. It requires mediation of the different interests insociety to reach a broad consensus. Through which the best interest ofthe whole community can be achieved. It also requiresa broad and long-term perspective.It is needed for sustainablehuman development and how to achieve the goals of such development. The results of such consensus can get only through the proper understanding of historical,cultural, and social contexts of a society or community.
Effectiveness and Efficiency: The ultimate target of the Good governance is to meet the needs of society through the processes and institutions concerned and the best use ofresources at their disposal. Hence in this concern the concept of efficiency in the contextof good governance covers the sustainable use of naturalresources and protection of the environment as well.26
Governance is thus a mechanism to checkthe criteria of managing publicaffairs. As Lewis T. Preston, the World Bank President, categoricallystated in his foreword to Governance and Development (1992),
53
[g]ood governance is an essential complement to sound economic policies. Efficient and accountable management by the public sector and a predictable and transparent policy framework are critical to the efficiency of markets and governments, and hence to economic development.27
Conceptually governance is a threedimensional aspect.First, it advocates the certain principles of publicadministration, namely, accountability, transparency, and participation.Second, it also resides on the processes in which politicalpower is articulated and exercised. Governance also recognizes the importance of interactionsbetween state, market, institutions and civil society. Third, applicationof governance, as both principles and processes, is dependenton the regulatory capacity of the state. It isrequired to improve governmental functioning in areas wheregovernment apparently minimal.It must be largely appropriated by'partisan' interests where it exists. Hence it is stated that,
Governance is a continuum, and not necessarily unidirectional, it does not automatically improve over time. It is a plant that needs constant tending. Citizens need to demand good governance. Their ability to do so is enhanced by literacy, education and employment opportunities. Government needs to prove responsive to those demands .... Change occurs sometimes in response to external or internal threats. It also occurs through pressures from different interest groups, some of which may be in the form of populist demands. Although lenders and aid agencies and other outsiders be effective it must be rooted firmly in the societies concerned and cannot be imposed from outside.28
The World Bank formula suggests the followingrequirements of thenew governance paradigm:
I. A recommended shift in general emphasis from policy to management with administrators becoming fully cost conscious in every action they take and before making decisions;
54
II. Clusters rather than pyramids as the preferred model for the design of administrative systems (for example, autonomous agencies form liaison with major ministries as equal partners in various governmental projects); III. In place of planning and hierarchical execution of decisions, a dichotomy between core policy activities and adaptive operational services; IV. A process-oriented administration gives way to an output oriented administration (hence the insistence on performance indicators, evaluations, and performance-related pay and quality improvement); V. Flexible provision of individualized products instead of collective provision (the customer replaces the citizen, and 'the production line' of public administration is broken down into individual pieces for contracting-out or privatization); VI. An emphasis on cost-cutting rather than spending (the modern administrator's motto is value for money, that is, to do more and better with less or the same); and VII. the purpose of ownership is seen as efficient management rather than possession (budgeting in terms of simple input/ output quantities is replaced by 'accrual' accounting, and all public services are considered for privatization, if their commercial viability may be sustained at less cost in the private sector).29
Summing up the discussion on the definition of governance, the following pointscan be made as governance is a conceptual approach (i) it is a big questions of a constitutional nature that establish rules of political conduct; (ii) it involvethe creative intervention by political actors to change structures and expression of human potential; (iii) it emphasizeon the nature of interactions between state and social actors and (iv) it refers to a particular types of relationships among political actors which are socially endorsed rather than arbitrary.30It refers tothe traditions, institutions and processes that determine how poweris exercised, how citizens are given a voice and how decisions aremade on issues of public concern.31It is thus intrinsicallypolitical because it involves 'bargaining and compromise, winnersand losers, among playerswith different interests and resources.32Thus, governance is also a platform for interactions between
55 thestakeholders and government. Governance is also considered as „engaged governance‟whereby engagement between government and civil society isformally recognized.Thus, it is integralto the World Bank rhetoric and lending policies toward the ThirdWorld nations, addressednot only the issues of political legitimacy anddemocracy, but also administrative inefficiency by meansof marketization and competitioin.33 The World Bankconcern, the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of theOrganization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)thus underlines,the concept of „governance‟ is complex. The term is used ... in accordancewith a World Bank definition, to denote the use of political authority andexercise of control in society in relation to management of its resources forsocial and economic development. The broad definition encompasses therole of public authority in establishing the environment in which economicoperators function and in determining the distribution of benefits as wellas the nature of relationship between the ruler and the ruled.34
2.2.4. Theoretical Aspectsof Governance:
Conceptually, governance is an ideological triumph of neo-liberalism. The theoretical roots of governance can be found in economic theories neo-liberal approach. It is a redefined concept of functional government focused on the paradigms of marketization. It is a crossing point between state, market, and civil society.
Theoretically the „governance‟ has found its origin in neo-liberalist approach. More focus on the competitive market and reduce the role of state in public affairs and bring the civil society as a provider of local-level social services. The international funding agenciesparticularly the World Bank concernfor more accountable, transparent, open and participative rule. The newly emerging trend of globalizationthrough socio-economicintegration considered the bases of governance. The new right ideology looks for redefine public administration through less intervention of the government in society and more option for open free market. There are four schools of new right ideology namelyChicago, Austrian, Public Choice, and Supply Side.Milton Friedman has been themost prominent advocate of the Chicago
56 school of economists.The mainargument of this school is that empirical analysis of government actions and the market is moreeffective than government in achieving social goals.
The major impact can be understood from the conceptualization of the legitimate role of government. Carl Manger,Friedrich Hayek, and Ludurig Von Mises have been the biggest supporter of Austrian school. Theyfavouredfree-market orientation and the doctrine oflaissez-faire.Three distinguishing features of Austrian economicsare: (i) human action can be understood only through the study of social science (ii) the appropriate sources of study are onlyindividuals (methodologicalindividualism); and (iii) value is in the eye of the beholder (subjectivetheory of value). The supply side approach needsseparate treatment. All that can be noted in our context is that it isbased on neo-classical micro-economic theory, and its mainperspective for growth is reduction in interest rate.
The „public choice‟ debate which is a theory of politics, also known as the economics of politics. It is a subset of rational choice theory.It plays a strategic role to supportthe privatization and the application of marketization in government‟s decision making processes.James Buchanan and Gordon Tullockare the most prominent champion of this theory. This theorysupports politics as „the pursuitof public interests‟. Most of the supporters of this theory views that government has grown much larger than what the generalpublic would wish it to be. It is, because to meet thepreferences of politicians, bureaucrats, and interest groups.James Buchanan observes „misfortunes of modern political life' in the welfarestate. To him “the basic structure of property rights is nowthreatened more seriously than at any period during the two- centuryhistory of the United States”. Again, as he argues, 'governmentfailure against standard efficiency norms may be demonstratedanalytically and empirically, but I see no basis for the faith that suchdemonstration will magically produce institutional reform. I comeback to constitutional revolution as the only attractive alternativeto the scenario that we have seen but to act out'. Similarly Gordon Tullockargues we are loaded with a largeand basically incompetent bureaucracy. Efficiency in this sector could,looking at the matter economically, raise our national income andimprove our
57 rate of growth. Politically, it could both increase thedegree of control over citizens, qua voters and thus restrict his freedom. Mueller define in hisauthoritative explanation, that 'Public Choice as the economics of non-market decision making or simply theapplication of Economics to Political Science. The subject matter ofpublic choice is the same as that of Political Science the theory ofstate,the bureaucracy, voter behaviour,voting rules, party politics and so on.
The Virginian version of the public choice having twoapproaches: (1) public sector actorsbehave as if they maximize their own interests, and (2) all socialentities are fundamentally sets of individual actors. As James Buchanan observes, „the basic units are choosing units, acting, behaving personsrather than organic units such as provinces, or nations and parties againit is human nature to maximize their own utilities, and ...their ownnarrowly defined economic well-being is an important componentof these utilities‟. The Virginianversion of the public choice approach represents a positive theoryabout the public sector. Additionally, in this version, there is anormative theory of the state. This theory is a straightforward right-wingideology of a neo-liberal kind. The foundation of this approach was laid by the elements of a state theory coined byWicksell in 1896. Wicksell considered that efficiency in taxation were at the centre of the state theory, which pleaded strongly for aquid pro quo rule on an individual basis. The only mechanism thatwill guarantee optimal taxation for public goods provision is theunanimity rule or the individual veto principle in a legislative context. On the Wicksellian approach of governing decision making,Buchanan has derived two normative rules which are, in his views,constitutive of the public choice approach: (i) politics as exchange,and (ii) constitutional economic as the basisof public policy making. In the first normative rule-politics as exchange means that every public policy must be with theconsent of all citizens. It is the application of the Wicksellianunanimity rule to politics. To quote Buchanan, „in the absence ofindividual interest, there is no interest motivatedby self-interests‟.35
Therefore, politics does not entertainany idea of the common good. The second normativeprinciple of constitutional economics is a mechanism used for theexpression
58 of political criticism. As Buchanan argues,„existingconstitutions or structure of rules, are the subject of critical scrutiny.In the absence of any system of constitutional revisionson a permanent basis, it is a matter of conjecture as to what wouldbe acceptable to the citizens, had they been in a constitutional setting.The public choice approach prohibits all calculative exercises (in respectof public policies) except those based on the unanimity principle.Again, in the Buchanan‟sview, „there is no criterion through which public policy may be directly calculated. There may be some indirect process through which the political process measured to facilitates the individual‟s preferences as political outcomes. The focus of evaluative attentionbecomes the process itself, as contrasted with end-state or outcomepatterns‟.
2.2.5. Shifting from Government to Governance: Governance has been considered a concept of variation.The content of the concept of governance varies enormously between one theory and the other.36In inception it has been conceptualized in two different ways. In the classical way of governance, it is considered as an instrumental concept. The Supporters of this approach defined it as an instrument or process of implementation of decisions of the government. UNESCAP defined governance as „the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented)‟.37 Similarly, Shelly defined governance as a process that is dedicated to achieve three great objectives through an effective and people-oriented mechanism of bureaucracy: alleviation of poverty, creation of productive employment and social integration. According to Langlands, governance as good management, which underpins good performance, good stewardship of public money, good public engagement and, ultimately, good outcomes. In this above views, governance means an effective process of decision making for the implementation of government programs and services.
In another way, the governance has been viewed as a normative concept. The supporters of this view defined it as reform, outcome or a shift of government. Hirst considered that the word „governance as an alternative to the government.38 The government is a political actor, where they play only the role of service delivery to the people, in which the state, people and private sectors performs there responsibility through governance.39To Rhodes, the word governance can be used as a blanket term to signify a change in the meaning of government. He identified seven separate uses of 59 the word „governance‟. Out of thesethe basic and common elements are: minimizingthe role of state, participation of all stakeholders, accountability, transparency, and vertical networking. Thus, governance means a considerable change in the meaning of government. It leads to a new way of governing with least intervention of state and more engagement of the people in the public service delivery process. Consequently, governance is the interactive social-political forms of governing. He identified that the people or private sector participation as a synonym for governance; public sector should be run with „minimal government‟ and „more governance.40 Barten et al definesthat „governance could be considered the result of the participatory approach to development.‟41Henceforth all these studies are accepting the normative value of the governance to conceptualise good governance.
By these definitions of governance recognize that the central meaning of it is the people‟sparticipation within the government process. „Governance could be considered the result of the participatory approach to development‟42. In fact the people‟s participation activities within the government changed the term government to governance.43However, among all these the term good governance has achieved recognition because of its worldwide sharing by the international development agencies.
Thus, it could be said that governance is the shadow term of good governance, as the central element in both terms is the same: that is, people‟s participation. Nowadays, most of the literature uses good governance instead of governance, as the terms are seen to be complementary to each otheror uses simply governance instead of good governance.44 There are different scholars and international agencies have defined the term good governance in different ways. Some social scientists define good governance in a very simple way, as the level of goodness or quality of governance. Santiso (2001) broadly illustrated good governance, as a „quality‟ of governance that focused on the further requirements of the process of decision-making and public policy formulation.45 On the contrary, Minogue argues that the term as a „reform strategy‟ of governance, where that strategy was particularly used to „strengthen the institutions of local society with the objective of making government more accountable, openness, transparent and more democratic‟46. Simply, good governance means executing a coherent governing
60 plan for the nation based on the interests and priorities of people. Thus, while „governance‟ appears as more close to government in relation to its service delivery process to the people,then the „good governance‟ appears as a broader concept. Good governance has become more close to people and practice of all democratic norms for the welfare of people.
2.2.6. Governance and International Agencies:
In the last few decades the notion about the good governance has been accepted discourse among the intellectuals, donor institutions, politicians, development workers, and administrators. It is only because of extensive expansion of the role and responsibilities of the government to the people 47. International development or donor agencies like the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the United Nations Development Program (UNDP),) and others institutions having functional approach to describe good governance, focused on management factors to promote the economic and developmental issues. According to UNDP there are three bases of good governance: Economic, Political and administrative.48Economic governance deals with sound decision-making processes related to the economic aspect of a country. It is particularly focus on poverty reduction and promotion of equity. Political governance deals with good processes in the formulation of policies and programmes for the welfare of the people. Administrative governance deals with the participatory process in the implementation of policy and programmes. Encompassing all these three bases, good governance constructs the processes and structures that guide political and socioeconomic relationships.49
The United Nations Development Programs (UNDP) highlighted that good governance as the good exercise affairs of a nation at all levels. It prescribed that governance is good when it pledges to nine characteristics, which are: Participation, Rule of Law, Transparency, Consensus Orientation, Equity Building, Strategic Vision, Effectiveness & Efficiency and Accountability.50 The UNESCAP identifies eight values of goodgovernance. These are: Follows the rule of law, Accountable, Participatory, Transparent, Consensus oriented, Responsiveness, Effective and Efficient, Equitable and inclusiveness (UNESCAP 2008)51. Likewise, UK‟s Overseas Development Administration (ODA, presently DFID) identified four main elements that ensure quality of government services. The World Bank (WB) defines good governance as
61 good management of economic and social resources for development of a country. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) identified four basic components of governance that help a government to operate most effectively and efficiently. All these elements of good governance have been presented in the following table:
Table:2.1Elements of Governance/Good Governance by Various International Agencies WB UNDP ADB ESCAP ODA/ DFID
Accountability Accountability Accountability Accountable Accountability
Participation Participation Participation Participatory Participation Rule of law and Follows the rule control of Rule of Law Predictability Legitimacy of law corruption Government Transparency Transparency Transparent Transparency effectiveness Regulatory Consensus Consensus quality Orientation oriented Political stability Equity Equitable and and absence of Building inclusive violence Effective and Effectiveness efficient Efficiency Responsive Strategic Vision Sources: Turner and Hulme (1997), Waheduzzaman (2007).
2.3. Governance in the Context of India:
The state came into existence, governance has been an issue ofconcern for the social scientists world over, Aristotle's familiar observationthat 'state came into existence for life, but continues to exist for good life'is a theme of continual relevance which can hardly be 'ignored or denied. The politicalstructure of India had little roots inits societal framework and the value frame. For centuriesthe social order of Indian society persisted with heterogeneityand inequality. Further, during the later period, the political structure come across a castebased social system. This system practiced for along period and influenced other aspects of political and administrativesystem. After the independence of India it was designeddeliberately from its historical past by focusing on new value frame suited tonew Political system52.
62
2.3.1. Glimpses from Ancient India on Governance: Governance in ancient India had been important part of the administration. It can be found in earliest Vedic literature of ancient India. The RigvedaSamhita, Yujrveda, the Samaveda, the Athurveda and Upnishads are the enough evident of ancient Indian Administrative Governance. These literatures reveal that the polity of ancient India based on the principle of righteousness. It was considered that any deviation from these principle as immoral and sometime even punishable. Some other example from ancient Indian administration established mile stone for good governance like the Ruler Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka the Great, Rule of Chandragupta Vikramaditya etc. In ancient India, kautilya described good governance in the best way. King is the servant of State. He isnot only rules but also administers and serves. The happiness of people and that of state is the happiness of king. King should not work for his own benefit. He is a constitutional slave. Even the best king should be controlled by Sabha and rule of law.
Thus, hefavoured limited government. There must be code of conduct for rulers. Their life should be disciplined. Maintenance of law and order was the responsibility of the ruler. He suggests for preventive measures against corrupt officials. Ashoka,the Great also known for his good administrative skills. He did lots of work for the benefit of people like construction of roads, plantation and dugwells on the roadside for travelers. He also did much for maintaining law and order. He also promoted development of agriculture and trade. He made rules and regulation to save traders from double- taxation.In the first half of 7th century the good governance during the rule of Harshavardhana (606 A.D to 647A.D) was well known. Banbhatta described his achievements very well. He protected the unity of state,maintained law and order, promoted art and literature. He also performed a lot of work for the development and protection of the people. The good governance in the Ramayan andMahabharatRamrajya is taken to be our ideal. Shanti Parva of Mahabharat is full of parameters on good governance. So these are the some evidence of governance that can be traced out from the ancient Indian literature and ruler of that period who rule the entire India through their efficient and good administrative skills.53
63
2.3.2. Glimpses from Medieval India on Governance:
Governance has been defined in different way over the centuries.It may best be phrased in the immortal couplet of Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1983). "Jalal-e-Badshahi ho, yajamhoor-e-tamasha, Juda ho deensiyasat se to rehja'atihaiChangazi." (Be it the glory of an emperor or the rule of the people. If it lacks the compassion of the Almighty, it is the rule of Changez Khan). It is required to attainthese objectivesthat political, economic, executive and judicial authority to be exercised in such a way that the people are enabled to enjoy their rights and able to discharge their obligations towards the societies.It can be able to resolve their differences and disputes withinthe parameters of the constitution and the rule of law.Thus, Good Governance in the historical dialectic entails on four factors: 1. Legitimacy based on trust of the citizens 2. Accountability and Responsibility 3. Neutrality 4. Efficiency. In the context of India, during the medieval period the Mughal Empireswere remained dynamic, centralised, complex organisation. They had supreme political authority over a huge population covering a geographical subcontinent spread across nearly 3.2 million sq. kms. Their solemnity and luxury deception and their power daunted the foreigners. In a Description of Bernier that the Mughal empire at its height and popularized among the people. To John Dryden onTragedy of Aurangzebethat the empire at his time is considered to have rested on four main, pillars- I. Personality and leadership of the ruler. II. The support of the majority community especially the powerfulRajputs, through what is today called the Sulah-e-Kul. III. The policy of toleration. IV. Efficiency of administration and neutrality of judgment. The Mughals commanders, officials, soldiers, men, money, information and other resources moved regularly and routinely throughout the empire as official dictated.
64
Mughal success was the product ofhard driving, active and participative ruler of competent persons like Raja Man Singh, Raja Todar Mal, Asaf Khan, Jaswant Singh, MahabatKhanandand others. During the Mughal period military strategy, centralized control, territorial expansion were the legacy of skilled management and strategic vision of their emperors in India. Perhaps,it was the greater and equally lasting dimensionalapproach ofMughals in the context of socio-cultural governance as opened by them.The Mughal empire was all-India and based on the trust of the people, efficient and just.Even a man like Jehangir with his personal weakness and many confrontations, could still inspire confidence in the Riyayya with his famous „Chain of Justice.‟He appointed Mirza Raja Jaisingh as the Viceroy of the Mughal Deccan.Jaswant Singh Rathor appointed as the commander of Jamrud in Afghanistan. At the end from these chains of ideas, it must have been an inborn confidence in the governance of the Mughals.
The theory of Kingship during Balban and AlauddinKhiljiin which the State transformed into the Niyamat-e-Khudai or the gift of the almighty and they had sidelined Islamic fundamentalist elements. They deployedhuge contingents of the army to preventinvasion of Timur. The Iqtadari System during 15thcentury and evolved the District as the centre ofadministration-revenue, military and civil.The Revenue System of Raja Todarmal (1580), classification of land, fixation of revenue on the actual measurement of land. This is the base of modern revenue system in India. The establishment of Mansabdari System is example of introducing the effective governance during the Muhghal period. Food for all programme is another example of governance as well as administrative management from FatehpurSikri to Mughal fort of Lahore during the 16th and 17th centuries. Coming to British India which actually means „India under British Rule‟ the British historians, civil servants and their „Brown Sahib‟ inheritors-have often thought of the conquest of India as chance.The British Raj more in terms of the push of turmoil, rather than in the triumphant push of conquest.The reality is that the Raj was a provocative commercial mix and strategic obsession which gave new dimensions to imperial expansion and annexation in Punjab, Sind, Afghanistan and Burma.The Doctrine of Lapse on the ground of maladministration was titled, ‘For the Good of the Governed’. Nevertheless in the context ofthispresentation, British Rule had provided a contextual framework in India. Education and social reform started which can broadly be
65 characterised as „secularisation of caste‟ which has detached caste from the ritual-status hierarchy on the one hand and has imparted to it a character of a power group functioning with a competitive democratic politics on the other hand.Administration and Good Governance are immortalisedfound in various district gazetteers and personal recollections of district officers. Revenue collection, tiger shooting, the district club, durbars, inspections and haunted palaces, royal scheming are the most common thread found in these writings.
The rise and expansion of the Western education in Indian middle class in whom the epithet „Babu‟ gave a phenomenal respectability in Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. It was this class that really delinked India from its lost identity with the mechanistic and materialistic interpretation of Governance. Ithad brought out the importance of theheritage of cultural governance as is seen in the works of AurobindoGhosh, Swami Vivekananda or Henry Vivian Derozio. In the word of SwamiVivekanandji's Good Governance in India „would be the junction of two great systems Hinduism and Islam-the Vedanta brain and the Islamic body.‟Good Governance, in the modern setting is complex and linked to economic demography. It means the lines of innovation-technology- employment of capital with productive growth.Ministers, Governor Generals were focused only to bring personal glory but unable to lift the bulk of the people from the chasm of poverty.They failed because of, unable to invent a paradigm of effective governance to abolish poverty from the root. Ironically, it was the British who first gave a proper structure of governance to this country. It is true that the government was mainly concerned with the maintenance of law and order, collection of revenue.They exploited resources, both natural and human for the benefit of their domestic industry. They killed any urges for domesticbusiness and self-government and for their economic interests.54
At the time of freedom struggle, there was an objective of the independence that is self- governance and between the choice of 'good governance' and 'selfgovernment'.The primacy was attached to self government. It was the questionof attaining freedom from Britishers and bondage. In view of the importance andurgency of the freedom, other aspects put aside.India after the attainment of independence on 15th of August, 1947 established self Government from the British. An interimgovernment took over and a
66
Constituent Assembly was formed toframe a constitution for India. The constitution of India formulated and adopted it on 1949 by the people ofIndia. Thus the Preamble of the Constitution ofIndiaprovides us the basic premise for future governance. It is worth noting the content of the Preamble says that:
"We, the people of India having solemnly constitute India into…."
Thus, the Preamble of the Indian constitution clearly indicates the nature of the Indian polity andthe future of thesocio-economic system that is going to have. It also indicates the nature and the role of governance. In fact, the concept ofdemocracy, socialism and secularism and the other philosophical aspect of the Indian constitution woulddetermine the system of governance of future India. After the establishment self government at the national level, there is a need for good governance.It was the agenda of various political parties in the country. It was also realized in the view of different political parties thatgovernance has suffered somewhere down the line. In this view, perhapsthe last couple of general elections have witnessed the emergence of theslogan of good governance. In the absence of good governance, thevery relevance and continuance of such governance is questioned.
The root of emergence of good governance can be traced out basically in a good sociopoliticalenvironment. The socio-political andadministrative system is inter- dependent on each other as they operate in wider environment.The emergence of good governance is the widespread problems of the society which have beeninfluencing the politics. In the last two - three general elections, there is anemergence of coalition government. Because, there is no single political party is able tosecure majority in the Parliament. Gradually, it seems to be oneparty dominant system is over and coalition of political parties is replacing that. There would, therefore, be a difference in two types of system.
Over the years, thesocio-political process has witnessed several changesat different levels including policy formulation and implementation as well. To illustrate, one would like to analyse therole of caste in our politicaland social system, in factthe caste has continued to play an increasing role in the socio-politicalprocess which cannot be
67 denied. Several governments during the last few decades have grantedreservations in political as well as administrative positions on the basis of caste. The electoralprocess has also been continuously influenced by these factors irrespectiveof political outfit. Under such state of affairs, societal fragmentation has takenplace which gets reflected in various forms and at various levels. On the ground of such fragmentation it seems that there is clear cut division ofvote on these bases. This division influences the electoral process whichleads to division of votes and diversification of political parties.
Apart from heterogeneity, the Indian socio-political system based itself more on persons and individuals concern rather thanideology or rationality. This has given rise to a system where governancebecame rather complex and difficult.55
2.4. The Development: Concept
There are numerous connotations about the development, it is considered as growth, change or transformation and modernization etc. In economic terms, it refers to the increasing capacity to produce consumption goods and a parallel increase in consumption patterns. In term of growth, it can be defined with respect to an increased ability to fulfill basic human needs of food, clothing, healthcare, shelter, education and infrastructure. In other sense of growth, it has also been defined in terms of expansion of possibilities, an increase in the choices of individual, abilities and functioning. Development in the above senses carries with it connotations of being positive, progressive, and natural beneficial and inevitable. In term of change and transformation development refers to the economic, social, political and cultural processes of change in the society. It can also be understood as modernisation. Often, it is being considered that modernisation as a means of development. In the economic sphere it refers to the processes of industrialisation, urbanisation and technological transformation of agriculture and infrastructural development.In the political realm, it requires a rationalised bureaucracy in particular and a rationalisation of authority in general. In the cultural sphere it is the growth of science and secularisation, along with an expansion of the literate population. Development in term of modernity stands for what is understood as Westernisation, where the west stands as the model for the progress of the rest of the
68 world. So it has becomes a comparative adjective, which is based on the western centric assumption. There is a process of linear evolution of the world in which the West leads world history and evolution. The other nations must follow in their footsteps towards a homogenous world. As development defined in terms of increase in productivity, economic prosperity and spreading out of the market economy and underdevelopment had been constructed as the phenomena of poverty, low productivity and backwardness. There was optimism that economic growth was the fastest road to development. Therefore, in 1950s onwards there has been compulsive focus on industrialisation and growth of Gross National Product (GNP). It has been assumed that the natural consequence of a rapid growth in these will bring about positive changes in existing social conditions. However, there were several adverse consequences due to this.Usually development meant for industrial growth, profits and resources mobilization. It has been diverted to feed industry at times ignoring the basic subsistence need of society. It obviously led to the expansion of the market at the cost of livelihoods for many. The growth-oriented development was attended by an increase in inequalities, disparities and social disintegration. Gunder Frank who perceived the injustices of the existing developmental processes coined the phrase development of underdevelopment, to him that the process of development that is underway makes some people and regions developed while others are underdeveloped as a result of this global dynamics of the world system.56 Since the development has been the controversial and unstable over the time. Thomas57argues, development is contested,...complex and ambiguous. Gore58 notes that 1950s and 1960s a vision of liberation of people and peoples‟ dominated and based on structural transformation. This is a definition which is directly related to the achievement of poverty reduction and of Millennium Development Goal. Hickey and Mohan emphasized on the approach of „post modernist‟. They argued that post modern development is a discourse that actually shapes and frames „reality‟ and power relations. It is because the „discourse‟ values certain things over others. In terms of „real development‟ there might be a new „discourse‟ based on „alternative value systems‟ which place a much higher value on spiritual or cultural assets, and within which those without significant economic assets would be regarded as having significant wealth. A
69 common theme in most of the definitions is that „development‟ includes „change‟ in a variety of aspects of the human condition. In fact, one of the simplest definitions of „development‟ is probably Chambers59notion of „good change‟ about the role of values, and whether „bad change‟ is also viewed as a form of development. Development is a process of structural societal change primarily focused on the socio-economic condition of the society. It is a major societal shift in one dimension for instance from rural or agro based society to an urban or industrial based society would also have radical implication in another dimension.
2.5. Rural Development: Concept and Genesis
2.5.1. Rural Development as a Concept The development of rural people and the development of rural area has always been the prime concern in the economic planning and the process of development in the country. The sustainable development in the rural areas is the essential perquisite to establish a strong and modern nation and to secure its rightful place in the comity of nations. Rural development in the few decades has emerged as a strategy designed to improve the socio- economic life of a specific group of people especially marginalized group. It involves extending the benefits of the development to the rural poor. The objective of the rural development is to improve the productivity, employment opportunity, higher income for targeted group as well as minimum acceptable level of livelihood through food, clothing, shelter, education and health etc.60 Rural development can be define as a process of developing and utilizing natural and human resources, technologies, infrastructure facilities, institutions and organisations, and government policies and programmes to encourage and speed up economic growth in rural areas, to provide jobs, and to improve the quality of rural life towards self reliance. In addition to economic growth, the process usually involves changes in popular attitudes, and in many cases even in customs and their beliefs. There are no valid guidelines to identify appropriate engines of growth. It is an alternative which is influenced by time, space, culture and customs. It has drawn the attention of the economists‟ right from the Mercantilist era and Adam Smith down to Marse and Keynes. They were mainly interested in the problems which
70 were essentially static in nature and largely related to a western European framework of social and cultural institutions. Their interest in the economics of development has been stimulated by the wave of political revival that swept the Asian and African countries after Second World War and promote for rapid economic development. The developed nations realized that „poverty anywhere is a treat to prosperity everywhere‟. Meier and Baldwin have remarked the poverty of nations has even more urgency than a study of the wealth of Nations. The Economists having different views on its definition as some says increase in the economy‟s real national income over a long period and some says about the increase in the per capita real income of the economy which are not convincing as it lacks of human welfare.
The Economic experts having different views on the concept of economic development and so, it is very complicated to define what rural development actually means. It is rather complex and multidimensional approach which could not be conclusive. Generally, it is said that rural development means the development of rural areas through extension of irrigation facilities, rural electricity, innovation of new techniques of cultivation, educational and health facilities etc. But it seems a constriction of the aims of rural development. Agriculture may be the part of the rural development but it cannot be the whole of rural development. Professor V.K.R.V. Rao pointed out that the process of economic development essentially as a means to the development of human beings enabling them to realise their full potential. His concernedwas actually about the nurturing of human values and attainment of human dignity by all. He is influenced by his larger human perspectiveon rural development was. He further envisaged that agricultural development by itself had serious constraints in alleviating poverty.He emphasized that non-agricultural development and growth of social and cultural services are as important as agricultural development to solve the multifaceted problem of rural poverty and unemployment. There are different views on the concept of rural development.But rural development continues to fulfill the basic needs of the rural population coupled with psychological and cultural needs to make them productive and prosper.61
71
In real meaning Rural Development may entail to re-organize and mobilize the rural masses in order to enhance their capacity to cope up effectively with the daily task of their lives and with consequent changes. The World Bank emphasize that Rural Development must be clearly designed to increase productivity. It recognizes improved food supplies and nutrition, together with basic services, such as health and education.not only directly improve the physical well-being and quality of life of the rural poor, but can also indirectly enhance their productivity and their ability to contribute to the country‟s economy.It ensures the modernization of the rural society and promotes the shifting pattern from its traditional isolation to integration with the national economy. It is mainly concerned with increased agricultural production and allied sectors productivity for the urban and international markets. In order to promote the increased production of rural development may offer a package of inputs and welfare services for the rural peoples. These services include physical inputs like the provision of water, electrification and rural roads, social inputs such as health and educational facilities and institutional inputs such as credit facilities, agricultural research facilitiesand rural expansion services etc.62
Rural Development is not new concept for India. It is ratherintermingle in the heritage of Indian culture. It has been made alongwith the history of human kind. Even it could be found in the famous epics and drams like Ramayanaand Mahabharata as rural governance in terms of welfare and justice to the people. The philosophy of governance insuch literature illustratesthe Rural Development.
2.5.2. Rural Development: The Genesis
Historically, Rural Development traces back in the Seventeenth Centaury whenvoluntary efforts to serve the human kind were initiated. Forthe first time in England a group of people in a religious society which known as „Friends‟ or „Quakers‟ had emerged as a movement in this direction.Later on it disseminated in the other parts of the world in rapid strides. The objective was to provid services to mankind transcending bonds of religion, territoryand culture. The Quaker was a kind of rebel. In the mid of the seventeenthcentury, the main plank of the Quaker movement was that every human beinghas infinite dignity, that he is worthy of reverence simply because he is a
72 humanbeing and therefore, a temple of God.63 The main spirit behind this movement was selfless service and sacrifice. The Quaker service was brought byRachelMetcalfe in India. In 1866, she left England and came to India withinsufficient resources to launch a project ofsocial reconstruction. In the quarter of the nineteenth Century, a few moreQuakers arrived in India to actively participate in reconstruction of the society.But the sudden unfortunate part was that the famines of 1895-96 and 1899-1900 prepared these Quakers into as relief workers.64
Thus the Quakers can beconsidered as one of the major milestones in the pre Independence history ofRural Development.British rule in India began with trade and commerce under the British East IndiaCompany at Calcutta. But later on under compulsions and temptations the company acquired functions ofgovernance also. The British policy in India, reflective of the governingpolitical philosophy in Great Britain and was not in the favour of the social and economic welfare of the people.Even the upspring of 1857,was one of the lessonslearnt from societal concerns. Yet the British Government could notadhere to such a policy for long, and reinforcedby the local situational pressures, colonial economy, compelled a broadening the responsibilities of government, in general and entry of the government in the field of ruraldevelopment, in particular.The rural development functions in India were assumed by the government in thecontext of regular famines, but in the beginning, they did not have any legalsanctions behind them. In the first few decades after 1858, some district officers seize the food grain stocks and controlled the market toensure their distribution among the needy. All this was donewithout any apparent legal sanction, motivated, as the action purely was, bydetermination to control exploiter and alleviate rural suffering.65
2.6. Rural Development: Definition and Approach
There is no universally accepted definition of rural development. The term is used in different ways in divergent contexts. As a concept, it connotes overall development of rural areas with a view to improve the quality of life rural people. As a phenomenon, it is a result of physical, technological, economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors. As a discipline, it is multi-disciplinary in nature representing an intersection of agricultural, social, behavioural and management of sciences. In short, rural development is a process
73 that aims at improving the standard of living of the people living in the rural areas.“Rural development can be defined as overall development of rural areas to improve the quality of life of the rural people. It is an integrated process which includes social, economical, political and spiritual development of the poorer and marginalized sections of the society.
2.6.1. Rural Development: The Definitional Aspect
Rural Developmentcan be defined as helping the rural people set the priorities in their own communities through effective and democratic bodies by providing the local capacity; investment in basic infrastructure and social services, justice, equity and security, dealing with the injustices of the past and ensuring safety and security of the rural population, especially that of women.66According to Robert Chambers, rural development is a strategy to enable a specific group of people, poor rural women and men and their children more of what they want and need. It involves helping the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas to demand and control more of the benefits of rural development. The group includes small scale farmers, tenants and the landless.67Copp has defined it as a process through collective efforts, aimed at improving the well being and self-realization of people living outside the urbanized areas. He further contends that the ultimate target of rural development should be to „widen people‟s ranges of choice‟. The efforts should be towards prevention and improvement of the rural environment and rural development planning.Lassey highlights that the focus of rural development should be on (i) prevention of ecological integrity with a view to providing continuing supply of life supporting resources, (ii) efficient and appropriate land use, (iii) healthy living conditions, (iv) aesthetically pleasing environment, (v) effective social, economic and governmental institutions, (vi) improved human welfare in term of minimal economy and social level, (vii) physical structures and adapted landscape of pleasing design, (viii) comprehensiveness that is a full range of physical, biological and human factors in rural region.68But in the context of third world countries, rural development would also demand increases in agriculture production and total productivity. Emotional attachment of land is a powerful force in most rural areas. Changes in the land system may restrict people‟s freedom to profit from changing use of land and this may also interfere with freedom to sell land to the higher bidder, regardless
74 of intended use. On the one hand the traditional economists suggest integrated rural development concept with concentration on agriculture and equal emphasis on Industries, self-reliance and local leadership, medical care, housing and education to tackle the problem of poverty in the developing countries.
The political economists advocate social revolution as a precondition for socio- economic development. The amenities and industries should be taken to the people in the rural areas so as to keep them there and the elites should be replaced by people committed to do the job and the bureaucrats within the system should be taken to the level where they can meet the needs of the people. In other words, institutionalization of a revolutionary solidarity movement through the methodology of the mass movement is suggested for rural development.Themeaning of rural development has been the subject of much debate and little agreement. It may be centered on income criterion in which the concept is made to address the problem of rural poverty and in sociological concept the rural poor represents a pool of untapped target group that should be given the opportunity to enjoy the benefits of development through improved education, health, nutrition and other social requirement. This is one of the most important definitions of rural development as the provision of social infrastructures could provide the catalyst that would transform the rural areas.It may also be seen as an ideology and a practice and a planned change by public agencies based outside the rural areas such as the national Government and International organization; it may also be the bringing of the countryside into an active state, as well as the transformation of the inferior nature of the country side into something more superior in terms of activities.Rural Development is the improvement in the living standard of the rural dwellers by engaging them in productive activities such as the establishment of rural industries, agro-business that will increase their income. It is seen by these scholars as a means of raising the sustainable living of the rural poor by giving them the opportunity to develop their full potentials.
Rural development is a multi-dimensional concept.It involves all kinds of development in rural areas through collective governmental and voluntary agencies‟ efforts in the country.The majority of the population resides in villages; national development becomes almost synonymous with rural development. India cannot shine
75 without the shining of rural India. After the attainment of independence a number of development programmes were started to change the scenario in the rural areas. Government has initiated, sustained and refined many rural development programmes under different five year plans. Huge amount funds expended, yet alleviation of poverty has remained a distant dream. Rural poverty is inextricably linked with low rural productivity and unemployment, including under-employment. There is a basic issue of providing livelihood security, basic enticements to the rural population. Infrastructural gaps require to be filled and connectivity with urban areas requires to be strengthened. Therefore, the core of rural development strategy is to provide self and wage employment, water supply, proper sanitary and health care measures and education.69
It is differentiated from the urban development in terms of its geo-physical location, spatial distribution of households on kinship-family complex lines, pattern between individuals and families, agriculture based occupational structure, informal clientele system formalized through established traditions and institutions, ascribed control and authority pattern and a belief system based on faith and conviction in religious ethics and themes. The growth and development of urban areas have by and large been at the expense of rural areas. With the emergence of the city centres, the countryside started getting neglected. This is much truer so far as the rural population in developing countries is concerned. When the umbrella of colonial regime was lifted from the Third World Nation, most of the planner and administrators of these newly independent young nations got concerned to develop the areas of their nations. This concern was largely because a majority of the population of these countries had been living in the rural areas under abject poverty, ignorance, exploitation, malnutrition and unhygienic and insanitary living condition. Ignorance and poverty were two stumbling blocks in the way of the socio-economic development of these countries and to do away with them, was the main objective of the newly independent nations. The commitment of the political leaders of these nations was to bring economic prosperity and improve the quality of life of the rural people constituting a big resource for them as electorates during the elections. In variably, this commitment becomes a prime passion with the political leaders at the time of elections and its tempo gets abated in due course of time. Some piecemeal programmes or projects on the rural development are brought to the people in rural areas
76 and these are many cases not consistent with their need structure. The ad-hocism in the planning of these programmes and half baked implementation strategies have raised the basic issue of what is required to be developed in these areas. This brings in the problems of conceptualizing rural development.70
Some accepted definition has been given by the various institutions and other prominent expert on that area.
Rural Development sector Policy Paper of the World Bank (1975) observes that rural development is a strategy designed to improve the economic and social life of a specific group of people - the rural poor. It involves the extension of the benefits of development to the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas. The group includes small scale farmers, tenants and the landless.
World Bank also defined in its publication that rural development is improving the livings standards of the low-income population residing in ruralareas and making the process of their development self-sustaining. It meansthe development of Villages into a healthy, self-sufficient and prosperous unit ofliving. It will provide the basic requirements for a healthy and comfortableliving.71
According to UN Report, rural development has come into international usage to connote the process by which the efforts of people themselves are united to those of Governmental authorities to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions in the life of the nation and to relate them to contribute fully to national programmes.72
According to James H. Crops a famous sociologist, has defined that rural developmentas a process through collective efforts, aimed at improving the well being andself-realisation of people living outside the urbanised area. He further contendsthat the ultimate target of rural development is people and not infrastructureand according to him one of the objectives of rural development should be to widen people's range of choice.73
In a seminar on Approaches to Rural Development in Asia, discussions were focused on the definition of rural development as “a process which leadto a continuous rise in the
77 capacity of the rural people to control theirenvironment, accompanied by a wider distribution of benefitsresulting fromsuch control” This definition is composed of three important elements:
I. It must be view as a process of raising the capacity of the rural people to control their environment. It does not mean only agricultural oreconomic development. Itincludes all aspects of rural life - social, economic, cultural and political, II. Rural Development as a process should continuously raise the capacity of therural people to influence their total environment, enabling them to become initiators and controllers of change in their environment rather than being merely the passive objects of external manipulation and control, and III. Rural development must result in wider distribution of benefits accruing from technical developments and the participation of weaker sections of the rural population in the process of development.74
Mishra and Sunderam defined rural development means as not merely development of rural areas but also the development of quality of life of the rural masses in to self- reliant and self-sustaining modem little communities. Rural development is therefore development of rural areas in such a way that each component of rural life changes in a desired direction.75
Thus, rural development is a multi-dimensional process. It includesthe development of socio-economic conditions of the rural people. It ensures the participation of people in the process of development for maximum utilization of physical and human resources for better conditions of livelihood. Itextends the benefits of development to the weaker and marginalized sections of rural area. It also enhances the capacity of administrative anddevelopmental agencies and agricultural marketing units workingin the rural vicinity.
2.6.2. Approach of Rural Development:
(1)Nationalist Approach:The first attempt for rural development in India was stated in 1885.The objective was to bring immediate relief and development of rural areas in Baroda. In 1922, the Swaraj Ashram was established at Baroda by Gandhi. The aim of the Ashram wasto prepare for non-cooperation, and the civil disobedience movement 78 launched by the Indian National Congress under the leadership of Gandhi. A resolution passed by the nationalist to boycott the foreign goods and mass publicity for the use of home-made Khadi clothes. It was thought that boycott of goods in particular might not affect adversely the British trade. But spinning and weaving as an instrument for training in the qualities of self-reliance and self-confidence would definitely bring about a favourable impact on rural development. After the world war second in 1939„Grow More Food‟ campaign was started to improve the level of food production through planning and implementation of short term and long term improvement programmes in agriculture.76
(2) The Gandhian Approach to Rural Development:In the context of India rural development generally means to maximize the production in agriculture and allied activities in the rural areas. Theoretically, Gandhian approach to rural development may be considered as „idealist‟. He emphasized on the importance to moral values and gives primacy to moral values over material conditions. He believed that the source of moral values in general lies in religion and Hindu scriptures like the Upanishads and the Gita, in particular.The concept of „Rama Rajya‟ is the basis of Gandhiji‟s idea of an ideal social order. Gandhi‟s Rama Rajya means “sovereignty of the people based on moral authority”. He did not view Rama as a king, and people as his subjects. To him „Rama‟ stood for God or one‟s own „inner voice‟. Gandhi believed in a democratic social order where people are supreme. However, their supremacy is not absolute. It is subject to moral values. On that background he proposed an ideal approach of rural development as below:
a) Ideal Village: Gandhi believed that the village is the basic unit for ideal social order. Gandhi pointed out, “If the village perishes India will perish too…. We have to make a choice between India of the villages that is as ancient as herselfand India of the cities which are a creation of foreign domination”. The ideal village of Gandhi belongs to the Pre-British period and supposed to constitute the federation of self-governing autonomous republic body. The central authority will have no power to enforce its decisions on villagers except the moral pressure or power of persuasion. The economic system and transport system
79
introduced by the British have destroyed the “republican‟ character of the villages. b) Decentralisation: according to Gandhi village republics can be built only through decentralisation of social and political power. In such a system decision-making power must be vested in the Village Panchayat instead of the State and centre. The elected representatives would be there for a period of five years. They would constitute a council, called the Panchayat. The Panchayat will exercises legislative, executive and judicial functions. It would look after education, health and sanitation in the village. The Panchayats will be responsibility to protect and uplift „untouchables‟ and other poor people in the rural areas. All disputes would be resolved within the village. The Panchayat would propagate the importance of moral and spiritual values among the rural peoples for bringing about rural reconstruction. c) Self-sufficiency: it is another aspect to establish decentralized democracy at grassroot level. The village should be self-sufficient to fulfill their basic needs – food, clothing, and other necessities – are concerned. The village can produce food-crops and cotton in order to meet their necessities. The economy should be planned with a view to provide employment to all. In the ultimate analysis full employment should be linked with equality. In the concept of Gandhi‟s self- sufficient physical labour occupies a central place. In this concern he was highly influenced by Ruskin and Tolstoy. According to him, everyone must do physical labour to earn his bread. Physical labour is necessary for moral discipline and for the sound development of the mind. Intellectual labour is only for one‟s own satisfaction and one should not demand payment for it. d) Trusteeship:Gandhiji was not against the institution of private property. But he was restricted to equal rights of private property to yield an honourable livelihood. For that he prescribed the principle of trusteeship. He emphasized the principle of trusteeship in social and economic affairs. He firmly believed that all social property should be held in trust. The capitalists must take care of others. The surplus wealth would be used for the rest of the society. The poor workers would be considered the capitalists as their benefactors under trusteeship.
80
Trusteeship would help considerably “in realising a state of equality on earth.” He firmly believed that land should not be owned by any individual. It belongs to God. Hence, individual ownership of land should be ignored. For that a landowner should be persuaded to become a trustee of his land. By persuasion the heart of landowners should be changed and they should be induced to donate their land voluntarily. If the land owners do not oblige and continue to exploit the poor workers, the latter should organise non-violent, non- cooperation, civil disobedience struggles against them. Gandhiji rightly held the view that no person can amass wealth without the cooperation, willing or forced, of the people concerned. e) Industrialization: Gandhiji view on industrialization was critic. He didn‟t support the industrialization. According to him it would help only a few and ultimately lead to concentration of economic power. It will lead to passive or active exploitation of the village worker and encourages competition. The large scale production requires marketing and mean to profit-seeking through an exploitative mechanism ultimately lead to unemployment in the rural areas. In a country like India, industrialization will not only increase unemployment but labourers will force to migrate to urban areas. In order to avoid such devastation, village and cottage industries should be revived. They provide employment to meet the needs of the villagers and facilitate village self-sufficiency. Gandhians are not against machine per se if it meets two aims: self-sufficiency and full employment. According to Gandhi, there would be no objection to rural people in using the modern machines and tools that they could make and could afford to use. Only they should not be used as a means of exploitation.77
81
Rural development has gained special significance in the Third World countries. After the attainment independence of India the Government has launched various programmes of „planned change‟ encompassing social, economic and political processes. There are two different approaches adopted by the government with regard to the patterns of development, namely (a) the „transformation‟ approach and (b) the „improvement „approach. (3) The Transformational Approach:The „transformation‟ approach is important due to a radical change in the existing system. This approach basically focused on the scale of operation, techniques of production, and socio-legal reforms. The implementation of land reform measures comes in this approach. So far as the land reform measures are concerned, a huge number of farmers have now become the owners of the land. The slogan “land to the tiller” has been successfully translated into reality in most of the States of India. The rights of the tenants are more secure now. The Zamindari abolition laws have succeeded to eliminate the intermediaries. In most of the states tenancy legislations have been passed to regulate this. Most of the states have enacted ceiling laws to fix the maximum amount of land that an individual or family can possess. This is a step in the right direction of achieving social justice. The evil of absentee landlordism of Indian agriculture has been removed. Co-operative farming has been advocated to solve the problems of sub-division and fragmentation of holdings. The BhoodanAndolan efforts are being made to provide the land to the landless labourers. (4) The Improvement Approach: This approach mainly focused to bring agricultural development within the periphery of main stream of production system. The programmes of rural development like the Community Development Programme, Panchayati Raj Institutions, various developmental agenciesand other policies and programmes related to the process of development in rural India. According to the Planning Commission, community development is the process of changing the life of a community from backwardness to a new economic and social order through its open efforts. The Community Development Programme initiated by the government of India to constitute the rural reconstruction scheme on 2nd October 1952. Prof. Carl Taylor rightly observes that the programme signifies active co-operation and involvement of the ruralites in formulating and executing their own plans and programmes. The programme has
82 achieved considerable success in the field of education, employment, agriculture, health services, communication, vocational training, supply of drinking water, social welfare. But with the passage of time the Community Development Programme has started losing its significance. It has suffered from several shortcomings. Various factors such as lack of clearly defined priorities, cornering of the benefits by the rich and big farmers, lack of coordination among the development departments, lack of commitment, administrative inefficiency and corruption at the bureaucratic level etc. faced the failure of the programme. Despite these shortcomings, the CDP has contributed a lot of awareness and consciousness in the rural areas about the modern means of agriculture.78
2.7. Rural Development in the Context of India:
In India, rural development was understood by the government in the context of recurrent famines.Rural development has been getting continuous attention of the governments across the world. In the context of India it assumes special importance for two significant reasons. One is that about two thirds of the population still lives in rural areas and facing the condition of backwardness. Second, this backwardness of the rural area would be a major obstruction for the overall progress of the economy of the nation. Mahtama Gandhi who supported the Indian Public life of rural area received a mass popular support. His movement of Gram Swaraj, Swadesi, Khadi, Safai, Shram Dan perceived great support to the Rural Development. The concept of The Non- Cooperation movement, started by Gandhi in 1920, was thefirst political attempt to mobilize the rural mass of in India. He articulated the approach to rural development by recommending „hand-spinning in every house of rural people and hand weaving on the part of millions of weaver who have ignored their ancient and honorable calling for wantof encouragement.The spinning-wheel economy adopted by Gandhi was the first voluntary exercise in rural development in India.He also designed a comprehensive programme for rural development which included khadi, promotion of village cotton industries, eradication of untouchablility, provision of basic and adult education, upliftment of women and propagation of the national language. He had translated these ideas into action at Warda in Sevagram. Along with the freedom movement the volunteers were engaged in rural reconstruction programmes all over the country.79
83
2.7.1. Various Rural Development Experiment:
a) Srinikiten Institute of Rural Reconstruction:It was set upbyRabindranath Tagore In 1920, with the aim to make the rural population self-reliant and self-respectful. This initiative is popularly known as Sriniketan Rural Reconstruction Programme. This experiment of Tagore in small area of a few villages aimed at both economic as well as social development. It was an attempt to develop village crafts, poultry, dairy, carpentry, schools for boys and girls with boarding and lodging facilities, and other crafts. It was the desire of Tagore that the local government should take up the responsibility of rural development programmes. This idea in those days appeared to be strange and government was unwilling to accept it. He wanted to increase material wealth through cooperative effort and increase ofcultural wealth through music, drama and dance at Sriniketan. Thus his contribution was all round improvement of the villages.80 b) Martandam Experiment: In Madras under the leadership of Yang Men‟s Christian Association the experiment was started to attain development towards a more plentiful life of the rural people, spiritually, mentally, physically, socially and economically. This rural reconstruction programme was based on certain principles known as „pillars of policy.‟ The important principles were as follow:
I. The programe of rural reconstruction must be people‟s own and emphasised on self-help. II. All communities work together for developmental programmes and focus of help must be on the poorest of the poor III. Spirituality should be the basis of every programme IV. The development of cottage industries like mats and basket making, palmyrasugar, hand-woven cloth, poultry keeping, bee-keeping etc, are the prime work in the reconstruction programme. V. Simplicity is the key so as to achieve the results with less cost and maximum benefit to the rural poor. VI. In this programme, demonstration centers were there to convince the rural people to take bee-keeping, poultry-keeping, basket weaving etc.
84 c) The Gurgaon Experiment: F.L.Brayne, the then district collector of Gurgaon started a programme of rural reconstructionin 1927.It was based on ancient virtues of hard work, self respect, self control, self-help, mutual help and mutual respect. He experienced this programme with a view to improve the living conditions of the rural people in Gurgoan district due to uncertainty of rainfall, poverty, ill- health, ignorance, illiteracy of the rural people. The Gurgaon scheme claimed to deal with the whole life and the activity of the peasant. The approach of Gurgaon project was to pull out of the old furrow, convince them that improvement is possible. The development work was taken place in all spheres of the rural development;
I. Establishment of Institutions work School of Rural Economy to train guides for rural upliftment, public health work, Domestic school of economics to uplift village women, Health association to improve public health. Women‟s Institute to manage ladies gain. II. School teachers were made center of all development in the village. III. Focus on Rural Sanitation with a view to improve the living conditions in the villages and prepared to fight epidemics likesmall-pox, plague and cholera. IV. Focus on agricultural development to encourage farmers. Provided improve seeds and equipments to Consolidate fragmented landholdings. 81 d) Baroda Experiment: the princely state of Baroda launched a broad-based programme forrural development to promote the capacity for self-reliance and self-help in 1932. In 1890, Maharaja SayajiRao initiated rural reconstruction programme in Baroda Province. Firstly, it was confined to a group of villages only then expanded to village panchayats, taluk and district boards. It was focused on making education compulsory to all children in the age group of 6 to 11 years and to set up a Village library. A survey was conduted to identify the minimum needs of the village before the commencement of the rural reconstruction
85
programme. Local works such as construction of roads, digging of village wells, formation of grazing fields etc were taken up by the contribution of villagers.
Bombay government launched also an intensive scheme for rural reconstruction with a view to carry on the Sarvodayaprogramme of Mahatma Gandhiji. It was the first rural reconstruction scheme sponsored by the government in the pre-independence era for the development of rural economy. The main motto was to include the spirit of self help and mutual co-operation among the villagers. The sanchalak was responsible for organizing reconstruction. A new department of development was established in most provinces for rural development. 82
One more important step can be considered is KishanSabha under the leadership of the Communist party worker Mrs. GodavriParulekar in 1945.83. Adivasis fought for their rights against landlords, moneylenders and contractors. Consequently, the Minimum Wages Act was brought under enforcement in Forties to safeguard the interests of Adivasis working for forest contractors and plantation owners. Etawah pilot project was basically model of community development project for rural area. It was a campaign for “grow more Food”. It was the fortunner of Community Development Programme covering the entire country through Blocks.84
2.7.2. Community Development Programme:
With the success story of Etawah Project of 1948, the mission of the community development programme had to implement across the country. After the adoption of theconstitution, the Indian democracy wanted to establish a new social order for economic betterment. In this concern Panchayati Raj institution had to play a major role. Dr. B. R. Ambedkaron November 26, 1949said, in his speech in theConstituent Assembly "It is quitepossible in a country like India where democracy from its long disuse must beregarded as something quite new, there is danger of democracy giving place todictatorship...we must make our political democracy a social democracy aspolitical democracy cannot last unless there lies at the base of it, socialdemocracy.85
Social democracy involve a way of life which recoganises equality, liberty, and fraternity as doctrine of life. It can be materialised only by translating political democracy
86 into social and economic aspects of democracy. Thus, in orderto resolve the challengesofeconomy and social inequality whichexisted in the political democracy of India at the time of independence, a processof planning for development under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru wasinitiated in 1950.A remarkable step was taken by the government on October 2, 1952, known as Community Development Programme. It was to bring about administrative and technical coordination among the different agencies of the government at the block level. 86
Several measures were taken by the central as well as the state governments to reckon with the objectives of Article 40 of the constitution. Now the state is responsible to invest them with such powers and authority with a view to making the villages units of self- government and self reliance. State, being the 'trustee' of the people, must involve them in a positive and active manner in the process of exercising powers for which villages shall be the starting points.87
Community Development Programme covered all aspects of the economic and social life of villages. The objective of the programme was to mobilise all institutions and voluntary organisations for rural development. It was considered as the first step towards decentralisation. "This programme is intended to take steps to ensure participation of people by organising non-statutory committees at the village and block levels.88
The C.D.P. was intended to deal with the economic, social and political aspects of the rural people. In spite of all, it was failed to capitulate the desired results. At the end of the first five year plan in 1957, a committee under BalawantriMetha was constituted to evaluate the planned projects under the CDP.
2.7.3. Various Important Committees set up by the Government:
1. The BalwantRai Mehta Committee: This Committee was set up for the review on Community Projects and National Extension Service by Government of India.
87
The Committee submitted its report on November 24, 1957. With regard to the failure of the C.D.P., the Committee came to the conclusion:
I. Insufficient public response in the activities of C.D.P.,
II. Wastage of public expenditure took place,
III. People did not regard the C.D.P. as their own and consequently did not associate with them.89
In order to resolve the limitation of the programme, the committee emphasised to transfer the powers of decision-making to the village panchayats, vested with the state governments. Thus, the committee supposed that Community Development can be real only when the community understands the problems itself, responsibilities, exercises the necessary powers through the elected representative. They must maintain a constant and intelligent vigilance on local administration. Balawantrai Metha committee therefore, recommended the early establishment of statutory elected local bodies and delegation of all necessary powers, authority and resources to them.90
The main principles emphasised by the committee were:
I. Rural developments are possible only with local initiative. It could be achieved through democratic decentralisation. The local bodies in charge of developmental shall be elected ones. Then, they would workaccording to the wishes and needs of the people. On the other hand, decentralisation entails genuine and effective delegation of powers to the local bodies, with sufficient discretion of power and financial resources. There should be no control of the government over them except in the way of offering necessary guidance. II. There shall be a three-tier structure system extending from village to the district. There should be a intermediary serving link between the two. III. There shall be genuine transfer of powers and responsibilities to the institutions. All the programmes of social and economic development shall be channelized and control through them.
88
IV. Adequate resources shall be provided to the local bodies, so that they may discharge their responsibilities effectively and efficiently. V. The system must be established with the intention of making further decentralization or devolution and dispersal of powers and responsibilities in future.91
Thus, the Balawantrai Mehta Committee recommendations were the land mark in the saga of development of Panchayathi Raj institutions in India. The foundation of Panchayati Raj was erected in a constructive way and sustainable future oriented style during this period.
On January 12, 1958 the National Development Council legitimatized the proposals for democratic decentralisation. It affirmed the objectives of democratic decentralization. It was suggested that each state must workout the structure which suitable for conditions best. 92 Panchayati Raj institutions, being units of local self government, considered a state subject under the constitution. The states and union territories were free to design their structure, powers and functions keeping in view their local conditions and requirements.
a) Panchayati Raj System:
In institutional term 'Democratic Decentralisation known as Panchayati Raj. This idea has taken from institutions of different states. Even the Balawantrai Metha Committee‟s had envisaged this institutional framework of Panchayati Raj. The basic intent of Panchayathi Raj is to evolve a system of democratic decentralisation and delegation of powers, authority and functions to rural people with a view to ensure rapid socio-economic progress with justice to all. The main objective of introducing Panchayati Raj system is to extend democracy at grassroots level and to ensure involvement of the people in the process of developmental activities.93
The Structure of Panchayati Raj: The BalawantRai Mehta Committee had envisaged a three-tier structure, viz. the village Panchayat at village level, the PanchayatSamiti at Block level and ZillaParishad at District level.94
89
i. Village Panchayat or Gram Panchayat:
The village Panchayat is the basic unit of the Panchayti Raj Institution. It is an executive body of the village. It is consists of representatives elected by the people at village level. It has an elected chairman, popularly known as 'Sarpanch'. The Sarpanch occupies a central place in the Panchayat structure. Gramasabha, a Panchayatbody is accountable to the general body of the village and meets at least twice a year. It is an institutional form of participatory democracy. It provides an opportunity to all the people to participate in the process of developmental work. The GramaSabhais the holder all accounts of the Panchayat. Gram Sabha has right to lay down guidelines for the Panchayat. In spite of this, the main functions performed by the village Panchayat like maintenance of village roads, schools, wells, sanitation, public health etc. It takes necessary steps for the promotion of agriculture and animal husbandry, cottage industries; co-operative society‟s etc.64 it can levy certain taxes and duties to meet their expenses. They can also levy duty on transfer of property under their jurisdiction.
ii. PanchayatSamiti:
The second tier of the Panchayat system known as PanchayatSamiti. It consists of representatives of various GramaPanchayats. The chairman of the PanchayatSamiti is elected by the members of the Samiti. He is known as 'Pradhan' or Mukhiya. The main function of the PanchayatSamiti is to co-ordinate the work of the Panchayats within its jurisdiction. It also looks after the work of development within the area. Thus, it is responsible for the preparation of plans for developmental projects. 95
iii. ZillaParishad:
It is the apex body of the three-tier structure Panchayati Raj Instituion. It is the highest developmental agency in the district. The district shall be the unit of planning with the ZilaParishad. It consists of majority of members elected directly by the people and the rest from the Panchayat Samitis. M.L.As and M.Ps also associated with their respective
90
Samitis and the Zila Parishads. The district body shall be empowered to levy taxes and also collect land revenue.96There is also provision for special representation of women, members of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. The Zila Parishads have some regulatory and advisory functions enjoined on them by statute. ZilaParishad is responsible for their implementation schemes of rural development.97
The ZilaParishad mainly performs the function coordination and supervision. It coordinates the activities of the panchayatsamitis falling within its jurisdiction. In some states the ZilaParishad also approves the budgets of the panchayatsamitis. In addition to these supervisory and advisory functions, the ZillaParishad is also responsible for the maintenance of primary and secondary schools, hospitals, dispensaries, minor irrigation works etc. It also tries to promote local industries and art.98
2. Ashok Mehta Committee:
TheJanata government of Morarji Desai set up a Committee under Ashok Mehta in 1977, to review the democratic decentralisation in the states and union territories. This committee is known as Ashok Mehta committee. It was established to review the working of Panchayati Raj institutions and to make suitable recommendations for reorganizing the Panchayati Raj system. The committee made a thorough study of the matter and submitted its report in 1978 with the following recommendations for improved functioning of Panchayati Raj institutions.
Recommendations of Ashok Mehta Committee:
I. Three tier PRI system of BalwantRai Mehta replaced by the two tier system,
a) ZilaParishad at the district level; b) MandalPanchayat consisting of total population of 15,000 to 20,000 of the village dwellers.
II. The District should be at the apex of Panchayati Raj Institution below state level with Official participation of political parties at all levels of Panchayat elections. III. Panchayati Raj Institution should give compulsory powers of taxation to mobilize their own finances. 91
IV. Regular social audit should be taken place of PRI by a district level agency and by a committee of legislators. V. The functions of development should be transferred to the ZilaParishad and all work development should be conduct under its control and supervision. VI. The state government not to surpass PRI. The elections should be held within 6 months from the date in case of supersession. VII. The Chief Electoral Officer of a state in consultation with the Chief Election Commissioner to organize and conduct the PRI elections at village level. VIII. There should be a minister of panchayati raj in the state council of ministers. IX. There should be reserved seats for SCs and STs on the basis of their populations.99
In short, it was made an attempt torevitalise the Panchayati Raj system established according to the recommendationsof the Balawantrai Metha Report.Thus,both the committees made landmarks inthe history of local self-government in the country, though each has its distinctive conceptual framework of analysis and examination.Though, the recommendations of the Ashok Mehta Committee could not be implement due to the change of government. However, Karnataka, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh took steps to revitalise PRIs, keeping in view the recommendations of Ashok Mehta Committee.
3. G.V.K.Rao Committee:
Thecommittee was set up to review the administrative arrangements forrural development and poverty alleviation in 1985. The committee came to conclusion that the bureaucratization of development administration is against the democratization of Panchayati Raj Institution. The committee recommended following measures:
I. At the District level ZilaParishad should be pivotal in the democratic decentralization. II. There should be conduct regular election of the Panchayati Raj institution.100
4. L.M Singhvi Committee:
92
In 1986, the Rajiv Gandhi government set up another committee under the chairmanship of a distinguished jurist L.M Singhvi. The Committee made a clear recommendation in favour of constitutional sanction for Panchayati Raj institutions. The Committee advocated that Panchayati Raj should primarily be viewed as the local self - government system to strengthen the democratic decentralization.Thus,on the recommendation of the Singhvi committee the most debated constitutional amendment relating to Panchayati Raj known as the 64thConstitution Bill,1989 was introduced in the LokSabha on May 15, 1989.101The amendment billproposed to incorporate in the Article 243 of constitution of India. It was to be the soleprovision in a newly added part viz. Part 1X. The bill proposed to make it mandatory for all states to introduce a three-tier system of Panchayati Raj institutions i.e. Panchayat at village, Samiti at Block level and ZilaPariushad at district levels.
By the introduction of the bill in the Parliament, Rajiv Gandhi said that, "it (the bill) is a revolution that will bring democracy to the door-steps of crores of Indians. It is a revolution that will bring development to lakhs of our villages. It is a revolution that will open doors of opportunity to millions of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and half the population of our country, the women of India.”102
I. Panchayati Raj Institution should be recognized constitutionally. II. There should be Constitutional provisions to ensure free and fair elections to PRIs on regular basis. III. The Villages should be reorganized to make Gram Panchayats more viable. It was emphasized the importance of the Gram Sabha. The Village Panchayats should have more financial resources.103
2.8. Panchayati Raj Institutions through the 73rd Constitutional Amendment of 1992:
The idea of Gandhiji on Panchayat Raj and Gram Swaraj was the source of inspiration in the wake of the inclusion of Panchayat Raj in directive principles of state policies and later in the form of 73rd Constitutional amendment of 1992 in India. The evolution of the
93 decentralisation of democracy has come in truth with the passing of 73rd constitutional Amendment Act, 1992. It is a landmark in the history of local self-government institutions in India. It is considered to be the mini constitution of India.
The 73rd amendment Acts enshrined that the "Panchayati Raj should be a genuine and effective democratic and decentralised institutions. It must provide enough opportunities for a large number of rural people to participate in the process of development and democratic decision-making actively. It is to inculcate in the minds of rural people the spirit of self-help, self-reliance and self-dependence to attain self-government". In this view, it gives a new dimension to the concept of Panchayati Raj. Now the concept of Panchayati Raj has come to be accepted as an extension of real democracy downward to the grassroot level.104The 73rd Amendment Act of 1992 provided a constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj institutions across the country. The Act provided two types of provisions, i.e., mandatory as well as discretionary.
The mandatory provisions aim to establish the local self-government institutions with a uniform structure across the country. The states have no option other than to comply with it. The provisions like Gramasabha, reservation of seats, Finance, Election Commission etc. are to be adopted throughout the country. The discretionary provisions were left to the states to be enacted according to the needs and local conditions, because the local self government is a state subject.105
It is argued that "the political process in a pluralistic and highly diffused society like India the local administration can be carried on effectively and efficiently only by operating through decentralised structure of governance. The effectiveness and predictability of such political process the pursuit of larger socio-economic goals are possible."106
Thus, the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act is the culmination of various proposals recommended by the committees on PRIs for giving them a viable shape.
94
Before going to the salient features of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, it is necessary to understand the fundamental changes the Act envisaged as regards to the local self-governing institutions of PRIs, are as:
I. From meager Directive Principles of State Policy, a Panchayati Raj institution has been transformed into indispensable and indivisible unit of local self-governance. This act envisages the establishment of GramaSabhas in which the direct participation of the rural people through voting rights is ensured. II. Henceforth Panchayat elections shall be held periodically. In case of dissolution of the Panchayat body in any circumstances, the state governments are bound to conduct elections within a period of six months. III. The reservation of one-third of seats for women in Panchayati Raj institutions is a path-breaking step in the administrative history of India. IV. Local self-governing institutions shall receive the funds allocated by the state finance commission. V. There are 29 subjects to Panchayats Raj Instituion, which is described in under Article 243 to 243-O and IX part of the constitution of India.107
2.8.1. Features of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 of Indian Constitution
On April 24, 1993 is a red-letter day in the history of Panchayati Raj in India as on this day the constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 came into force to provide constitutional status to the Panchyati Raj institutions. Some feature illustrated below:
I. This constitutional Amendment Act envisages the establishment of Panchayats as units of local self government. Adequate powers and
95
responsibilities would be devolving to enable them to prepare and implement the schemes for socio-economic development and social justice. II. The Act provided a compulsory three-tier system of Panchayati Raj Institution in all states except where the population does not exceed 20 Lakhs.These are panchayats at the village, intermediary or PanchayatSamiti and district levels as ZilaParishad. The composition and number of members of these bodies will be decided by a law passed by the state legislature. III. There shall be a Gramasabha for each village or group of villages. It will comprise of adult members registered as voters in the Panchayat area. In the Gram Sabha meeting, the rural people, the women and the marginalized people would now get an opportunity to join in decision making on matters affecting their lives. Active functioning of the Gram Sabha would ensure a participatory democracy with transparency, accountability and achievement. The Panchayat will be accountable tothe Gramasabha. The powers and functions of the GramaSabha shall bepassed by the state legislatures respectively. IV. There shall be direct Panchayat election at all level for a period of five years. In case of dissolution, elections will compulsorily be held within six months. V. The State Election Commission will direct and control all elections in the Panchayat. VI. There shall be one-third seats reserved for women. One third of the total number of seats also reserved for S.C and S.T women belonging to the respective category. These seats may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a Panchayat. Similar reservations have been made in respect of offices of chairperson also.
96
VII. There shall be a Finance Commission to review the financial matter of Panchayats and make suitable recommendations regarding the allotment of funds to the local bodies. VIII. Eleventh Schedule is added in the constitution. It is comprised of 29 items to provide an effective role to the Panchayati Raj institutions in the Planning and implementation of local developmental work like drinking water, agriculture, land and water conservation, poverty alleviation programmes, family welfare, education, libraries and cultural activities, maintenance of community assets etc. IX. Panchayat Raj institutions are bound to prepare plans for economic development, social justice and social welfare in respect of 29 subjects under the Eleventh Schedule of the constitution.
Thus, the evolution of Panchayati Raj in India took more than a century to reach the concept of local self-government. It was Lord Rippon who gave the idea of 'Local government' in the year 1882 in India.108 The interesting thing is that the concept of "institution of local self-government," is not defined anywhere in the constitution. It may be recalled that the only three legislations, viz., those of West Bengal, Tripura and Bihar explicitly mention the objective of their panchayat legislations is to bestow Panchayats with functions and powers so as to enable them to act as vibrant institutions of local self- government. Another is represented by the Haryana Act in this concern which firmly says that the Panchayat system is meant for the better administration of rural areas.109
Table No: 2.2List of some of the Rural Development Programme initiated by the Government
S.NO. Programme/ Schemes Objective
Overall development of rural Community Development Programme areas and people‟s participation 1. (CDP) 1952 in developmental process.
2. Intensive Agriculture Development To provide loan for seeds and
97
program (IADP) 1960 fertilizers to farmers for cultivation
To develop special harvest in Intensive Agriculture Area programme 3. agriculture field. (IAAP) 1964
Confined to wheat production in 4 Green Revolution (1966-67) the country To provide electricity in rural 5. Rural Electrification (1969) areas across the country.
Providing drinking water in rural Accelerated Rural water Supply 6. areas Programme (ARWSP), (1972-73)
Protection from drought by 7. Drought Prone Area Programme(1973) achieving environment balance and by developing ground water Poverty eradication and an overall objective of raising the 8. Twenty Point Programme (TPP),( 1975) level livelihood
To provid food grains to labor 9. Food For Work Programme(1977-78)
educational and vocational Training Rural Youth for Self 10. training in the rural areas. Employment TRYSEM(1979)
Integrated Rural Development overall development of rural poor 11. Programme(1980) National Rural Development programme To create employment for rural 12. NREP (1980 ) man force Sustainable opportunities of self employment to the women Development of Women & Children in 13. belonging to the rural families Rural Areas (DWCRA), (1982) who are living below the poverty line. To provide employment to the Rural Landless Employment Guarantee 14. landless farmers and laborers Programme (RLEGP),(1983)
To grant 100% tax rebate to National Fund for Rural donors and also to provide 15. Development(1984) financial assistance for development projects rural areas Provide financial assistance to 16. Indra Awas Yojna(1985) rural people for housing Council of Advancement of People‟s Assistance to rural people 17. Action & Rural Technology (CAPART), through technology
98
(1986) Employment to rural unemployed 18. JawaharRozgarYojna(1989) people Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS), Employment of at least 100 days 19. (1993) in a year in rural area Encourage rural women to 20. MahilaSamridhiYojna (1993) deposit in Post office schemes Group Life Insurance Scheme for Rural Insurance in rural area at low 21. Areas(1996) premium SwaranJayanti Gram Yojna for Self employment in 22. SwarojgarYojna(1999:) rural areas Village infrastructure 23. : Jawahar Gram SamriddhiYojna(1999) development
Connect all villages with nearest 24. PradhanMantri Gram Sadak Yojna (2000) urban areas Employment and food security to 25. SampoornaGrameenRozgarYojna (2001) rural people
Accessible, affordable, National Rural Health Mission (2005) accountable, quality health 26. services to poor in the remote areas of the country. 100 days wage employment for National Rural Employment Guarantee 27. development works in rural areas. Scheme NREGS(2006)
Insurance cover to the head of the 28. AamAadmiBimaYojna.( 2007) family of rural landless households in the country Mps would be responsible for PradhanMantriSansadAdarsh Gram Yojna socio-economic and Physical 29. (2014) infrastructural development of the villages each by 2019 Source:Ministry of Rural Development, GoI
Summing up, the trajectory of rural governance as well development in India has been highly praised for successful interventions. Yet the country is still far way from poverty alleviation and bridging the gap of development between rural and urban areas. As we study the saga of governance and development strategies in the country, it is realise that the approach to rural development has undergone a paradigm shift over the few decades, from that of a „top-down‟ to a „bottom-top‟ approach. Until the 1990s, in India strategy of development was centralised. The centrally administered
99 supported programmes and policies like community development and integrated rural development did not result in substantial poverty alleviation in the rural areas.110 These shortcoming led to the realisation that the top-down approach effects of economic growth takes way too long time to reach the poor and needy people and the need for decentralization realized . Decentralization that means transfer of power and authority from the central/State government to the local institutions or at grassroot level to enable the rural people as: a. To take part in decision-making process that affects their daily lives; b. To minimise chances of misunderstanding; c. To understand the difficulties and complexities of administration, planning and management; d. Accept responsibility for failure programmes; and e. To develop a sense of awareness and commitment to society. Article 40 of the Indian Constitution established directive to the state for the decentralized form of government i.e. Panchayati Raj Institutions at the village level to formulate and execute various programmes of economic development and social justice which indicates the better rural governance. Today a plethora of central and State-sponsored schemes are being implemented through Panchayats including health, education, water and sanitation, housing and roads. However, the promising start towards decentralisation in most of the States soon began to fade, either under political pressure or due to changes in strategies and policies of the government. The creation of Panchayats was not pursued by the devolution of powers and resources to these bodies, freezing the progress of decentralisation process that indicates mal- governance.
100
References:
1. Chakarbarty, B., & Bhattacharya, M. (Ed.). (2008). The Governance Discourse: A Reader (pp 1-2). New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
2. Frederickson H, G. (1999). John Gaus Lecture. In Repositioning of American Public Administration (p 5). Mimeo.
3. Rhodes, R. (1999). Governance and Public Administration. In Debating Governance. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
4. See Note no.1, p3.
5. Putnam, R. (1993). Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
6. Elliot, C. (Ed.). (2003). Civil Society and Democracy: A Reader. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
7. Jreisat, J. (2004). Governance in a Globalized World. International Journal of Public Administration,27(13 &14), 1004-6.
8. Castells, M. (2000). The Rise of the Network Society (Vol. I, pp. 1-2). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
9. Salskov-Iversen, D., Krause Hansen, H., &Bislev, S. (2000). 'Governmentality, Globalization and Local Practice: Transformation of a Hegemonic Discourse', Alternatives: Social Transformation and Human Governance (25th ed., Vol. 2, p. 186).
10. WEBSTER, NOAH Webster‟s (1979). New Universal Unabridged Dictionary, London: Dorset & Baber, (Cited in “The Governance Discourse: A Reader”,p 5)
11. Random House College Dictionary (Revised ed., p. 571). (1984). New York: Random House. (Citied in “The Governance Discourse: A Reader” p 5)
101
12. The Report of World Bank, (1989). Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis toSustainable Growth: A Long-Term Perspective Study, Washington DC: (p. 18). World Bank.
13. World Bank, World Development Report (1992). (p 29). New York: Oxford University Press.
14. The Report of World Bank, (1992). The World Bank in Governance: the World Bank Experience, (p 27). Washington D.C:World Bank.
15. World Bank, (1992). Governance and Development (p 9.).Washington, D.C.
16. World Bank, (1992). Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth: A Long-Term Perspective Study, (p 192.). New York: Oxford University Press.
17. See Note no.14, p 3.
18. See Note no.14, p 58,
19. UNDP, (1997). Reconceptualizing Governance, (p. 9). Discussion v paper 2, New York: UNDP.
20. Brautigam, D. (1991). Governance and Economy: A review (Vol.815). World Bank Publications.
21. Michalski, W., Miller, R., & Stevens, B. (2001). Governance in the 21stCentury: Power in the Global Knowledge Economy and Society. In Governance in the 21st Century: Future Studies (p. 9). London: OECD.
22. World Bank. (1989). The Bank and the Heavily Indebted Middle- Income Countries, Washington, D.C: (p. 49.) World Bank,
23. Leftwich, A. (1993). Governance, democracy and development in the Third World. Third World Quarterly, 14(3), 605-624.
24. See Note no.22, p 607.
25. See Note no.19,p 19.
102
26. Report prepared by United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific on Human Settlements Source:www.unescap.org/huset/gg/ governance.htm visited on 10/10/2014
27. Preston's, T. L. (1992). Governance and Development, (p V). Washington DC: World Bank.
28. See Note no.15, pp 11-12.
29. Keraudren, P., &Mierlo, V. H. (1998). Theories of public management reform and their practical implications. inInnovations in public management: perspectives from East and West Europe by Tony Verheijen and David Coombes, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
30. Drawn from 'Governance Barometer: Policy Guidelines for GoodGovernance', prepared by the National Party of South Africa, www.gdrc.orglu-gov/governance-understand.html, (Cited in “The Governance Discourse: A Reader”, p.12).
31. The Institute on Governance, Canada Source:www.log.ca/about.html. (Cited in “The Governance Discourse: A Reader”, p.12).
32. Lynn Jr, L. E., Heinrich, C. J., & Hill, C. J. (2001). Improving governance: A new logic for empirical research. (p10.).Washington, D.C: Georgetown University Press.
33. See Note no 8, p.194.
34. OECD. (1995). Participatory Development and Good Governance (p 14).Paris: OECD.
35. Buchanan, J. M., &Tullock, G. (1965). The Calculus of Consent: Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy, (p 312.). Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
36. Barten, F.M, Espinoza, E. RP., & Morales, C (2002). Democratic Governance - Fairytale or Real Perspective? Lessons from Central America ', Environment and Urbanization, vol. 14, no. 1, pp 129-44.
103
37. UNESCAP (2008), 'What is Good Governance?‟ inGovernance,Human Settlements, Poverty Reduction Section, United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. p 1. 38. Hirst, P. (2000). 'Democracy and Governance', in J Pierre (Ed.), Debating Governance, (pp 13-35). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
39. Pierre, J. (2000). 'Introduction: Understanding Governance', In Pierre, J.(Ed.), Debating governance: Authority, steering, and democracy, (pp.1- 10.). Oxford: Oxford University Press,
40. Rhodes. R. (2000). 'Governance and Public Administration', in Pierre, J. (Ed.), Debating Governance, (pp54-90.).Oxford: Oxford University Press.
41. See Note no.35, pp 129-44.
42. See Note no.35, p 131.
43. Carley, M. (2006). Partnership and statutory local governance in a Devolved Scotland. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 19(3), 250-260.
44. Minogue. M, Polidano. C.& Hume. D. (1998). 'Introduction: the Analysis of Public Management and Governance', in M. Minogue, C. Polidano & D. Hume (Eds.), Beyond the New Public Management: Changing Ideas and Practices in Governance (pp 1-14). Cheltenham:Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.
45. Santiso, C. (2001).World Bank and good governance and aid effectiveness: the World Bank and Conditionality. Geo. Public Policy Review. 7, pp. 1- 22.
46. Minogue, M. (1997). The Principles and Practices of Good Governance, Institute for Development Policy and Management, British Council: University of Manchester.
47. Brown, O. (2007). Promoting 'Good' Governance through Trade and Aid: Instruments of Coercion or Vehicles of Communication? in O Brown, M Halle, SP Moreno & S Winkler, Trade, Aid and Security: An Agenda for Peace and Development (Eds., pp 72-91). London: IISD Earthscan.
104
48. UNDP, (1997). 'Good Governance and Sustainable Human Development', www.magnet.undp.org/policy/chapter1.htm accessed on 21 March 2013,
49. See Note no.35, pp129-133.
50. UNDP, (1997b).Good Governance Characters: Re-conceptualizing Governance, Issue Paper: Urban Governance: Global Vision and Local Needs Assessment, Analysis & Action by City Governments, United Nations Development Programs, New York.
51. UNESCAP (2008), 'What is Good Governance?'In Governance, Human Settlements, Poverty Reduction Section, UNESCAP.
52. Singh, S. N. (2005). Socio-Political Aspects of Good Governance. in S.K. Caturvedi & Sanjeev Verma, (Eds.). Facets of Good Governance (p. 35). New Delhi: Originals Publication.
53. See Note no. 52, pp 105-7.
54. See Note no. 52, pp 119-25.
55. See Note no. 52, pp. 36-37.
56. Retrieved from http://www.sociologydiscussion.com/society/development- development-as- multiple-connotations/1039 accessed on 11.11.2015.
57. Thomas, A. (2004).The Study of Development. Paper prepared for DSA Annual Conference, 6 November, Church House: London.
58. Gore, C. (2000). The rise and fall of the Washington Consensus as a paradigm for developing countries. World development, 28(5), 789-804.
59. Chambers, R. (2004) Ideas for Development. IDS Working Paper 238. Sussex: IDS.
60. Vasant, D. (2010). Rural Development in India Past, Present, Future: A challenge in the Crisis, New Delhi: Himalaya Publication. 61. Retrieve fromshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/9697/6/06_chapter%20 1.pdf accessed on date 12/09/2015
105
62. Desai, I.A. &Chaudhri, B.L. (1977). History of Rural Development in Modern India, (Vol. II, p 161). New Delhi: Impex India.
63. Tewari, R.T. &Sinha R.C. (1988). Rural Development in India, (p1-2). New Delhi: Ashish publishing House.
64. Mishra, B.B. (1983). District Administration in India and Rural Development. (p vi). Delhi: Oxford University Press.
65. See Note no.61
66. See Note no.61
67. Prasad, B.K. (2004). Rural Development and Village Democracy. (vol-I, pp 10- 15). New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt.Ltd.
68. Retrieved from http://www.indianjournals.com/ij, date of access (17/06/2013)
69. See Note no.67, pp10-15
70. Maheshwari, S. (1995). Rural Development India: A Public Policy Approach, (p 14). New Delhi: Sage Publication.
71. Lele, U. (1975). Design of Rural Development: Lessons from Africa. (p 2). London: The Johns Hopkin University Press.
72. Report of Government of India, Rural -Urban Relationship Committee, New Delhi, 1966. p.135.
73. Crops, J. H. (1972). Rural Sociology and Rural Development, Rural Sociology, Vol.37, No.4, pp 515-523.
74. Pareck, U. (1982).Education and Rural Development in Asia, (Ed. p.1-5) New Delhi, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
75. Mishra, K. P &Sunderam, K V. (1974). Rural development 'perspectives and Approaches, (p4). New Delhi: Sterling Publishers.
76. See Note no. 60
106
77. Retrieved from http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/india-2/rural-evelopment before-and-after-independence-in-India- accessed on 12/09/2014
78. See Note no.77
79. Sitaramayya, P. (1935).The History of the Indian National Congress (1885-1935) Allahabad, (1342), Working Committee of the Congress.
80. Ramabai, B. (1959).The Silent Revolution, (p 10). Delhi: JiwanPrakashan.
81. Brayene, F.L. (1946).Better Villages, (p 268). Bombay: Oxford University Press. 82. Sitaramayya, P. (1947).The History of the Indian National Congress, Bombay: Padma Publications, Vol. II. p 42.
83. Despande, V. (1985).Struggle of the Deprived for Development: Adivasis of Thane, (p14) Pune: DastaneRamchandra Co.
84. See Note no. 61.
85. Rajput, R.S. &Meghe, D.R. (Eds.). (1984).Panchayati Raj in India: Democracy at Grassroots, (p 24). New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publications.
86. See Note no.85, p 90.
87. Dey, S.K.(1986). Panchayati Raj in Independent India: Some Personal Reflections. In George Mathew (Ed.) Panchayati Raj in Karnataka Today: Its National Dimensions, (p 35). New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
88. Sing, S. R. (1985). Panchayati Raj for Faster Rural Uplift, Yojana, December 15, p 21.
89. Niranjan, P. (1979). The Politics of Panchayati Raj Administration: A Study Official and Non-official Relations, New Delhi: Concept publications.
90. See Note no. 85, p 29.
91. Prakash, C. (1990). Indian Government and Politics, (p 278). New Delhi: Cosmos Bookhive.
107
92. Suresh, V. (Ed.). (1999). Dynamics of Rural Development. (Vol.1, p.197) Delhi: Dominant Publishers
93. Choudhary, B. K. (1989). Panchayati Raj: Perspective and Prospect, Yojana, January 26, p. 12.
94. Sharan, P. (1978).Modern Public, Administration. (pp 296-299). New Delhi: MeenakshiPrakashan.
95. See Note no.93
96. Sivalinga V. P. (1981).Panchayats and Development. (p95). New Delhi: Light and Life Publishers.
97. Haldipur, R.N. (I981). On Remodeling Panchayati Raj, in T.N.Chadurvedi (Ed., p 166.).PanchayatiRaj. New Delhi: Indian Institute of Public Administration.
98. See Note no. p167
99. See Note no.91
100. Hinvay, I. (1989, July 22.).Panchayati Raj at Crossroads. Economic and Political Weekly.
101. Mohanlal, G. M. (1994). Rajiv Gandhi and Panhayati Raj: Democracy and Development at the Grassroots. (p 9). New Delhi: Konark Publishers.
102. Datta, P. (1998).Major Issues in the Development Debate: Lessons in Empowerment from India, (p 11). New Delhi:Kanishka Publishers.
103. See Note no.100 p.14.
104. Kurushetra, April, 1995, p.20.
105. Ghosh, R. &Pramanik, A.K. (1999).Panchayat system in India: Historical, Constitutionaland Financial Analyses, (p 33-34). , New Delhi:Kanishka Publishers.
106. Singh, U.B. (1997). Urban Local Government, (p 25). New Delhi: Rawat Publications
108
107. Kothari, R. (1988). State Against Democracy: In Search of Humane Governance, (p 88). New Delhi: Ajanta Publications.
108. Gulathi, I.S. (et al). (1996). PanchayatVikasanaSahayi(Malayalam). (p 11). Thiruvaninthapuram: Kerala ShastraSahityaParishad.
109. See Note no. 108, p.11
110. Chadurvedi, P. (1997). Food Security and Panchayati Raj. (p 11). New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
109
CHAPTER - III
Governance and Rural Development in the Context of Bihar
In the interests of the prosperity of the country, a king should be diligent in foreseeing the possibility of calamities, try to avert them before they arise, overcome those that happen, remove all obstructions to economic activity and prevent loss of revenue to the state. The pursuit of the people's welfare ... the economic well-being of the society is dependent on the sceptre wielded by the king. The maintenance of law and order by the use of punishment is the science of government. (Arthashastra- ed. Rangarajan, Penguin, p. 116.)1
3.1. Bihar: As a State in India
Historically, Bihar has a glorious Past. It has also been a pioneer in several other areas including education, governance, infrastructure, health and social equity. Bihar has an illustrious past in the field of education. The land of Buddha has witnessed golden period in the history of India. It is the land of the first republic and the first crop of democracy cultivated here. The state of Bihar has Figure 3.1: Figure of State of Bihar given birth to numerous intellectuals who spread the light of knowledge and wisdom not only in the country but in the whole world. Nalanda and Vikramshila Universities were the world class learning centres established here. It is a Place of the founders of two great religions of the world, Gautam Buddha and Mahavir. Patna is the capital of Bihar situated on the bank of the holy River Ganga. The state was separated from the province of
110
Bengal in 1912 and then the separation of the tribal southern region called Jharkhand in November 2000. It was reorganized as separate state with 38 districts. It is located between 83°-19'-50" to 88°-17'-40" E longitude and 24°-20'-10" to 27°-31'-15" N Latitude in the eastern part of the country. It lies between West Bengal in the east and Uttar Pradesh in the west. It is surrounded by Nepal in the North and by Jharkhand in the south. Bihar is an entirely landlocked state. The Bihar plain is divided into two bisect unequally by the Ganga which flows through the middle from west to east. The Bihar plain divided into two natural regions viz., North Bihar Plain and South Bihar Plain. There are several rivers flows in the state such as Ganga, Sone, Ghaghra, Kosi, Gandak, Budhi Gandak, Bagmati, Punpun, etc. There is fourty-one percent of cultivated area of flood prone and another forty percent is drought prone. The State is left with cultivable land in the Indo-Gangetic Plain after the separation from Jharkhand. It has abundant water, both surface and sub-surface for irrigation. Agriculture is the dominant economic activity employing around three quarters of the work force in the State. The primary sector contributes around 38 per cent of the Gross State Domestic Product. It includes rice, cane, wheat, lentils, jute etc. Supplementary crops include oilseeds, pulses, barely, gram and maize and a variety of vegetables. It is also known of its fruit products like litchi and mango. There are some of the major industries in Bihar are Agro-based like textiles, oil mills etc. The Industries that are dependent on agriculture are rice mills located in Rohtas, Buxar and the edible oils mills located at Araria District. There are many sugar mills located in north Bihar. The biggest oil refinery in the country is based at Barauni in Bihar. The state is also the sixth largest producer of tobacco in the country.2
3.1.1. Geography of the State: Geographically the entire state is part of the Gangatic Plains. The formation of plains has come out with sediments deposited by the River Ganga, Gandak and Sone. She divides whole Bihar into two physical divisions—the north Bihar Plain and South Bihar Plain. The State of Bihar embraces some of the most fertile lands of India. Bihar gets the worst of the cold and the worst of the heat and plenty of floods. Northern part of the state is almost entirely a level tract, while the south is woodened and hilly. The natural divisions of Bihar are traditionally divided into two parts namely:
111
a. The North Ganga plain b. The South Ganga plain
3.1.1.1. The North Ganga Plain:
It extends from the basin of the Terai region in the north to the River Ganga in the south. It covers an area of about 56,980 Sq Km. It spreads over the Darbhanga, Saran, Tirhut, and Kosi divisions and has a mild slope towards the south. The River Ganga flows from west to east near the southern margin of the plain. In the north and north-west is west Champaran districts situated where the alluvial plain gives place to broken hilly region known as the Dun or Ramnagar Dun. It consists of a range of low hills. There are large grassy prairies watered hills extended southwards and eastwards. There is no rocky formation at the foot of the hills of the soils and whenever water can be locked away, rich growth of crop is possible.
3.1.1.2. The South Ganga Plain:
The alluvial filling south of the River Ganga is shallow. There is a mere surface and the peninsular edge in this plain. The hills rise up to 488 meters from islands of bare rock or scrub. In the west the stream Sone makes a great deltaic re-entrance into the older rocks. This alluvial strip is some about 137 Km wide. In the north-east point of the Peninsula the Rajmahal hills lies. It goes almost directly on to the Ganga. The river bank itself lies high, except in Bohjpur district and at high water the tributaries are flooded. The Punpun valley, parallel to the flow of river Sone on the east and it becomes flooded. Bothin the north and the south of Ganga, sometimes disastrous water logging and flooding takes place. Some of these temporary outpourings are agriculturally useful. The Rabi crops are grown on it. When they dry out or they are bunted for producing dry weather rice.
3.1.2. The Rivers System:
The river system of Bihar is most striking feature of the State. The river system is the lifeline of the state. The river Ganga plays a dominant role. The important rivers that join the Ganga from the north are the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the BurhiGandak, the Kosi,
112 the Mahananda, and its tributaries. Sonpur, which is situated along the bank of Ganga is famous for the great bathing festival. It is famous for the occasion of the greatest cattle and elephant fair in the world. In the south the Karmanasa, the Sone, the Punpun, the Phalgu, the Sakri and the Kiul are the principal streams that join the Ganga.3
3.1.3. Physical Features:
The important physical features of the state are illustrated by the following Table No. 3.1.
Latitude 24° - 20' - 10" to 27°-31'-15" North Longitude 83° - 19' - 50" to 88°-17'-40" East Rural Area 92358.40 sq. kms Urban Area 1804.60 sq. kms Total Area 94,163.00 sq. kms
Main Soil Clay Soil, Sandy Soil, Loamy Soil
Temperature Varies from a maximum of 44ºC in Summer to a minimum of around 5ºC in the Winters
Normal Rainfall 1176.4 mm
Source: http://www.gov.bih.nic.in/Profile (accessed on 2/8/2014)
3.1.4. The Land:
The topography of Bihar can be easily described as a fertile alluvial plain. It occupies the north, the Gangetic Valley. The northern plain extends from the foothills of the Himalayas in the north to a few miles south of the river Ganges. It flows through the State from the west to the east. Rich farmland and lush orchards extend throughout the north. The major crops are paddy, wheat, lentil, sugarcane, and jute.
The cane grows wild in the marshes of West Champaran. The main fruits are: mangoes, banana, jack fruit and litchis. The state is one of the few areas outside China which produces litchi. There is very little industry in the plain region except the sugar factories that are scattered all over the northern plains. The Jute is transported to the jute factories located mostly in Calcutta. Among the wildlife, notable are deer, bears, numerous species 113 of birds, including the peacock, pheasant, and wild fowl, and most notably, the tiger. The forests of Bihar yield valuable commercial products besides the timber. Cane trees are used to manufacture of an indigenous product for furniture. A resinous material secreted by the Lac insect is very valuable commercially. It is the source of shellac. It is used to make of bangle in the state. The silkworm is the source of magnificent silk – characteristically the Tusser or Tussah silk. The majestic Banyan tree and the related Pipal dot the entire landscape of the State.
3.1.5. The Agriculture:
North Bihar is a rich agricultural area. It has many industries associated with agricultural products. There is number of sugar factories scattered throughout the area. Many rice and edible oil mills also dot the landscape. There is manufacturing plants, for example the Button Factory at Mehsi in East Champaran. The old and renowned rail wagon manufacturing plan is the Arthur Butler & Co, at Muzaffarpur. There is a major industrial complex established in Barauni after the independence. The industrial plants located in Bihar like the Fertilizer Factory, the Oil (petroleum) Refinery Plant, and the Thermal Power Station. A Thermal Power Plant is also in operation at Kanti, in the Muzaffarpur district along its border with East Champaran. Recently a thermal Power plant has also begun operation at Barh in Patna district.
There is a huge annual cattle fair at Sonpur in the Saran district, close to the confluence of the Gandak and Ganges rivers. The fair is held around the religious festival of Kartik Purnima - full moon in the month of Kartik in the Hindu lunar calendar. This fair is reputed to be one of the largest world fair of the cattle. The fair not just cattle but also exotic animals and horses and elephants are traded in large number. It attracts a large number of tourists across the world. The Government of Bihar, through their Department of Tourism, provides many amenities for their boarding and lodging to promote such type of fair.4
114
3.2. Socio-demographic Profile of Bihar:
Despite the recent improvements in the socio-economic environment, the state of Bihar is still one of the most backward states in the country with respect to human development indices. Tables 1, 2, and 3 provide basic details about the socio-economic conditions in the state.5
Table No 3.2: Population of Bihar Break up with Respect to Rest of India Population
Population Total Rural Urban Male Female India 10,28,737,436 72% 27.81% 5,32,223,090 4,96,514,346 Highest 1,66,197,921 NA 49.76% 87,565,369 78,632,552 Lowest 5,40,851 NA 9.30% 2,88,484 2,52,367 Bihar 82,998,509 85% 15% 43,243,795 39,754,714
Source: Census Data Online; Planning Commission Data
Table No3.3:Literacy Levels in Bihar with Respect to Rest of India Literacy Rates
Literacy Rate Total Rural Urban Male Female India 74.8% 58.7% 79.9% 75.3% 53.7% Highest 90.9% NA NA 94.4% 87.7% Lowest 47% NA NA 59.7% 33.1% Bihar 63% NA NA 59.7% 33.1% Source: Census Data Online; Planning Commission Data
115
Table No. 3.4: Elected Representatives in Panchayati Raj Institutions in Bihar
Level Number Total No. of Elected Representatives District 38 1,238 Block 534 12,634 Village 8,463 1,32,802 Total 9,035 1,46,674 Source: Census Data Online; Planning Commission Data
3.3. The Administrative Set-up:
There are nine divisions in Bihar, 38 districts, 101 sub-divisions, 534 blocks, and 45,102 revenue villages grouped into 8,463 Gram Panchayats (GPs). Panchayati Raj Institutions at the district, block, and village levels are the Zilla Parishad, Panchayat Samiti, and the Gram Panchayat respectively. It also has Gram Kachaharies at the Gram Panchayat level which are grassroots level justice institutions.6The table no. 3.5 has shown the administrative details as:
Table No. 3.5: Administrative Units
Number of Divisions 9 Number of Districts 38 Number of Sub-Divisions 101 Number of CD Blocks 534 Number of PanchayatSamiti 531 Number of Gram Panchayats 8,463 Number of Revenue Villages 45,103 Number of Urban Agglomerations 9 Number of Towns 130 Number of Statutory Towns 125 Number of Non-Statutory Towns 5
116
Number of Police Stations 853 Number of Civil Police Stations 813 Number of Railway Police Stations 40 Number of Police Districts 43 Number of Civil Police District 39 Number of Railway Police District 4 Source: planning.bih.nic.in
3.4. PRIs in the State of Bihar:
The 73rd amendment of the Constitution has been a landmark in establishing grassroots democracy in India. This affirmative actions of the government enshrined in the amendment, are intended to ensure inclusion and active participation of the poor and the marginalized people into governance. The poor have had little participation in governance. Their entitlements have often been co-opted and seized by the powerful. The amendment proposes to bring the poor at the centre stage of governance. It helped them to plan, design and implement activities which best suits their interests and local conditions and their requirements. The 73rd amendment has been an effective constitutional intervention. It has been used by different state governments differently as per the local conditions. In case of Bihar affirmative actions have been taking by the state government in the form of reservation for marginalised sections and to empower the women. It has offered the disadvantaged and underprivileged a space of pre-eminence in the governance. The representation of women and underprivileged groups has outnumbered that of the ‗privileged‘ strata of the society and the world. Today, Bihar is a revived centre of deepening democracy. 7The Panchayati Raj Department (PRD) in Bihar came into existence in 2007. It mainly interrelate with two ministries at the central level — the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) and the Ministry of Panchayati Raj (MoPR). It is considered an important department not only because of the ample amount of funds but also because its activities have a direct bearing on rural development and poverty alleviation. It has also the nodal department through which it functions at
117 grassroots level. The decentralization of power through PRIs has become the pivot of all development activities.8
The state of Bihar has become the first to provide reservation up to fifty percent of total number of seats to the women by enacting a law called under Bihar ―Panchyati Raj Act‖ in the year 2006. The legislation was hail throughout the length and breadth of the country by the people across party lines and from different walks of life. Subsequently, two years after the huge success of this provision with a wider participation of women especially from scheduled castes (SCs) and most backward castes (MBCs) in the Panchayat elections. The Bihar government enacted similar legislations for providing reservation to the women in Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) also. The Bihar model of reservation to the women in ULBs and PRIs paved way for many states to legislate on similar patterns. States like Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh have also made similar pattern of reservation at grassroot level to strengthen the democratic decentralisation.9
3.4.1. Three-Tier Structure:
The three—tier Panchayati Raj Institutions in Bihar consist of a Gram Panchayat at Village level, Panchayat Samiti at the block level and Zila Parishad at the district level. The head of the Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad are called Mukhiya, Pramukh and Adhyaksha, respectively. In response to the 73rd constitutional amendment, Bihar Panchayati Raj Act, 2006 was enacted to strengthen the three-tier Panchayat system in thestate. Presently, there are 38 Zila Parishads, 531 Panchayat Samitis, and 8398 Gram Panchayats. Details of the 3-tier structure are given in Table no.3.6
Table No 3.6: Three-tiers of Panchayats in Bihar No Type of Tier Local Na Item No Item No Gram Kachahari ZillaParishad 38 115057 Members Gram Panchayat PanchayatSamiti 531 8398 Sarpanch
118
Gram Panchayat Gram Panchayat 8398 8463 Secretary Gram Kachahari 8398 NyayaMitra 8398 Gram Panchayat Gram Kachahari 115057 8398 Members Secretary ZillaPanchayati Raj Gram PanchayatMukhia 8398 38 Officers PanchayatSamiti Block Panchayti Raj 11501 528 Member Officers ZillaParishad Members 1162 ------
Source: Census Data Online; Planning Commission Data Tables.
3.4.2. Panchayati Raj in Bihar under the Act of 200610
The Act replaces the Bihar Panchayat Raj Act, 1993 as amended up to date.
1. The extent and commencement of the Act I. This Act may be called the Bihar Panchayat Raj Act, 2006. II. It shall extends to the whole of the state of Bihar excepting the areas to which the provisions of the Patna Municipal Corporation Act, 1951 (Bihar Act XIII of 1952) or Bihar & Orissa Municipal Act, 1922 (Bihar Act VII of 1922) or Cantonment Act, 1924 (Act II of 1924) apply. III. It shall come into force immediately after its notification in the Official Gazette. 2. Definitions — in this Act, unless there is anything repulsive in the subject or context, I. ―Adhyaksha‖ means an Adhyaksha of ZilaParishad elected under the provisions of Panchayati Raj Act of Bihar; II. ―Backward Classes‖ means the list of Backward Classes of citizens specified in Annexure 1 of the Bihar Reservation of Vacancies in Posts and Services (for SC, ST and other Backward Classes) Act, 1991 (Bihar Act No. -3, 1992);
119
III. ―Block‖ means such local area in a district as the State Government may constitute to be considering a Block; IV. ―Block Development Officer (BDO)‖ means an officer appointed as such by the State Government at Block level; V. ―Chief Executive Officer‖ means the Chief Executive Officer of a ZilaParishad appointed under the provisions of the Act; VI. ―Commission‖ it means the State Election Commission constituted under Article 243-K read with Article 243-ZA of the Constitution of India. VII. ―Commissioner‖ means the Divisional Commissioner or such other officer, as may be especially authorised by the State Government to discharge the functions of a Commissioner under this Act; VIII. ―Criminal Case‖ means a criminal proceeding in respect of an offence triable by a bench of the Gram Katchahry; IX. ―District‖ means a District as notified by the State Government to be a district; X. ―District Magistrate‖ means a District Magistrate of a District so appointed by the State Government and includes any other officer, who may be especially appointed by the State Government to discharge all or any of the functions of the District Magistrate under this Act; XI. ―District Panchayat Raj Officer (DPRO)‖ means a District Panchayat Raj Officer of a district so appointed by the State Government and includes any other officer, who may be especially appointed by the State Government to discharge all or any of the functions of the District Panchayat Raj Officer under this Act; XII. ―Executive Officer‖ means an Executive Officer of a PanchayatSamiti; XIII. ―Gram Sabha‖ means a body consisting of persons registered in the electoral rolls relating to a village comprised within the area of the Panchayat at the village level;
120
XIV. ―Gram Katchahry‖ means a Gram Katchahryat Panchayat level established under subsection(1) of section 90 of the Act; XV. ―Government‖ means the State Government of Bihar; XVI. ―Member Board of Revenue‖ means the Member, Board of Revenue or such other officer, as may be especially authorised by the State Government to perform the functions of a Member, Board of Revenue under this Act and includes an Additional Member, Board of Revenue; XVII. ―Member of Gram Panchayat‖ means an elected member of that Panchayat; XVIII. ―Mukhiya‖ means a Mukhiya of Gram Panchayat elected under the provisions of this Act; XIX. ―Municipality‖ means an institution of self-government constituted under Article 243-Q of the Constitution of India. XX. ―Munsif‖ with reference to a Gram Panchayat means the Munsif having local jurisdiction in the area in which such Gram Panchayat is constituted and includes a court of small cause cases; XXI. ―Notification‖ means a notification published in the State or District Gazette; XXII. ―Panch of a Gram Katchahry‖ means an elected Panch of that Gram Katchahry; XXIII. ―Panchayat‖ means an institution of Self-Government constituted under Article 243B of the Constitution of India for the rural areas; XXIV. ―Panchayat Area‖ means the territorial area of a Panchayat; XXV. ―Panchayat Samiti‖ means a Panchayat Samiti constituted for every Block under this Act; XXVI. ―Panchayat Secretary‖ means the Secretary of a Gram Panchayat appointed under this Act; XXVII. ―Prescribed‖ means prescribed under this Act or rules or regulations or notifications or orders made thereunder;
121
XXVIII. ―Prescribed Authority‖ it means an authority appointed under the provisions of this Act or any notification or rules or regulations made thereunder, for all or any of the purposes of this Act; XXIX. ―Population‖ means and includes the population as ascertained at the last preceding census of which the relevant figures have been published; XXX. ―Pramukh‖ means a Pramukh of Panchayat Samiti elected under this Act; XXXI. ―Sarpanch‖ means the Sarpanch of a Gram Katchahry elected under this Act; XXXII. ―Standing Committee‖ means a Standing Committee constituted by a ZilaParishad or a PanchayatSamiti or a Gram Panchayat under this Act; XXXIII. ―Sub-divisional Magistrate‖ means a Magistrate of a Subdivision so appointed by the State Government and includes any other officer, who may be especially authorised by the State Government to discharge all or any of the functions of the Sub- divisional Magistrate under this Act; XXXIV. ―Suit‖ means a suit triable by a bench of the Gram Katchahry; XXXV. ―Up-Adhyaksha‖ means an Up-Adhyaksha of a Zila Parishad elected under this Act; XXXVI. ―Up-Mukhiya‖ means an Up-Mukhiya of a Gram Panchayat elected under this Act; XXXVII. ―Up-Pramukh‖ means an Up-Pramukh of a Panchayat Samiti elected under this Act; XXXVIII. ―Up-Sarpanch‖ means an Up-Sarpanch of a Gram Katchahry elected under this Act; XXXIX. ―Village‖ means an area defined, surveyed and recorded as distinct and separate village in revenue records of the district in which it is situated;
122
XL. ―Zila Parishad‖ means a Zila Parishad of a district constituted under this Act.
The state government has taken several steps to strengthen the PRIs and the governance mechanism:
a. With the help of grants from the Thirteenth Finance Commission and the government of the State having own grants, 1435 Panchayat Sarkar Bhawans are in the process of construction. b. State level Training institutions established with a cost of Rs 1 crore and at the district level with a cost of Rs. 2 crore will be established to strengthen the PRIs. Further, a Block Resource Centre (BRC) in each of the 534 blocks will be established at a cost of Rs 10 lakh. c. There are 121 Block Panchayati Raj Officers (BPRO) have been appointed and giving them training for three months for better result at grassroot level. d. There is an independent Panchayati Raj Engineering Organisation has been established to make Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) more effective. e. The Rajiv Gandhi Panchayat Sashaktikaran Abhiyan is being initiated by the state government. The Gram Panchayats are being provided with one Accountant-cum- Computer Operator (ACO) and Panchayat Assistant under this programme. In addition, for every cluster of 10 Gram Panchayats, one Junior Engineer is being provided. f. The state government has started a Mission Mode Project for e- Panchayat to make the three-tier PRIs inclusive, responsive and accountable.
The 73rd amendment to the Constitution brought another level of governance at Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in India. The guiding principles
123 of Panchayati Raj (PR) include strengthening the participation of people and ownership in local governance and in decisions affecting their lives. It also includes rights-based approaches and transparency in public administration. There have been many attempts taken by the central and the state levels to strengthen Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs). They still have a long way to become strong, inclusive and democratic institutions in the spirit of the constitutional amendments. There are various constraints, both systemic and social, are responsible for this.
3.5. Governance and the Panchayati Raj and Backward Regions Grant Fund Programme (BRGF): A programme was launched by the UPA government the then Prime Minister Dr. Manmhoan Singh at Barpeta in Assam on 19th February, 2006. The Programme covers 250 districts in 27 states. It is designed to redress the regional imbalances in development. The Funds are available for supplementing and converging existing developmental activities into identified districts. It is being implemented by Panchayati Raj Institutions at all levels in rural India and Municipalities. Though the participative preparation of district plans follows a bottom up approach where all the planning is carried on a micro level. The institutional structure of backward districts is very poor. These districts lack of incorporation capacity and hence the desired outcome is not as per the desired expectation.. Hence, BRGF focuses on implementation of the process of participative planning at all level. The Backward Regions Grant Fund can be used to supplement them through a comprehensive macro approach cutting across sectors and meeting inter-sectoral requirements. Creation of capacity for effective planning at district and lower level was seen as a key-pre-requisite to participative planning for development. Hence there is a specific component in the BRGF programme for the capacity building of Panchayati Raj Institutions to it stronger and fulfil the requirements of needy people.11
124
The majority of the schemes implemented by PRIs are financed by the Backward Region Grants Fund (BRGF). The grants are provided by the Union Finance Commission, and the State Finance Commission to local institutions. These funds account for more than 80 percent of the financial resources available to the PRIs. Presently, there are 216 Master Resource Persons for carrying out the training programme proposed the under BRGF plan. Most of them have been initiated a 60-day training by the Bihar Institute of Public Administration and Rural Development (BIPARD). The Department has further created a pool of Master Resource Persons to impart training to the IT personnel and implement the e-Panchayat Mission Mode Project. In addition, it has also created a post of 2136 District Resource Persons (DRP) to provide training to functionaries and elected representatives at block level. A total of Rs. 3801 crore was approved for the PRIs, with an increase of 29 percent over the previous year. The actual expenditure was about 80 percent of the approved outlay in 2013- 14.12The financial progress of the PRIs is presented in TableNo.3.7.
Table No. 3.7. Financial Assistance under BRGF
2012-13 2013-14 Expenditure Outlay Expenditure Expenditure Outlay Expenditure as as percentage percentage of Outlay of Outlay Untied Grants under BRGF 568.87 480.95 84.60 745.61 555.14 74.45 MMGY ------192.95 172.81 89.56 Allowances for elected members of PRIs/G.K. 92.00 92.00 100.00 194.88 180.95 92.85 Rent for G.K. Bhawan 8.00 0.00 0.00 1.35 1.35 100.00 Capacity Building Under BRGF 36.00 0.00 0.00 5.00 0.00 0.00 Total 704.87 572.95 81.28 1139.79 910.25 79.86 Establishment of Headquarter
125
3.54 3.00 84.50 3.73 3.37 90.35 Grants for Nyaymitra & G.K. 44.59 42.28 94.80 45.05 17.91 39.76 13th Finance Commission Grant 1320.40 1151.38 87.20 1566.77 1061.04 67.72 Total 2226.99 2040.40 91.60 2647.68 2075.36 78.38 Expenditure on Election of ZP/Panchayat Samiti & GP 10.00 8.19 81.90 10.00 3.42 34.20 Secretariat Economic Services 1.41 1.30 92.40 1.39 0.10 79.14 Total 13.36 11.30 84.60 13.55 5.51 48.04 Grand Total 2945.22 2624.65 89.12 3801.02 2991.12 78.69 Source: Economic Survey 2014.-15, GoB
3.6. Governance in Bihar:
Bad governance leads to corruption, inefficiency, insufficient and poor quality public services, ineffective law and order, militancy, etc. The good governance makes a huge, positive contribution to the quality of life like increased per capita income, infant mortality, literacy, better quality of service delivery etc. The improvement in public administration can raise the growth rate of per capita income appreciably (according to one study by as much as 70%). Good governance, therefore, is a necessity. For better governance it is necessary to increase the governance capacity of the State. The experiences of innovations in governance have worked in States of India to sketch some ways which can dramatically increase governance capacity of Bihar. Governance connects a vast area: the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches. The governance is mechanism among the Central, State, and Local levels. It establishes the relationship between inter-governmental wing, the State and Civil Society, etc. There is only passing attention to the apex political and local self-government domains, and none to the judiciary. However, this domain is large enough and important enough.The significant improvement in its functioning can speed up the growth rate of Bihar and lead to noticeable progress in the welfare of the 126 citizen.Bihar is a State within the Indian liberal, democratic, market economy oriented, developmental Nation that is committed to full employment and poverty alleviation. The paucity of better governance is still a big threat to provide better opportunity to the people. As a developmental State, Bihar is expected to invest larger and larger resources into social and physical infrastructure. It will help in rapid economic development of the state. The Bihar as a democratic State is expected to strengthen the rule of law and due process, free and fair elections, civil and human rights of free speech, movement, employment opportunity, equality and freedom from discrimination. The state is also considered to ensure people‘s participation and participation of civil society institutions in governance.13
3.7. Development of Bihar and its Challenges:
The development challenge in Bihar is very colossal due to complex social stratification, underdeveloped as well as unsatisfactory infrastructure, persistence poverty and weak governance. These problems are well know but not well understood. This is deeply damaging the growth prospects of the state. There is an effort needed to change this perspective and to search for real solutions and strategies to meet out development challenges of Bihar. The development challenge must be considered in the light of overall development agenda. Bihar is third most populated state and accounts for one seventh of India‘s population below the poverty line. Nearly 33.7% population lies below poverty line in the State. The profile of poverty in Bihar is complex. But the key is to understand how people fall into poverty and how they are differently impacted by public intervention. Rural poverty incidence (33.7%) is considerably higher than the urban poverty (31.23%) with a low urbanization rate and poverty is predominant in rural areas. The poverty in rural areas is associated with limited access to land and livestock, poor education and health care, occupation and social status. The rural poor tend to depend on agriculture wages or casual non-farm jobs for income. Social and caste characteristics are also strongly associated with a lack of
127 opportunity, SCs and STs are thrice as likely to be poor as compare to upper castes, and significantly so in relation to Muslim and backward class.
The growth performance of Bihar which was slightly below the national trends in the 1980s became far lower than any other state. The state experience zero growth in the first half of the 1990s and since 1994-95, when data for divided Bihar became available, annual growth has averaged 3.8% or about 1% per annum in per capita income terms. Consequently, income growth and consumption levels in Bihar have insulated. Thereby, it was widening the gap between Bihar and rest of the India. Underlying this result has been exceptionally week performance in services of the State. The industrial sector experienced better but has a very small industrial base as compare to other state. The growth performance of Bihar which was slightly below the national trends in the 1980s became far lower subsequently. The state experience zero growth in the first half of the 1990s and since 1994-95, when data for divided Bihar became available, annual growth has averaged 3.8% or about 1% per annum in per capita income terms. As a result, income growth and consumption levels in Bihar have lagged seriously, thereby widening the gap between Bihar and rest of the India. Underlying this result has been Bihar‘s exceptionally week performance in services. The industrial sector experienced better but has a very small industrial base.
Agriculture is the bedrock economic contributor of the Sate. There are 80% of the workforces involved in it. It contributes nearly 40% of the GDP. Therefore, improving the performance of agriculture and related non-farming activity is important for maintaining livelihoods and reducing poverty level. Agriculture output has also been highly volatile due to shocks from both drought and periodic Floods. The dominant nature of several land holdings also impedes the productivity and subsistence farming in Bihar. Poor agriculture growth has dearly been a major factor hindering poverty reduction, and has serious implication for the consumption security of poor households. The declining level of investment
128 outside actors in Bihar has led to low growth performance. Private investment in the state has been exceptionally low as compare to other state. Public investments in the state have also seen a downward trend, partly due to the fiscal constraints in the state. Fiscal difficulties significantly challenge the public sector and the government‘s contribution to growth. The State is the beneficiary of large tax transfer from the centre (among the highest per capita transfer in India) but the state still faces serious fiscal constraints more severe than those confronting many other state. Fiscal deficits have been high, pushing up the debt level to among the highest in India. The state revenue barely covers own interest payments on the debt. After the bifurcation in November 2000, the State has aggravated the fiscal outlook. As the new state of Jharkhand received most of the revenue yielding industrial and mineral resources while Bihar retained most of the liabilities. Consequently, the fiscal stress has been deterioration in the mix of public spending: the share of capital spending has dropped sharply from the around half of total spending in the mid-1980s to one-fifth in the post bifurcation period. The developmental programmes allocated to the Bihar from the centre also not being fully or efficiently utilized even though Bihar is more dependent on these transfers to finance public investment and development programmes than most of the other state. In the field of social service delivery lack of education, poor health and inadequate access to safe drinking water and sanitation are closely associated and propagated by high level of poverty.
The differences among social groups in Bihar are acute. The main reason for poor social sectors outcomes is deficiencies in service delivery. It is particularly in service that affect the poor and where the government plays dominant role for instance, service delivery in rural developmental programmes etc. Administrative deficiencies compound the problem: there is a lack of monitoring, inadequate resources etc. Similarly it occurs also in other filed of development. Public subsidies often fail to reach the poor; usually subsidies are
129 skewed in favour of the upper economic classes. There are mainly four reasons in the Bihar. First, Public spending does not favour the poor or the services they need, second the prevalent leakages and corruption in services, third, the rate of absenteeism of the service provider to the poor people and fourth, there is lack of demand of public services in the state due to poor quality of poor services, the high cost and time required to access them and influence of local cultural factors. Bihar has many poverty alleviations programmes to improve the livelihood of the poor and socially disadvantage, virtually all of them supported through the central government. Their performance appears to be serious. The service delivery and utilization of central government programmes assistance shows serious constraints in public governance or administration. The public service norms in the State are poorly defined, political interference exists and bureaucratic system is largely non- meritorious. However there are some additional unique factors that contribute to the governance problems facing the State i.e. centralized government in Bihar which holds up decision making and project implementation. For instance, high level authorization and committee level approval is required for even relatively minor decision on purchases, tenders, land leases and other personnel matters. This has led to serious bottlenecks in other things. Slow disbursement of funds and the project cycle of the government programmes. 14
Arnab Mukherji and Anjan Mukherji provide a detailed discussion of the reasons behind the decline in the past glory of Bihar15. First, there are various factors at work, some of which were inherent to Bihar (like weak or bad governance, inadequate infrastructure, and inadequate land reforms). There are many of which were exogenous like the loss of resources with the separation of the state (Bihar and Jharkhand) and the freight equalization policy. The British rule policies over a long period of time adversely affected the development of Bihar too. First, the Permanent Settlement of 1793 by Lord Cornwallis, which introduced the Zamindari system, was seriously unfavourable. Through the
130 system, tax revenues were fixed for each Zamindar and revenues were delinked from agricultural output. This policy limited incentives for public investment in raising agricultural output in the State. Unlike the eastern States, the southern and western parts of India like Madras and Bombay provinces followed the Ryotwari system. The system determined revenue in relationship to agricultural output. It led to better administrative efforts and created incentives for improving productivity in the Ryotwari areas in terms of high public expenditure on health, education and infrastructure. Second, the Freight Equalization Policy of 1948. The basic raw materials like iron ore, coal and other minerals became available at the same price throughout the country. This undermined the comparative factor advantage for Bihar. The State was rich in mineral and other raw materials for manufacturing and value-added activities. It also destroyed incentives for industry to locate in a mineral-rich state like Bihar. They could purchase all inputs at the same price in other states as well several automobile producers which require steel as an input located themselves in far-off western states rather than Bihar. It obstructed the manufacturing activity and indeed the process of industrialization. Thus, it had a serious consequence for a more balanced composition of the state domestic product with the continued dominance of the primary sector. Third, the issue of development received lesser attention between 1990 and2005. It has been argued that the then ruling government narrowed all hiring believing that both fresh recruitment and expenditure would primarily benefit the upper Castes. The main focus was on social issuesand empowerment of those perceived as underprivileged. These were pursued in such way which seemed to de-emphasize the broader development tissues of the state. Real per capita income was almost stagnant between 1990 and 2005 with an average annual growth rate of less than 1 per cent between 1990-91 and 2005-06.Another external factor beyond the control of Bihar was the persistent step motherly behaviour by the Central government. It is not new but also found in the British rule therein. During the early twentieth century, the allocation of revenue, for example, was slanted away from states like Bihar. It leads to the lowest expenditures per capita on public administration, health and education in State. Even after Independence, the poor allocation of resources 131 to Bihar continued. The improper distribution of resources continued pretty much according to the same principles as before Independence, thus aggravates regional disparities, inequality and disadvantaging Bihar. The lack of coherent and coordinated action by the state is also the reason of bad governance. The leadership only compounded the problem of insufficient and lesser support from the Centre. The meagre resources available were either underutilization or yielded poor outcomes. Ultimately it leads Bihar to perform far below its potential.
Bihar is widely considered a ‗BIMARU‘ (sick) State. Starting from approximately the same economic base as several States in western and southern India in the early 1950s but Bihar has lagged far behind. For instance, the per capita income in 1970 was about half of that of Gujarat; its current per capita income is only about a quarter. The per capita income of Bihar virtually stagnated during 1965 and 1992. It was doubled in Punjab and increased by about 50% in India as a whole. Investment as a percentage of the gross state domestic product was only 20% in Bihar versus 35.5% for 14 states of India. According to World Bank in its recent report on Bihar (World Bank, 2005), nearly 40% of Bihar‘s population lives below the poverty line. During the 1990s, poverty did decline but only marginal (by 7 percentage points, well below the national average). The average annual growth rate GDP in the state was barely 2% in the 1990s. There was practically zero growth in the field of agriculture the mainstay of Bihar.16
3.7.1. The Growth performance and Governance in the State:
The economic transformation of Bihar has become one of the fastest-growing states in a short span of time in India. In 2005, much of the discussion and debate revolved around the possibility of any plausible option to the Rashtriya Janata Dal led by Lalu Prasad Yadav and the possibility of the re-election of the incumbent. While both governance and economic growth are seen as desirable goals, they are also symbiotic in nature. Scholars commenting on the role of governance down the ages, from Kautilya,17to Adam Smith (Little else is requisite to carry a state to the highest degree of opulence from the lowest barbarism, but peace, easy taxes, and a tolerable administration of justice: all the rest being brought about by the natural course of things)18. To Milton Friedman, 19,Mancur Olsun,20and most recently, to Besley andPersson,21 132 who showed a level of uniformity in notion despite the fact that these authors hail from different political spectra. Governance and institutions that provide public services in a transparent and accountable manner are key to foster and perpetuate long-term economic growth in Bihar. It is not so expected, the NDA government that came to power in2005 was aware of this long and rich body of work on governance. The Nitish Kumar, the chief minister of Bihar was frequently used to say that if they elected to power, governance was the first, secondand third priority for his government only. This was an obvious response to the growing wearing down of public service delivery over the previous decade. The real revelation has not been that governance needs to fix in Bihar, but rather, that (a) it was a fixable problem and (b) the scale of the surge in the economy of Bihar that it was saw the government became serious about its raison d'etre- called Sushasan or Good Governance.22 The state of Bihar became referred to Jungle raj the obvious division between the lack of governance and that of being ungovernable eroded in public perception.23In many instances, Bihar and its problems were seen as being uniquely Bihari. It was the fundamental problem: how does one take out the Bihari from Bihar? This type of dismissal is so constrict that it simply denies the possibility of change. The NDA government did the unexpected – they managed to bring about change in the functioning of a government. The government has changed the perception of people as earlier the reputation of not serving its citizens.24The changes were in the domain of police work to maintain the law and order problems that had emerged in the State. The other areas were social policy such as rural development, health and education, and infrastructure development. Collectively, these developmental changes altered not just the functioning of the government. It was begun to address the trust deficit in government which was spread out during the jungle raj under the Rashtriya Janta Dal. Bihar has won its international recognition in many leading innovation. These innovations are also being adopted by the government of other States. Some are narrated briefly: Jankari, an e-governance programme set up in 2006 allows anyone in Bihar to simply call up and file an RTI (Right to Information)request on government services just through a call.25This resulted in a level of transparency and helped to build faith of people in the system as requests for information whatever they want from the government. The
133
Janta durbar (open house) was initiated where the chief minister would be available to meet people. A team of the officials would be there to solve their grievances and sort out the problems. This programme, Janata Ke Durbar Mein Mukhyamantri, was later formalized into an IT platform-supported law called the Bihar Public Grievance Redressal Act that provides guarantees for public service within a pre-specified period. The state government also initiated the policy School girls providing a grant of Rs 2500 to every 2,500 to every girl studying in class nine and class ten to purchase a bicycle to go to school. The scheme, which also provided uniforms to children, was announced in 2006 and achieved several things at once. Further, against the all odds, the scheme was one of the largest and most successful cash transfer programmes in the world ever, with over 900,000 cycles purchased during the period between 2006 and 2010. In the light of the recent changing social policy, nationwide, to direct cash transfers, this experience will prove invaluable in designing the larger roll-out. The success of this policy has probably played a significant role to re-elect in the State election led by Nitish Kumar in the 2010. Clearly, the government was taking steps which were effective in providing governance broadly in line with notions of good governance mentioned in the works of Kautilya and others Besley and Persson.
3.8. The Economic Profile of Bihar State to Strengthen the Rural and other Development Programmes:
The economic development of the any state is sing of actual development in all aspect. The economic imbalance of the state shows the inefficiency, ineffective and bad governance of the system. In this concern, the economic development of Bihar is one of the major in indicator of the overall development of the State as well as it dwellers. The careful and proper utilization of public finances in favour of social and economic activities, building roads and a range of other activities have given the state an opportunity to build up public infrastructure as well as revive many economic activities in the State. The improvement in law and order situation much delayed private investment in personal homes and other building activities picked up pace. Agriculture and allied services is a key sector in the economy Bihar. Its contribution to the Indian economy is hardly insignificant. But its low productivity has thwarted the state's growth. 134
It has also meant that whatever growth has occurred in Bihar bypasses the majority of the labour force who are in the agrarian sector. The challenges also remain with expanding the urban infrastructure, thinking through floodwater and water-management. The improvement in education and health is still required, providing a better safety to the poor than the absorbent Public Distribution System (PDS) and continuing to manage its revenues and public finance to meet the rising expectations of the people of Bihar. The challenges of governance still remain to be addressed. The economic growth remains constrained. There is a need to replace depreciating capital and advancement of public investment is necessary for a well-functioning economy. However, there still remain challenges and a key indicator, the private sector and its investments, remains elusive. The quality of education in primary schools, hospitals facilities and the urban infrastructure remains poor. The industry sectors need skilled labour to create more production especially in agriculture sectors. The story of change is still being written and Bihar is still in the turn-around mode.26 The economy of Bihar, despite global meltdown and slow growth of the overall Indian economy was able to continue its growth momentum. For a proper understanding of the challenges facing economic development in Bihar, it should be kept in mind that, with a population of 104.0 million in 2011 and densely populated region, with no less than 1106 persons living per sq. km. of its area is not an easy task to achieve the level economic prosperity. As per the Planning Commission figures, in 2009-10, 53.5 percent of its population lived below the poverty line in Bihar. Near about nine-tenths of its population live in the villages, where the poverty ratio is higher at 55.3 percent. Bihar had to overcome all these challenges to move ahead in a new growth path. The present Bihar is completely depend upon agriculture and allied sectors. But with a prudent development strategy, the state could overcome these challenges at all level. The state is now experiencing a development process that is not only very strong, but inclusive as well.27
3.8.1. The Economic Growth and performance of Bihar: The estimates of State Domestic Product of Bihar are prepared separately for Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) and Net State Domestic Product (NSDP), both at current and constant prices. In Table No.1 (Appendix), the estimates of GSDP and NSDP
135 are presented for the period 2004-05 to 2013-14. In Table No.2 and 3 (Appendix), the sector-wise estimates of GSDP are presented at current and constant (2004-05) prices, respectively, for the period from 2004-05 to 2013-14.The sector-wise estimates of NSDP at current and constant (2004-05) prices for the same period are also presented in Table No. 4 and 5 (Appendix), respectively. It should be noted here that the final estimates have been presented for the years up to 2011-12. The estimate for 2012-13 is provisional and that for 2013-14 is a quick estimate. The GSDP of Bihar at 2004-05 prices in 2013-14 was Rs. 1.75 lakh crore, yielding a per capita income of Rs. 17,294. The estimated GSDP at current prices in 2013-14 is Rs. 3.43 lakh crore, involving a per capita income of Rs. 33,954.
The growth rate of economy of Bihar has not been uniform over the period 2000- 01 to2013-14. During 2000-01 to 2004-05, the income of state at constant prices raised at an annual rate of 3.4 percent. After that, the economy witnessed a turnaround and rose at an annual rate of10.2 percent between 2005-06 to 2009-10, and by 10.4 percent between 2010-11 to 2013-14.This later rates of growth were not only much higher than what was achieved in previous period, but one of the highest among all the States of the India.
Table No 3.8: Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of GSDP Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of GSDP 2005-06 to 2009-10 2010-11 to 2013-14 No. Sector Current Constant Current Constant Price 2004-05 Price 2004-05 Prices Prices 1. Agriculture/Animal 14.6 5.4 13.2 3.7 Husbandry 2. Fishing 22.8 2.7 29.0 14.6 3. Mining/Quarrying 11.9 14.1 -0.7 -1.5 Sub-Total (Primary) 13.9 4.4 13.5 3.8 Manufacturing 20.6 13.3 5.3 -1.1 4. 4.1 Registered 56.9 45.4 1.2 -6.0 4.2 Un-registered 11.8 5.6 8.1 2.0 5. Construction 29.4 19.8 15.3 6.6 6. Electricity / Water 5.9 8.6 26.3 8.3 Supply / Gas Sub-Total 24.8 16.7 13.3 4.7 (Secondary)
136
7. Banking / Insurance 15.0 14.4 22.2 19.2 8. Real Estate/ Ownership of Dwelling/Business 19.6 9.6 18.6 10.4 Services
Sub-Total (7&8) 14.6 11.6 19.8 14.8 9. Public Administration 17.5 8.7 18.7 8.6 10. Other Services 15.1 5.7 24.3 14.4 Sub-Total (Tertiary) 19.3 11.1 23.8 14.8 11. Total GSDP 18.6 10.2 19.3 10.4 Per Capita GSDP 16.8 8.6 17.7 8.9 Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, GoB
The analysis of the sectoral rates of growth, as presented in Table 3.8, throws light on the major contributors to the economy growth of the state of Bihar. During 2005- 10, the sectors which recorded a growth rate of more than 15 percent are — Registered Manufacturing 45.4 percent, Construction 19.8 percent. During the succeeding period of 2010-14, the sectors whose rate of growth was relatively higher were Banking and
Insurance 19.2 percent. It is also remarkable that the rate of growth in the field of Agriculture and Animal farming sector has been 5.4 percent during 2005-10 and 3.7 percent during 2010-14, compared to a negative rate during 2000-05. This is special significance, as nearly 90 percent of the population of state living in rural areas depend on this sector for their livelihood. Although there has been remarkable increase in the growth rate of the economy of Bihar, the yearly growth rates shows wide range of recedes and flows. The overall economy, the growth rate has varied from 5.55 percent in 2007-08 to as high as15.03 percent in 2010-11. Agriculture and Animal Husbandry sector, which has been recorded a growth rate of 15.38 percent in 2009-10, had grown at a very high rate of 30.57 percent in 2006-07.In 2010-11, the growth of this sector was also at 19.91 percent. One of the most likely sources of this wide fluctuation in the agricultural growth happens to be the uncertainty of monsoon. This fluctuation in the agricultural production, in turn, causes fluctuation in the growth rates of other sectors of the economy. The sector agricultural contributes 18.9 percent of GSDP (2013-14).Therefore, it is necessary to stabilise the rate of growth of the agriculture sector in order to stabilise the growth of the
137
overall economy with the help of technology providing to the agro-farmers. For a comparative analysis of the economic growth of Bihar vis-à-vis other states can be seen in the comparable estimates of per capita NSDP of different states in Table 3.8. The table3.9 presents the estimates of per capita income at constant (2004-05) prices of major Indian states for some selected years during the period 2009-10 to 2013-14. It is observed that in the table Bihar continues to be at the bottom of the ranking of all states with respect to per capita income. But the impact of the strong growth process in recent years can be felt when one considers the gap between the per capita incomes of Bihar with that of all-India. In 2009-10, the per capita income of Bihar (Rs. 10,635) was 31.05 percent of all-India average (Rs. 33,901),but in 2013-14, this ratio has increased to 39.22 percent (Rs. 15,650 for Bihar and Rs. 39,904for all-India). Thus, it is clear that the momentum of economic growth of Bihar has got to be sustained for many more years if the gap between the per capita income of Bihar and that of India has to be narrowed and ultimately closed.
Table No. 3.9: Per Capita Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) at Constant (2004-05) Prices of Major Indian States
Per Capita NSDP (Rs.) S.No State 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 1 Andhra Pradesh 36303 (8) 40054 (8) 42589 (7) 44526 (7) 46788 (5) Assam 20406 21611 (15) 22420 (15) 23448 (15) 24533 (13) 2 (15) Bihar 10635 12090 (17) 13149 (17) 14362 (17) 15650 (15) 3 (17) Jharkhand 21534 24330 (12) 25265 (12) 27010 (12) 28882 (9) 4 (13) Odisha 22846 23968 (13) 24151 (13) 25415 (14) 25891 (12) 5 (12) Uttar Pradesh 16390 17388 (16) 17980 (16) 18595 (16) 19234 (14) 6 (16) 7 West Bengal 29799 (9) 31314 (9) 32164 (9) 33889 (9) 36527 (7) 8 All-India 33901 36202 38048 38856 39904 Note: Figures in parentheses denote ranking of the states Source: Central Statistical Organisation (CSO)
138
With economic development, it is historically observed that the structure of the economy also undergoes changes. This is true of Bihar too. This is because the swiftness of development of various sectors are different, leading to changes in their relative size over the years. The growth rates of different sectors vary because of shifting demand patterns, a consequence of rising per capita income. Labour force also tends to shift from primary sector to more prosperous industrial and services sectors. In the table 3.10 it is shown that the structure of the economy of Bihar has been presented for the period 2005- 06 to 2013-14. Instead of presenting year-wise shares of sectoral outputs, the 2 columns of the table present average for shares of sectoral output for the two chosen periods — 2005-10 and 2010-14. These average output are more stable in its nature.
Table No. 3.10. Sectoral Composition of GSDP at Constant (2004-05) Prices
No. Sector 2005-06 to 2010-11 to 2009-10 2013-14
1. Agriculture/Animal 23.0 19.4 Husbandry 2. Fishing 1.3 1.0 3. Mining/Quarrying 0.1 0.1 Sub-Total (Primary) 25.4 20.5 Manufacturing 5.6 4.8 4. 4. Registered 1.4 1.8 1 4. Un-registered 4.2 3.0 2 5. Construction 10.0 13.1 6. Electricity / Water 1.4 1.3 Supply / Gas Sub-Total 12.6 24.0 (Secondary) 7. Banking / Insurance 4.1 5.4 8. Real Estate/ 5.5 5.2 Ownership of Dwelling/Business Services
Sub-Total (7&8) 9.6 10.6 139
9. Public Administration 6.0 5.4 10. Other Services 12.1 10.8 11. Sub-Total (Tertiary) 55.9 58.8 Total GSDP 100.0 100.0 Source: Economic Survey of Bihar2014-15, GoB In the beginning of 2005-10, the average share of 2 major sectors in total GSDP at constant prices stood at25.4percent (primary), 12.6 percent (secondary) and 55.9 percent (tertiary). Thereafter, it stood at 20.5percent in primary sector, 24.0 percent in secondary and 58.8 percent in tertiary sector for the period 2010-14. It shows that the importance of the primary sector has declined steadily over the years. The secondary and tertiary sectors recorded remarkable growth rate in the last decade. The shares of outputs are much higher than those in the beginning. The relative share for the period2010-14 stands, thus: primary (22.0 percent), secondary (19.2 percent) and tertiary (58.8 percent). Within the three major sectors i.e. primary secondary and tertiary and some sub- sectors have also recorded considerable change in their respective shares. For instance, in the primary sector, Agriculture and Animal husbandry recorded substantial decrease in the share. In the secondary sector, the sub-sector which showed substantial change is Construction, whose share in GSDP increased from 10.0 percent in the beginning to 13.1 percent in the period 2010-14. In the tertiary sector, the sub-sector which recorded Considerable growth and caused its share to rise was Banking, Insurance and Real Estates. Organised sub-sectors such as Public Administration and other allied services lost in terms of their shares in GSDP. In the above description of the GSDP, the performance as well as participation of the people is not so much considerable. It is needed to be focus on the better governance to make the State more stable and prosperous.28
3.9. Rural Development and Social Welfare Programmes in the State of Bihar: Rural Development is one of the most important factors for the growth of the Indian economy. The strategy of rural development in India mainly focuses on poverty alleviation, better livelihood, provision of basic amenities and infrastructure facilities through innovative programmes of wage and self-employment etc. For progressive Bihar the development of rural areas is an important part through better governance. There are
140 number of rural development programme are running by the state government. There are various welfare programmes for the weaker sections and women as well as over all development of the rural areas. The state government also implements welfare programmes — some of them for employment and livelihood, housing, and food security too. The details of these welfare programmes are described below.
3.9.1. Swarnajayanti Grameen Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY):
The Swarnajayanti Grameen Swarozgar Yojana(SGRY) is a modified form of the Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP). It was launched in 1999. The objective of programme is to organise the rural poor and build their capacities systematically so that they can have self-employment opportunities for their livelihood. It has provisions to provide income-generating assets to the rural poor through a mix of bank credit and government subsidy. The assisted rural poor families are organised into Self-Help Groups (SHGs). The scheme was closed in 2013-14. Despite, it has a substantial contribution to rural employment during 2008-09 to 2012-13 is evident from Table 3.11.
The coverage of the programme was maximum in 2010were assisted, in which the share of women was 65.6 percent. In the same year, the number of individuals assisted for self-employment was 15.4 thousand, in which25.6 percent. In other years also, the programme has achieved considerable success, with increasing share of women beneficiaries.
Table No.3.11 Performance of SGSY Programme
No. of Individual No. of Members of Swarojgar is assisted SHGs assisted for No. of SHGs formed Years for Economic Economic Activities Total Women Total Women Total Women 1266 2009-10 158061 98695 (62.4) 6090 30701 19073 (20.8) 28576 2010-11 184225 120901 (65.6) 15398 3937 31453 (25.6) (90.9) 12017 2011-12 127567 91836 (72.0) 8698 2122 9297 (24.4)
141
25531 2012-13 178900 165600 (92.6) 7685 6143 25531 (79.9) (100.0) Source: Department of Rural Development, GOB Note: Figures in parentheses denote percentage
3.9.2. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS):
The MGNREGS is one biggest flagship programme of the central government launched by the UPA-I. This programme was launched to solve the rural unemployment problem in the country. It is widely ubiquitous in Bihar as well as India. The prime objective of the programme is to provide a guaranteed 100 days of employment for unskilled labourers in rural areas. Simultaneously, it is designed to create community assets for the maximum benefit of the rural areas. In Bihar, the problem exists because of the distorted land distribution in rural areas. Consequently, the mass of agricultural labourers and marginal farmers required additional employment or job opportunities for their livelihood. This is expected to decrease distress migration and have multiplier effect on the rural economy. We can see the details about the performance of the programme are described in Table 3.12. In the state of Bihar there are 131.87 lakh Job Cards have been issued to the households till 2013-14, and 15.6 percent of job card holders were provided employment in the same year. Out of those, there are only 6.0 percent were provided 100 days of employment in2013-14 and the corresponding figure being 6.3 percent in 2012-13. In 2012-13 and 2013-14, more than 80 percent of fund was utilised, which is much higher than the figures for previous years. The total employment generated was 862.21 lakh person days in 2013-14, as compare to 965.42 lakh person days in2012-13. Till 2013-14, 110.98 lakh bank and post-office accounts have been opened for payment of wages under the scheme.
142
Table No. 3.12: Performance of MGNREGS in Bihar Year 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 No. of Job Cards 124.06 130.45 133.82 133.49 131.87 Issued (lakh) No. of households 41.27 46.85 26.80 24.66 20.59(15.6) provided with (33.3) (35.9) (20.1) (18.5) employment (lakh) No. of Households 287019 260919 137649 156935 123447 obtaining 100 days of (7.0) (5.6) (5.1) (6.3) (6.0) employment Employment generated 1137.53 1597.49 866.38 965.412 862.21 (lakh persondays) Percentage share of women in total 30.0 29.6 28.20 29.94 34.97 employment generated Average employment per household 27.6 34.1 32.3 39.15 41.88 (persondays) Number of completed 70491 83593 54589 64846 104832 works Fund utilized 75.8 82.7 65.02 82.90 81.75 (percentage) No. of accounts 84.91 102.57 107.55 110.70 110.98 opened (in lakh) Source: Department of Rural Development, GOB Note: Figures in parentheses denote percentages with respect to total job cards issued
143
Figure 3.2: Overview of Employment Provided to Households through MGNREGA
160 133.82 133.49 131.87 140 124.06 130.45 120 100 80 60 41.27 46.85 40 26.8 24.66 20.59 20 0 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14
No. of Job Cards Issued (lakh) No. of households provided with employment (lakh)
The district-wise detail about the implementation of the Scheme is presented in Table No. 6 (Appendix). In the table, it can be observed that a wide range variation across the districts in the performance of MGNREGS. In 2013-14, the maximum number of job cards was issued in Muzaffarpur (6.5 lakhs), followed by East Champaran (6.23 lakhs) and Gaya (5.98) respectively. Less than one lakh job cards were issued in small districts of Sheohar (0.87 lakhs), Sheikhpura (0.96lakhs) and Arwal (0.96 lakhs). The Schedule Caste households represent 33.5 percent of the households with job cards. In Gaya district the highest percentage of households and the demand of employment was (66.0 percent), followed by Samastipur (49.5 percent).The Kishanganj district with 12.5 percent was the lowest among the districts in this category. Aurangabad stood at first (9.5 percent) to provide 100 days of employment to the needy, followed by Nalanda (9.5 percent) and Madhepura (9.4 percent). Sheohar (63.3 percent), Begusarai (56.9), Saharsa (47.2 percent) have registered the highest participation of women in MGNREGS programme, around 40 percent participation of women recorded in 2013-14. Whereas less than 20 percent women‘s participation has been registered in Buxar (18.5 percent), Rohtas (19.6 percent) and Kaimur (19.5percent). There is also found wide range of inter- district variation as regards the total employment generation in 2013-14. The district of Gaya (73.75 lakhs) is the best district in employment generation. Whereas by East Champaran (40.99 lakhs) and West Champaran (39.44 lakhs) stood at satisfactory level in
144 employment generation. The two districts with the lowest employment generation in 2013-14 were Munger (3.74 lakhs) and Arwal (4.95 lakhs). The district-wise financial progress and achievement under the scheme has been shown in Table No. 7 (Appendix).In this concern the district of Bhagalpur (101.5 percent) is the best district in the utilisation of fund in 2013-14under the programme. The districts of Jamui (96.9percent), Banka (95.8 percent) and Buxar (95.8 percent) have also utilized more than 95 percent of the fund released under the scheme of MGNREGS. In the Table 3.13lists the category-wise completed works under MGNREGS, from 2009-10 to 2013-14. Under the programme the projects for Rural Connectivity and Drought Proofing have dominated the scheme during this period. Nearly, 27.3 and 27.8 percent of the total projects have been completed respectively. Another most important category is Water Conservation. These three types of projects help in developing the rural infrastructure, expanding livelihood options for the rural people in the State of Bihar.
Table No. 3.13: List of Category-wise Completed Works under MGNREGS Year/Categories 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 8637 11424 6059 Water conservation 7009 (10.8) 6879 (6.56) (12.3) (13.7) (11.1) 31869 38955 25521 28631 Rural connectivity 22056 (34.0) (45.2) (46.6) (46.8) (27.31 Provision of 1489 (2.1) 1841 (2.2) 1902 (3.5) 1813 (2.8) 3210 (3.06) irrigation facility Flood control and 5175 (7.3) 5072 (6.1) 2554 (4.7) 2265 (3.5) 1318 (1.26) protection Micro-irrigation 6552 (9.3) 7368 (8.8) 4605 (8.4) 4335 (6.7) 5618 (5.36) works 29121 Drought proofing 6601 (9.4) 6609 (7.9) 5360 (9.8) 16246 (25.1) (27.78) Land development 2575 (3.7) 4674 (5.6) 3229 (5.9) 4090 (6.3) 7654 (7.30) Renovation of 7593 7650 (9.1) 5065 (9.3) 6828 (10.5) 2428 (2.32) traditional water (10.8)
145
bodies 19973 Any other activity 0 (0.0 ) (0.0) 294 (0.5) 204 (0.3) (19.05) Total Works 70491 83593 54589 64846 104832 Completed (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100) Source: Department of Rural Development, GOB Note: Figures in the parentheses denote percent share to total works completed
3.9.3. Indira Awas Yojana (IAY): Indira Awaas Yojana (IAY) is a programme for rural housing and provides shelter to shelter less in the rural areas. It is a flagship scheme of the central government, centrally sponsored and Ministry of Rural Development deals with the programme. The scheme is provided to the poor rural mass who is living below the poverty line (BPL). This programme launched in 1985-86 as a part of the Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP). Both Center and State contribute to the funds for the Yojana in the ratio of 75:25. In case of Sikkim and North-Eastern states the funding is in the ratio of 90:10. Under the scheme Rs 45,000 to construct a house in plain area and Rs 48,500 to construct house in hilly and difficult area are provided as financial assistance to the rural people. Later, financial assistance has been increased to Rs 70,000 and Rs 75,000 w.e.f. 1st April 2013. The beneficiaries can also avail loan of up to Rs 20,000 for constructing a house at an annual interest of 4%.The scheme is a significant step towards improving the basic amenities for rural people. In the State of Bihar the government has taken significant step to improve the rural housing under the scheme. The summary of the performance of IAY over the last five years is presented in Table No.3.14.
Table No. 3.14: Year wise Covered Targets under IAY
Houses Completed Percentage Annual of Fund Year Physical Total SC & ST Total SC & Target ST Utilization 2009-10 1098001 645621 (58.8) 335675 (52.0) 69.5
2010-11 758904 529392 (69.8) 259867 (49.1) 66.4
146
2011-12 737486 450248 (61.1) 200393 (44.5) 68.0 2012-13 835925 839515 (100.4) 372409 (44.3) 75.9 2013-14 605550 695462 (114.9) 312388 (44.9) 66.4
Source: Department of Rural Development, GOB, Note: Figures in parentheses denote percentages with respect to the previous column
In both 2012-13 and 2013-14, more than cent per cent of physical targets were achieved in Bihar under programme for rural housing compared to achievements in previous years. The share of Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes in the total houses completed has declined over the years, but it is still above 40percent. The detailed information provided on the scheme is described in Table No. 8 (Appendix) of its achievements for each component.
3.9.4. Public Distribution System: The Public Distribution System (PDS) plays an important role to provide food security. It is a process in the country to provide food grains supply to the needy people at a subsidized rate. It is a mechanism to make available essential commodities to the needy people, particularly those living below the poverty line. In Bihar, the PDS is extremely needed as there exists wide range of poverty. There are four essential commodities wheat, rice, sugar and kerosene oil are distributed through PDS outlets. The social backgrounds of PDS dealers are described in Table No. 3.14. There are 42,451 PDS dealers as on September, 2014. The share of backward and extremely back ward castes among the dealers is about 36.5 percent. The scheduled castes are 16.2 percent and general castes 19.5 percent. The distribution of PDS dealers by their social background indifferent districts is presented in Table No.9 (Appendix). The ownership pattern of PDS outlets at the district level is nearly the same as in the state level.
Table: No. 3.15. Overview of PDS Dealerships (as on September 2014) No. of Social Background of PDS Percentage PDS Outlets Share Dealers Scheduled Caste 6857 16.2
147
Scheduled tribes 323 0.8 Backward Caste 12445 29.3 7.2 Extremely Backward 3068 Caste Minority 3036 7.2 Women 3387 8.0 Women Self Help 202 0.5 Groups Other Self Help 118 0.3 Groups Co-operative Society 4579 10.8 (Ex-Army Personnel) 0.4 Handicapped 177
General 8259 19.5 Total 42451 100.0 Source: Department of Food and Consumer Protection, GoB
Till 2012-13, it was implemented under three schemes, namely (a) BPL, (b) Antyoday and (c) Annapurna. After the enactment of National Food Security Act 2013 in February 2014,it runs under two schemes: (a) Antyoday: under this scheme provides 35 kgs of food grains per month to extremely poor BPL families (21 kgs of rice at the rate of Rs. 3 per kg and 14 kgs of wheat at the rate of Rs. 2 per kg) and (b) Privilege Household (PHH) under this scheme the eligible members of a family are provided 5 kg of food grains every month. Under PHH Scheme, 3 kgs of rice at the rate of Rs. 3 per kg and 2 kg of wheat at the rate of Rs. 2 per kg. The total coverage is 871 lakh people with 4.60 lakh tonnes of food grains. The operational details of scheme in Bihar for the years 2010-11 to 2013-14 are presented in Table3.15. It shows that the lifting of food grains under BPL scheme has risen continuously over the years. The lifting percentage for wheat is 94.8 percent in 2013-14, much higher than 34.9 percent for 2012-13. The lifting percentage of rice under the BPL scheme was 96.4 percent in 2013-14, which is again higher than 52.7 percent in 2012-13. The lifting percentage of food grains was above 90 percent under Antyoday Yojana for all the years, since food grains are highly subsidised under the Antyoday Yojana. Under Annapurna, the lifting percentage of both the food grains was around 70 percent in 2012-13. The scheme has ceased to operate from 2013-14.
148
Table No. 3.16: Working of Public Distribution System Year Rice Wheat Allotment Lifting Lifting Allotment Lifting Lifting
Percentage Percentage BPL 2010-11 610.8 559.6 91.6 1495.1 1217 81.3 2011-12 985.9 638.4 64.8 2187.7 1500.2 68.6 2012-13 1348.4 470.5 34.9 2022.6 1065.9 52.7 2013-14* 1056.56 1002.08 94.8 1340.68 1291.89 96.4 Annapurna 2010-11 106.2 65.1 61.3 70.8 44.2 62.4 2011-12 106.2 62.7 59.0 70.8 39.1 55.2 2012-13 114.2 76.4 66.9 76.1 53.4 70.1 2013-14* ------Antyoday 2010-11 417.1 408.6 97.9 625.7 595.2 95.1 2011-12 420.2 395. 7 94.2 630.2 573.5 91.0 2012-13 420.2 407.5 97.0 630.3 593.8 94.2 2013-14* 385.15 378.88 98.4 577.71 573.00 99.2 Source: Department of Food and Consumer Protection, GOB Note: * Since February, 2014, Antyoday and PHH are the 2 PDS schemes running in the state.
The district-wise information on allotment and lifting of food grains under BPL and Antyoday schemes in 2013-14 are presented in Tables No. 10 and 11 (Appendix), respectively. For both the schemes, considerable amount of inter-district variation is observed in terms of lifting of food grains. Under the BPL scheme, Muzaffarpur stood at top of the list with 100 percent result, followed by Bhojpur (99.48 percent) in case of the lifting of wheat. Under Antyoday, in 2013-14, all districts have lifted more than 90 percent of wheat. The programmes discussed in this section on rural development and poverty alleviation still far from its consequences for poverty alleviation. On the part of the implementation there is huge mismanagement. The state government has recently adopted many measures to control the leakage of resources at the grass root level. The convergence of various schemes meant for same target group could ensure better
149 implementation of poverty alleviation programme. The Twelfth Plan also puts emphasis on this issue of maximum use of scarce resource. The B K Chaturvedi Committee, appointed by the Planning Commission of India. The commission has made several suggestions to restructure the Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSSs). The commission has also recommended for greater flexibility to the states for the implementation of the schemes. 3.9.5. Labour Resource and Welfare in Bihar: It is observed from the comparison of the figures from 2001 and 2011 census that there was not much change in the share of labour force engaged in agricultural labour and household industry. However, there was a decrease in share of cultivators and some increase in the share of other workers. It reflects the desired movement of labour force from farm sector to non-farm sector. In survey, moving from sectoral distribution of workers, the focus has been given to the work participation ratio in Bihar. Low Work Participation Rate (WPR) has always been a characteristic for the population in Bihar. As per 2011 census, 3.45 crore workers in Bihar constitute 33.3 percent of its population. Among them, 2.50 crore are male and 95 lakh are female. The WPR in rural Biharis 34.0 percent which is rather low; in the urban areas, it is even lower at 23.2 percent. The state is also facing the problem of low work participation rates for females, for whom the WPR is only 19.1 percent. The same situation prevails in the case of both main workers and marginal workers. The Table No. 3.17. shows the work participation ratio in Bihar across the region and gender wise.
Table No. 3.17. Work Participation Rates in Bihar (2011) WPR Rural Urban Rural Urban Male Female Total Male Female Male Female 20.28 11.92 31.82 8.21 20.52 Main 31.18 8.44 36.79 6.36 Workers 13.68 11.27 14.65 10.87 12.84 Marginal 15.49 11.72 8.11 4.08 33.96 23.20 46.47 19.07 33.36 Workers All 46.67 20.16 44.90 10.44 Workers Source: Primary Census Abstract, 2011, Census of India
150
The work participation rates may increase through skill development training and promotion of small and cottage industries. The state government has taken positive initiative in this regard and started Bihar Skill Development Mission for skill up gradation of 1 crore youth by 2017 to help them obtain gainful employment. For this, the Industrial Training Institutes (ITI) have been established in all 38 districts and 9 women ITIs in all divisional headquarters. There are 65government ITIs. There are 16 women ITIs and 596 non-government ITIs in the state as on September 2014. The state government plans to set up 4 new women ITIs (in Begusarai, Farbesganj, Supaul, and Jehanabad) and 1 ITI in Chhapra (Saran).29
3.10. Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF):
The RIDF was set up by the central government in 1995-96. It was introduced to finance on going rural infrastructure projects by providing low cost fund support to the state governments and state owned corporations. It is managed by NABARD. The scheduled commercial banks contribute to the fund to the extent of their shortfall in stipulated priority sector lending to agriculture. At present it covers a wide range of 31 activities classified broadly under three categories — (a) Rural Connectivity (b) Agriculture and Related sectors and (c) Social Sectors. Rural Connectivity: it includes rural roads and bridges, and a loan for this sectoris being provided at 90 percent of the project cost to the North Eastern Region and hilly states and at 80 percent to all other states. Agriculture and related sectors :it includes agriculture, irrigation, soil conservation, flood protection, watershed, reclamation of water-logged areas, animal husbandry, plantation, horticulture, seed, forest development, fishing, godowns, marketing infrastructure, cold storages, grading/certifying mechanisms, testing laboratories, hydro projects (up to 10 MW), village knowledge centres, infrastructure for IT, desalination plants in coastal areas and setting up of KVIC industrial states/centres. The loans are provided at 95 percent of the project cost to all states. Social Sectors: This sector includes drinking water projects, public health institutions, construction of toilets in the schools (especially for girls), Pay & Use toilets in ruralareas,
151 and construction of Anganwadi Centres. The loans are provided at 90percent of the project cost for the North-East Region and hilly states, and at 85 percent to all other states. It was created to provide the following benefits: I. To provide additional investment already made by the state governments, II. creation of additional irrigation potential in the rural areas, III. creation of additional employment for the rural people, IV. contribution to the economic wealth of the state, V. improved connectivity between villages and marketing centres, and VI. Improvements in quality of life through facilities in education, health and drinking water supply. Till the end of March, 2014, 19 tranches of RIDF have been sanctioned, sum of Rs 1,84,107crore for the entire country allocated out of which only Rs 1,28,343 crore (69.7 percent) have been disbursed see Table 3.18. In Bihar, however, the disbursed amount of Rs 5290 crore formed only60.2 percent of the total sanction of Rs 8790 crore. The Bihar has been sanctioned Rs 8790 and utilised 70.0 percent of the total disbursed fund for the rural infrastructural development.
Table No. 3.18: Cumulative Disbursements under RIDF till March 2014 Utilisation State Sanctions(Rs. Disbursement Disbursement crore) (Rs. crore) Percentage Percentage Andhra 16862 12190 72.3 82.0 Pradesh Bihar 8790 5290 60.2 70.0 Chhatisgarh 3960 2380 60.1 91.0 Uttar Pradesh 15966 11686 73.2 91.0 West Bengal 10631 7115 66.9 82.0 Jharkhand 5645 3874 68.6 83.0 Odisha 9676 6090 62.9 85.0 Rajasthan 13255 8927 67.3 79.0
152
Punjab 6449 4525 70.2 80.0 All India 184107 128343 69.7 87.0 Source: Annual Report, 2014, NABARD
It can be seen here in the Table No. 3.19. that the total disbursements which is made by NABARD to Bihar under 19 tranches of the RIDF. There is a huge gap between sanction and disbursement in many portion of the sanctioned amount. Till March2013, the total disbursements stood at 57.4 percent of the sanctions amount, which rose marginally to 61.0percent by March 2014. Such deficit in disbursements of RIDF funds is a matter of concern for the development of Bihar.
Table No. 3.19 Sanctions and Disbursements in Bihar under RIDF till March, 2014 Tranche RIDF Disbursement Disbursement Sanction Percentage
RIDF I -X 508 351 69.1 RIDF XI 459 418 91.1 RIDF XII 305 231 75.7 RIDF XIII 578 512 88.6 RIDF XIV 752 720 95.7 RIDF XV 674 637 94.5 RIDF XVI 1089 656 60.2 RIDF XVII 1048 598 57.1 RIDF XVIII 1490 533 35.8 RIDF XIX 1764 634 35.9 Total till 6907 3965 57.4 March 2013 Total till 8671 5290 61.0 March 2014
Source: NABARD Bihar
153
The progress of RIDF during 2013-14 under 19 tranches can be seen in Table 3.19. During this year,the 442 RIDF projects in the state have been created for irrigation potential in 7.28 lakh hectares. There are66,477 meters of bridges and 5408 kms of roads have constructed under the scheme. The total value of all of these infrastructural developmental works was Rs. 2034 crore. These projects also created employment potential for 3.35lakh people in the State. However, in respect of the creation of employment potential the achievements of Bihar are very modest as compared to other states like Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh.
Table No. 3.20 Estimated Benefits under RIDF –19 as on March, 2014 No. of Potential Project Value of State Production Employment Roads Bridges Generated Irrigation (Rscrore) (‗000 ha.) (Km.) (mt.) (lakh) Andhra 2267 2409 33543 59770 4301 20.69 Pradesh Bihar 442 728 5408 66477 2034 3.35 Chhattisgarh 3517 367 10031 31603 965 0.73 Gujarat 3 1861 20124 4346 1331 14.51 Haryana 81 958 3117 4903 1835 1.69 Jharkhand 269 310 9751 92861 226 0.98 Karnataka 1526 486 39785 48451 1157 1.57 Madhya 200 1658 16252 41257 5590 11.82 Pradesh Odisha 8279 1567 7368 96357 3099 8.23 Uttar 134 5528 28125 64506 7339 11.07 Pradesh West Bengal 502 1411 16152 21427 2059 9.10 India 28819 21840 375932 884174 41977 110.25 Source: NABARD Annual Report, 2014,
154
It is always observed that the conventional poverty alleviation programmes suffer from problems of service delivery at end side. They are often unsuccessful in making a serious hollow on poverty especially caused by the absence of a credit support for the poor households. This is particularly true in also in the concern of Bihar. In this circumstance, the microfinance is an alternative for poverty alleviation. Through this microfinance support timely and adequate credit and other financial services could provide for the weaker sections of society at an affordable cost. In this background, the Self Help Groups (SHGs) and the SHG-Bank Linkage Programme (SHG-BLP) have emerged by the government. The Regional Rural Banks and Cooperative Banks helps as a major microfinance institutional programme in the country. There were 74.3 lakh SHGs in India till March 2014.There were 62.5 lakh women under SHG and linked to the formal banking system with their savings balance of nearly Rs. 9900 crore, compared to Rs 8200 crore in the previous year. The total bank loan disbursed during 2013-14 amounted to more than Rs 24,000 crore and the total outstanding loan amounted to more than Rs 42,928 crore. In other words it can be said that the SHG-BLP has so far been the most favoured and doable model for financial inclusion of the hitherto unreached rural poor.
The Self Help Groups and the Bank linkages in Bihar are slower than other states in ensuring benefits to the needy people through this programme. The performance of SHGs in Bihar till 2013-14 is described in Table No. 3.21. In the rural Bihar the savings- linked SHG coverage was 32.4 lakh households till 2014.The average savings of Rs 6127 per SHG in Bihar was lower than the national average of Rs13,321. The average credit of Rs 70 thousand per SHG was also lower than the national average of Rs 1.75 lakh. During 2013-14 the total loans disbursed to the SHGs amounted to Rs 284crore, which was higher than Rs 222 crore disbursed in the previous year. Their outstanding loans at the end of 2013-14 stood at Rs 898.14 crore, lower than the corresponding figure one year earlier Rs 932.30 crore. Their non-productive assets increased from Rs 64.27 crore in March,2013 to Rs 70.58 crore in March, 2014. The non-productive asset in 2014 was 7.86 percent of total outstanding loans. NABARD has identified 16 districts in Bihar for
155 promoting and financing women SHGs. The government also positioned NGO in each identified district.
Table No. 3.21: Performance of SHGs in Bihar (March 2014) Rural households covered (SHG: savings linked) 32.4 (in lakh) No. of SHGs having savings bank account (in 2.69 lakh)
Average savings / SHG (Bihar) (Rs) 6127.0 Average savings / SHG (India) (Rs.) 13321.0 No. of SHGs provided bank loan 190171
No. of SHGs provided bank loan during 2013-14 40036 Amount of bank loan (2013-14) (Rs. lakh) 28400.0 Amount of bank loan outstanding (Rs. lakh) 898.14 Average bank loan per SHG in Bihar (Rs. lakh) 0.70 Average bank loan per SHG in India (Rs. lakh) 1.75 Gross NPA (Rs. lakh) 7057.6 Percentage of gross NPA to total outstanding in 7.86 Bihar No. of women SHG Districts in Bihar 16 Source: NABARD, Bihar
The table No.3.22 shows the status of SHG-Bank Linkage in major Indian states in terms of the number of credit-linked SHGs till 2013-14. Bihar had around 2.69 lakh SHGs at the end of 2013-14 which about 3.6percent of the total SHGs linkage in the country. The total savings of these SHGs were Rs 164.67 crore. The total bank credit of Rs 284.00 crore was made available to the SHGs during 2013-14. The outstanding loans of all the SHGs in Bihar amounted to Rs 898.14 crore. The year-wise progress made in credit linking of SHGs is described in Table 3.23. During 2013-14, banks have credit- linked additional 41,714 SHGs in the state of Bihar. This is an improved as well as satisfactory performance compared to 2012-13.
156
Table No. 3.22: SHG-Bank Linkage in Selected States of India (March 2014) Bank No. of Savings of loans SHGs SHGs disbursed State with with during the Bank Banks year Linkage (Rs.crore) (Rs.crore) Andhra 1418676 3499.62 13324.82 Pradesh Bihar 268721 164.67 284.00
Chhattisgarh 111884 182.84 111.71 Gujarat 196510 168.72 129.38 Jharkhand 86386 89.33 34.62 Madhya 157481 130.10 142.05 Pradesh
Odisha 517391 457.34 504.86 Punjab 23041 22.84 15.09 Rajasthan 257262 179.07 194.60 Uttar Pradesh 379270 438.59 344.88 West Bengal 591464 814.07 685.16 Total 7429500 9897.42 24017.36 Source: Status of Micro Finance in India, 2013-14,NABARD
Table No. 3.23: Growth of Micro-financing in Bihar Year 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14
Number of SHGslinked to 30241 26055 22714 30297 41714 bankduring the year
Source: State Level Bankers' Committee Table No. 3.24clearly describes the micro-financing made by the Regional Rural Banks in Bihar in 2013-14.During the year, the three Regional Rural Banks have together
157 financed 20,045 SHGs (67.8percent of target). The total amount of credit was Rs 177.06 crore, which is about 62 percent of the total credit of Rs. 284 crore to SHGs in Bihar. Table No. 3.24: Micro financing by RRBs during 2013- 14 SHGs with Bank-linkage Credit
RRBs Target Sanction Amount Percentage (Rscrore)
Bihar 4605 5324 37.30 115.6 KGB Madhya
Bihar 8175 6240 40.26 76.3 KGB Uttar
Bihar 16800 8481 99.50 50.5 KGB
Total 29580 20045 177.06 67.8 Source: State Level Bankers‘ Committee
There are some obstacles that exist in linking the SHGs to banks i.e. the absence of reputed NGOs and low awareness of the stakeholders about the benefits of SHG lending. It is expected that initiatives taken by NABARD should be more result oriented. It should provide favourable environment towards the movement of SHG in the state. However, several issues continue to affect the programme like inadequate flow of programme in many regions, delays in disbursement of loans, confiscation of savings by banks as guarantee, delays in opening of SHG accounts, multiple membership and limited interface with bankers, and monitoring etc. The State Level Bankers' Committee had identified certain factors which are by and large absent in Bihar but have contributed to the success of SHGs in other states .These factors are like attitude of the rural people and education, lack of conducive regulatory framework, proper government support and availability of professionally-run quality micro-finance institution through the SHGs.
158
It is necessary to remove such constrictions to ensure the spread of the SHG movement in the state. All the Sectoral Commercial Banks (SCBs), Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) and Central Cooperative Banks (CCBs) are part of this renewed thrust. The focus of SHG would be on voluntary savings, cash credit as a preferred mode of lending, scope for multiple borrowings by SHG members in keeping with the repayment capacity. The avenues to meet higher credit requirements for livelihood creation in rural areas. Further, the scheme will also promote SHG Federations as non-financial intermediaries, audit and rating of SHGs as part of risk mitigation system, and strengthening the monitoring mechanisms for better governance in the rural area in the state of Bihar.30
Consequently, in the above descriptions on various schemes and programmes related to the economic development of Bihar, it is observed that after the new regime of the government, 2005 onwards the growth is remarkable in each areas such as rural, agriculture, infrastructure and industrial etc. In the area of rural development still there is a need to create more opportunity for the rural people as well as agriculture sectors. The Chief Minister Nitish Kumar won the recent election of Bihar in majority. This is being partly endorsed to better governance as the expansion of roads, infrastructural development, availability of electricity in villages and improvement in day-to-day administration. People want faster and growth with equity. There is a massive shortage of jobs in many sectors especially in rural areas. There are also spatial and sectoral variations in public needs. The three critical gaps in the governance which is need to be address in most states are: corruption, inefficient and insufficient use of development funds and the slow pace of governance reforms. Corruption is the biggest challenge to the governance. It led to several problems. It has destabilized state authority. It reduced GDP growth rates and hit the poor very hard. There need to efficient fund utilization to improve the productivity of financial resources. Large funds are being siphoned off in the states for contracts in public works, consequently in exaggerated costs and poor quality of projects as well as services. The transfer of substantial resources to village panchayats has not helped in building better quality of infrastructure in many part of the state. There is need to organise better accounting and audit support and constantly undertake capacity building with respect to public representatives and working staff with them.
159
References:
1. Rangarajan, L. N. (Ed.). (1992) Kautilya’s Arthashastra, New Delhi: Penguin Books, p.116. 2. See planning commission of Bihar at http://planning.bih.nic.in/Documents/DOC- 01-15-03-2013.pdf (accessed on 22/9/2015) 3. See Note no. 2 4. See Note no. 2 5. See Capacity Assessment and Capacity Development Strategy (CA-CDS) Report for Strengthening Panchayati Raj Institutions in Bihar at http://www.undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/DG/Bihar-CA-CDS-report.pdf accessed on 25/10/2015 6. See Note no. 5 7. See Strategy And Capacity Building Plan Of Panchayats For Bihar (2009-12) at http://www.biharpanchayat.gov.in/hidden/strategy-capacity-building-plan-of- panchayats-for-bihar-2009-12 (accessed on 20/02/14) 8. Retrieved fromhttp://www.undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/DG/capacity- assessment-and-capacity-development-strategy-report-for.pdf 9. See Note no. 07 10. The detail of the Panchayati Act 2006 can be accessed on the website given below.Retrievedfromhttp://www.panchayat.gov.in/documents/10198/350801/Bih arPRAct_2006_English.pdf, accessed on 22/02/14 11. See Note no. 07 12. Retrieved from http://finance.bih.nic.in/Documents/Reports/Economic-Survey- 2015-EN.pdf, site accessed on 10/2/15. 13. Singh, N.K. & Stern, N. (Ed.). (2013). The New Bihar, New Delhi: Harper Collins Publication. 14. Retrieved from http://web.worldbank.org/archive/website01291/WEB/0__CO-65.HTM , site accessed on 04/03/2015.
160
15. Mukherji, A. & Mukherji, Anjan (2012) 'Bihar: What Went Wrong? And What Changed?' NIPFP Working Paper No. 2012-10. in N.K. Singh, & N. Stern, (Ed.). (2013). The New Bihar, New Delhi: Harper Collins Publication. 16. Ahluwalia, M.S. (2000.) ―State level performance under economic reforms in India.‖ Paper presented at the Centre for Research on Economic Development and Policy Reform, Conference on Indian Economic Prospects: Advancing Policy Reform, Stanford University. in N.K. Singh, & N. Stern, (Ed.). (2013). The New Bihar (p20) New Delhi: Harper Collins Publication. 17. See Note no. 1 18. Lecture in 1755, quoted in D. Stewart, 'Account of the Life and Writings of Adam Smith LLD; Section IV, 25, in The Collected Works of Dugald Stewart, (Vol 10). In N.K. Singh, & N. Stern, (Ed.). (2013). The New Bihar (p 164). New Delhi: Harper Collins Publication. 19. Friedman, M. (1962). Capitalism and Freedom. in N.K. Singh, & N. Stern, (Ed.). (2013). The New Bihar (p 164). New Delhi: Harper Collins Publication. 20. Olsun, M. 'Dictatorship, Democracy and Development', American Political Science Review .1993, Texas: American Political Science Association, pp 567- 76. in N.K. Singh, & N. Stern, (Ed.). (2013). The New Bihar,(p.164) New Delhi: Harper Collins Publication. 21. Besley, (et al.).(2011). Pillars of Prosperity: The Political Economy of Development Clusters, Princeton: Princeton University Press. in N.K. Singh, & N. Stern, (Ed.). (2013). The New Bihar,(p164). New Delhi: Harper Collins Publication. 22. Mukherji, A. &Mukherji, A. (2013). Sushasan: Governance and the New Bihar. in Singh N.K. & Stern, N. (Eds.). The New Bihar (p 163). New Delhi: Harper Collins Publication. 23. Lydia, 'P. Turnaround in India's State could serve as a Model; The New York Times, 10 April 2010. See also, Mathew, S., and M. Moore, 2011, 'State incapacity by design: Understanding the Bihar story; Institute of Development Studies Working Paper Brighton, UK: pp 1-31. In Singh N.K. & Stern, N. (Eds.). The New Bihar (p.165). New Delhi: Harper Collins Publication.
161
24. World Bank, (2005). Bihar: Towards a Development Strategy. This report profiles governance, public service delivery and other constraints to growth that emerged in the period prior to 2005. in Singh N.K. & Stern, N. (Eds.). The New Bihar (p.165). New Delhi: Harper Collins Publication. 25. Available online at http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-01- 30/patna128035432_ l_second appeals-rti-act-applications), accessed 20 February 2012. It has been adopted in other states. 26. Retrieved from http://finance.bih.nic.in/Documents/Reports/Economic- Survey-2014-15 EN.pdf, site accessed on 20/08/15 27. See Note no. 26; pp 6-7 28. See Note no .26; pp 3-10 29. See Note no. 26; pp 232-44 30. See Note no. 26; pp 324-327
162
CHAPTER - IV
A broad Approach of Governance and Rural Development in Purnia District
4.1. The Purnia: Historical Perspective
Purnia has a rich Hindu history and a glorious past. Purnia is also famous for the oldest temple of Mata Puran Devi which is 5 kms away from the main city. There is a presumption that Purnia got its name from that temple. Some people believe that many years ago Purnia was Purna–Aranya which stands for "complete jungle" that's why it has got the name Purnia. In the year 1813 Purnia included the areas of Katihar, Araria, Kishanganj and Malda (now in West Bengal). The area of the then Purnia district as reported in the Survey and Settlement Report of 1908 was 12,934.4 sq. kms. The present area of the district is 3,229 sq. kms. The Katihar, Kishanganj and Araria are now independent districts. Purnia is the divisional headquarters of Purnia Division. It comprises of four districts, namely, Araria, Kishanganj, Katihar and Purnia itself.
The District Census Handbook of 1961 mentions that Purnia apparently formed a part of the Kingdom of Anga. It covered the area west of the River Mahananda. The eastern part of the river was under the control of the Pundras. The Anga remained an independent kingdom till the 6th century B.C. It was annexed by the Magadh Emperor, Bimbisar. The subsequent history of the western part of Purnia is, therefore, linked with the great Magadh Empire. Even the area east of the Mahananda was, brought under the Empire of the great Ashoka. The district later formed part of the Gupta Empire in 340 A.D., under Samudra Gupta. The Gupta Empire extended up to Assam. The Huns overthrow of the Guptas and Purnia passed under Paladitya, the king of Magadh. Hiuen Tsang, who visited Paundravardhan (eastern Purnia) in Circa 640 A.D., found prosperous people there. There had been plenty of cultivation land, groves and crops in the countryside. From 9th to 12th centuries the district was under the Pala and the Sena kings of the Bengal.
163
4.1.1. Muslim Period
The 12th century saw the commencement of Muslim rule in the State of Bihar and the conqueror was Bankhtiyar Khilji. His successor Ghyasuddin I extended the territory of the whole Bihar. Consequently, Purina also came under Muslim rule in the beginning of the 13th century. The northern part of the district continued to be under the sway of the hilly region of Nepal. Thus, very little is known of the history of the district till the 17th century. Under the Mughal rule, the district comprised Sarkar Tajpur, east of the Mahananda River and Sarkar Purnia, the part of west of the river. Purnia was a great military seat under the rule of a Fauzadar as a frontier district at that time. It has always had an extra administrative importance. It was administered by the Mughals through Governors or faujdar, who combined the revenue powers of Amildars. Ostwal Khan was the first such Governor, followed by three others. He established a very good relationship with Murshid Kuli Khan and the Nawab of Bengal. He managed to bring to book the refractory local chiefs, including Durjan Singh of Birnagar. Saif Khan also recovered large areas of territory on the northern part of the district. He rendered his full support to Ali Vardi Khan the new Nawab of Bengal. Saif Khan died in 1750. He was succeeded by his son Fakhruddin Hussain Khan. He was a poor administrator and frivolous of the wealth accumulated by his father. Later he was replaced by his own nephew and son-in- law, Saiyed Ahmad Khan,Saiyed Khan. He was an efficient administrator and was held in great esteem on account of his noble living and admired for his just and fair dealings with all. He died in 1756. Shaukat Jang succeeded his father as Governor, and was given the whole of Purnia as a revenue free jagir by the Nawab Ali Vardi Khan was succeeded by Siraj-ud-daula. He marched towards Purnia and reached Rajmahal in 1756. But his troops could not be persuaded to proceed further. Meanwhile Shaukat Jang refused to take up arms and accepted suzerainty of Sirajud-daula. Soon afterwards, he was instigated by Mir Jafar Khan, the Bakshi at Murshidabad, to try his hand at obtaining the Diwani.
At the same time the Grand Vizier issued a Firman to appoint Shaukat Jang as the Viceroy of Bengal. When Siraj-ud-daula sent a messenger to inform him of the grant of certain Jagirs to a Hindu chief, Shaukat retorted that Siraj-ud-daula should quit the
164
Viceroyalty of Bengal in his favour. This naturally infuriated Siraj-ud-daula. He marched against Shaukat Jang with a division under his own command up to the right bank of the Ganga and sent another division under his Diwan, Raja Mohan Lal, along the left bank of the river. Meanwhile Raja Ram Narain, the Governor of Bihar had also been ordered to march on to Purnia from Patna. Shaukat Jang entrenched himself in a strong position at Baldiabari (between Manihari and Nawabganj) but the lack of any clear-cut strategy resulted in his meeting utter defeat. He himself was having slain in the battle (1756). On Siraj-ud-daula‘s death (July, 1757) Nazir Ali Khan, took possession of the town, imprisoned Mohan Lal and seized the treasury with the support of Achint Singh, holder of four Parganas. Mir Jafar Khan was now the Nawab of Bengal. He sent Khadim Hussain Khan who took over control and became the Governor of Purnia.
4.1.2. British Period
In 1770, Mohammad Ali Khan was the Governor of Purnia. He was replaced by Ducarrel, the first collector of the district. The year was marked by a severe famine and almost half of the ryots lost their lives. In 1872 the district was transferred from the control of the Bihar and Banaras Board of Commissioners to the Calcutta Board of Revenue. In 1829 Purnia was included in Bhagalpur Division by creating of Commissioner‘s Divisions. In 1834 it was placed under Rajshahi Division under which it continued until 1893. It again went to Rajshahi in 1905 and later came back to Bhagalpur. The early years of the British rule were largely directed at establishing law and order. They were setting up of the revenue administration on a sound footing. Raids and depredations in border villages by Nepali Sardar took place in 1788 and again in 1793.
Despite a commercial treaty signed with Nepal in 1792. A delegation was sent under Abdul Quadir Khan in 1795 to secure a lasting demarcation of the boundary with Nepal to prevent further border raids. It did not meet with appreciable success. The next important event in the district is the movement of 1857. The 73rd Regiment of the Native Infantry and a detachment of the 11th Irregular Cavalry were then stationed at Jalpaiguri, the eastern border of Purnia district. Although the administration did not expect any trouble at Jalpaiguri, nevertheless, a corps of Nepalese was allowed to be raised by Kerr, an indigo planter of the district, in October, 1857. The movement of 1857 led to measures
165 for tightening up the administrative system. The European planters were authorized to maintain their own protective forces from which sprang the Auxiliary Force which was ultimately converted into the Bihar Light Horse. An earthquake took place in 1897. In the same year a scheme for taming the turbulent Kosi was mooted by engineers, though it was actually taken up only after the country attained independence.
The district of Purnia has also played an important role in the agrarian reforms and the national movement. The Locale, prominent lawyers of the district gave up their practice and joined the Non-co-operation Movement of 1921. Dr. Rajendra Prasad visited Purnia district in 1921. Mahatma Gandhi also visited in 1925. Over 700 persons were arrested in the district in connection with the Salt Satyagraha. The district, like other districts of the State, has thus played an important role in the country‘s freedom struggle.1
4.2. Purnia: An overview
4.2.1. Geographical Location and Area
Purnia is the oldest and one of the most backward districts of Bihar. In 1912, Bihar and Orissa were carved as separate provinces out of the old Bengal Province and Purnia became the district of the new provincial unit. The district of Purnia, as it existed in 1951 with an Figure No 4.1. Geographical location and Area area of 12,784.64 sq. km. and a population of 25, 25,231 has been pre-eminently an agricultural district. After separating the Katihar District, the area of Purnia District was 7943 sq. km. and accounts for 4.56 % of the state area. In the year 1990, the district was split into two more districts namely Araria and Kishanganj. Now the present area of the Purnia District is 32, 02.31 sq. kms. The district of Purnia in Bihar forms part of the Middle Ganga Valley. The city of Purnia is the headquarters of Purnia division as also of the district and Sadar subdivision. The jurisdiction of the district has remained intact in the last two decades. It has virtually remained unaffected on account of reorganization of
166 districts in the State which took place after the 1971 census. The district is bounded on the north by Araria, districts, on the east by the districts of Kishanganj, on the south by the districts of Katihar and on the west by the districts of Madhepura and Saharsa. It lies between 25°-13'-80" ~ 27°-07'-59" north latitude and between 86°-59'-06" ~ 87°-52'-35" east longitude.
4.2.2. Physical Features and Climate of Purnia District: The district shares its physical characteristics with most of the northern part of the State. The River Kosi and Mahananda and their tributaries irrigate different parts of the district. This part is contiguous to Araria and Katihar district and is analogous in physical characteristics to the north Bihar plain. The land is very fertile in this portion and is one of the principal centres of trade in grain in the State of Bihar. Thus, the district is having natural divisions. viz. the alluvial plains of River Kosi and Mahananda. These area of are flood prone during the month of July to October. The river is navigable throughout the year for all types of boats. The climate of Purnia is almost similar to the average climate of Bihar. 2
4.2.3. Population of Purnia: According to the 2011 census, the total population of Purnia district is 32,64,619 out of which 1,699,370 are male and 1,565,249 are female population. The population of Purnia District constituted 3.14 percent of total population of Maharashtra. In 2001 census, this figure for Purnia District was at 3.07 percent population of Maharashtra. As per the 2011 census, 10.51 percent lives in urban area. In total 3,43,005 people lives in urban. The Sex Ratio in urban area is 907 as per 2011 census data. Similarly child sex ratio in Purnia district is 955 in 2011 census. The child population figure of Purnia district is 15.18 % of total urban population. The average literacy rate of the district as per census 2011 is 72.74 % out of which males and females are 77.84 % and 67.07 % literates respectively. According to the 2011 census, 89.49 % population lives in rural areas. The total population living in rural areas is 2,921,614 out of which males and females are 1,519,522 and 1,402,092 respectively. In rural areas of Purnia district the sex ratio is 923 females per 1000 males. The child sex ratio data of Purnia district is considered, figure is 954 girls per 1000 boys. Child population in the age 0-6 is 603,149
167 in rural areas of which males were 308,655 and females were 294,494. The child population comprises 20.31 % of total rural population of Purnia district. The literacy rate of Schedule caste is 11.98 and the schedule tribes 4.27. 3
4.2.4. Agriculture: The agriculture is the principal occupation of the people of Purnia. Rice is the most important crop of the district. It covers the largest proportion of the gross area sown. Wheat is the main Rabi crop. Maize is another important cereal. The most important maize growing areas are in Northern part of the district. Crops grown in this region are paddy, Jute, Wheat, Maize, Moong, Masoor, Mustard linseed, Sugar cane and Potato. Jute is the major cash crop of Purnia district. Fruit plants like coconut, Banana, Mango, Guava, Lemon, Jack Fruit, Pineapple and banana are also grown here. Rearing of livestock like goat, cow and pig is very popular in Purnia. After independence the government has, under different five-year plans, drawn up and executed various schemes for irrigation. It produces the maximum number of poultry and eggs in Bihar. The Sugar mill at Banmankhi and 716 other small-scale industries provide employment to the people of Purnia.
4.2.5. Animal Husbandry: The cattle in the district are generally not of very good quality. The cattle rearing like goat, poultry are the main occupation in the district. The government has taken up various measures to improve the breed of the cattle. The State government is proving financial assistance for poultry and egg production.
4.2.6. Communications: The purnia district is well-connected by rail and road transport. The river transport is also used for local communication. The roads in the district consist of Public Works Deparbnent Roads, District board roads, Municipal roads and Village roads. The national high way 57 (NH-57) is one of the life line communication which connect the Bihar with West Bengal and provide a regular ferry service.
168
4.2.7. Industries, Trade and Commerce: The district has been famous for its industrial potentiality since long. Sugar Mill, Rice Mill, indigo were some of the main industries. Besides there were a number of small-scale industries and some of them are still continuing. The Sugar mill at Banmankhi and 716 other small-scale industries provide employment to the people. But due to lack of proper industrialization people are unable to get good employment and they migrate here n there in search of job. The maize a cash crop is the life line for employment for rural people for a limited period. The famous line Bazar is a hub of doctors and nursing homes. It has more than one thousand doctors practicing therein and also contributing in economy of the district as well as State. 4.2.8. Languages and Religion: The Main languages spoken in the district of Purina are Hindi and Urdu. The Local dialects are Angika and Maithili. The Hindus and Muslims are in large numbers. The others are in small numbers like Christians Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains.
4.2.9. Education: Literacy rate among men and women are 59.06 per cent and 42.34 per cent respectively. Primary and Middle school facilities are generally available in the towns, but not the same case in rural areas. There are 12 college including one Agriculture, one Engineering colleges and one Para medical college.
4.2.10. Social and Cultural Activities: The important fairs and festivals organised in various parts of the district are Dussehra and Diwali, Maghi Pumima, Ram Navami, Kartik Pumima, Shivratri, Divali and Bhadra Purnima Muslims celebrates ld-ul-Fitar, Id-ul-Zuha, Moharram and Barawafat etc. while Christians participate in Christmas, Good Friday, etc. There is a also famous local fair organised in Gulabagh a small historical place called Gulabagh Mela during the month of January and February. 4 4.3. Administrative set up of Purnia District:
There are four sub divisions in Purnia district at present, namely Baisi, Purnia Sadar, Damdaha Banmankhi and 14 blocks are Amour, Baisa, Baisi, Dagarua, Purnea
169
East, Kritiyanand Nagar, Kasba, Jalalgarh, Srinagar, Damdaha, Bhawanipur, Barhara- kothi (B-kothi), Rupauli, and Banmankhi.. There are 251 Gram Panchayats and 1273 villages. Purnia district is situated in Northern part Bihar Plain. It is bounded on north by the district of Araria and Kishanganj. It is flanked by the districts of Dinajpur and Malda of West Bengal in East and by the district of Madhepura in West. In its south lie the district of Katihar. There is one Nagar Nigam, namely Purnia (Municipal Corporation) and two Nagar Panchayats, viz., Kasba Nagar Panchayat and Banmankhi Nagar Panchayat in this district. Total numbers of villages in the district are 1273. Purnia (Municipal Corporation) is the headquarter of the district. The District Magistrate (D.M) is head of the district. He is the officer of revenue and civil administration. He is an I.A.S. cadre. District Magistrate conducts development and welfare works in the district. The Additional District Magistrate (ADM) and other officers are posted in order to help D.M. in the administration. The district has four subdivisions headed by sub divisional officers either from I.A.S. or B.P.S.C. cadre. S.D.O. is under direct authority of D.M. There are fourteen Community Development (C.D.) Blocks in the district. The Block Development Officers (B.D.O.) are posted who undertakes development and welfare projects of the rural areas. The Dhamdaha village (Dhamdaha Block) is the most populated village (37,987). The Auraha chakla is the least populated village (01) in the district. The Block Amour has the highest number of villages (162). The Srinagar Block has the lowest number of villages (27). Dhamdaha (under Dhamdaha C.D. Block) has the largest area (4,004 hectares) and Suraini Milik (Bhawanipur Block) has the smallest area (2 hectares) among the villages in the district. The Purnia is also a commissionery under which the district of Araria, Kishangan, katihar and purnia itself comes. The Superintendent of Police, Purnia is the head of the district police administration. He is generally from the Indian Police Service. In the subdivisions of the district, the Deputy Superintendents of Police are posted who keep control on police administration. He belongs to Bihar Police Service. After enactment of 73rd and 74th amendment of Indian constitution Panchayati Raj Institutions (Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad) in rural areas and Local Urban Body (Nagar Panchayat, Nagar Parishad and Nagar Nigam) in urban areas are playing important role in development of the district. As regards judicial, civil and criminal
170 courts, there are courts of Civil and Additional Sessions Judge at Purnia and those of Munsif Magistrates at Amour and Rupauli. In addition there are Panchayati Raj Institutions at the district, block and panchayat levels. 5 Table No. 4.1. List of the Blocks in Purnia District:
Name of Name of the Blocks S.No. Division 1 Baisi Amour, Baisa, Baisi and Dagarua 2 Sadar Purnea East, Kritiyanand Nagar, Kasba, Jalalgarh and Srinagar 3 Damdaha Damdaha, Bhawanipur, Barhara-kothi (B-kothi), Rupauli 4 Banmankhi Banmankhi
Figure No. 4.2 Block Map of the Purnia District
171
Table No. 4.2: Basic Demographic Indicators of Purnia District (as per census 2011)
S. No. Particulars Purnia Bihar
1. Area (Sq. Km.) 3,229
2 % to Total States' Area 3.43
3 CD Blocks 14
4 Towns 3
5 Total no. of Panchayats 249
6 Total no. of Villages 1273
7 Population (Census 2011)
a Total 32,64,619 82,99,8509
b Male 2,543,942
c Female 1,215,525
8 Scheduled Castes Population:
a Total 16,567,325
b Male 8,606,253
c Female 7,961,072
d Percent scheduled caste 12.4 15.98
9 Scheduled Tribes Population:
a Total 1,336,573
b Male 682,516
c Female 654,057
d Percent scheduled tribes 4.4 0.9
10 Population in the Age Group 0-
6 years:
172
a Total 656,510
b Male 335,955
c Female 320,555
11 Decadal Growth Rate (2001- 35.2 2011):
a Population Density: 1,011 881
b Sex Ratio (General): 921 921
c Sex Ration (0-6): 954
d Literacy Rates: 51.08 64
Male 59.06
Female 42.23
12 Total Workers:
a Total 9,60700
b Male 6,77235
c Female 2,83465
13 % of workers to Total
Population:
a Total 37.8
b Male 51
c Female 23.3
Source: http://purnea.bih.nic.in
4.4. PRI to Strengthen the Governance mechanism in the Purnia District:
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, Govt. of Bihar enacted the Bihar Panchayat Raj Act (BPRA), 1993, subsequently it replaced by Bihar Panchayat Raj Act, 2006. The three tier system of Panchayat Raj (Zila Prishad, Panchayat Samiti and Gram
173
Panchayats) came into existence. The first general election held in April/May 2001. There are 38 Zila Prishad (ZPs), 531 Panchayat Samiti (PSs) and 8471 Gram Panchayats (GPs) in the state of Bihar. It covers 89% of rural population approximately. At the state level the Panchayat Raj Department co•ordinates the functioning of the PRIs.
At the district level it also co-ordinate by the Block or Panchayat Office. There are one Zila Parshad, 14 Pachayat Samitis and 246 Gram panchayat in Purnia district. All the matters of the villages are look after at the administrative wing of the government i.e. Block level. All the welfare policies and programmes are distributed at block level. As per 2011 census, 89 % population of Purnia districts lives in rural areas of villages which consist of backward class, Schedule castes and Schedule tribes.
Rural and Urban Population Percentage
11%
89%
Rural Urban
Figure No. 4.3
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 envisages the Gram Sabha as the foundation of the Panchayat Raj System. The functions and powers entrusted to it by the State Legislatures. The Articles 243A provides that the Gram Sabha may exercise such power and perform such functions at the village level as the Legislature of a state may be law provide. The 73rd amendment thus envisages the Gram Sabha as the foundation of Panchayat Raj System. ―Gram Sabha‖ means a body consisting of persons registered in the electoral rolls. It is comprised within the area of Panchayat at the village level. The empowerment of Gram Sabha means strengthening of the Panchayat Raj Institution
174
(PRIs). The success or failure of this system depends upon the strength of the Gram Sabha.
The District Development Commissioner (DDC) Cum CEO of Zila Parishads carries out the policies and directives of the Zila Panchayat. The DDC discharges duties defined under the Act, controls the officers/officials of Zila Panchayat. The DDC has custody of all papers and documents of ZP. The commissioner can the draws and disburses money. The functions of the B.D.O. Cum E.O. in Panchayat Samiti are to exercise all the powers conferred under the Act. The B.D.O lay down the duties of officials, supervise. The B.D.O controls the officers and officials under him, supervise the execution of all works. The B.D.O has custody of all papers and documents of Panchayat Samiti. The B.D.O can draw and disbursement of money out of the Panchayat Samiti (P.S) fund. The Mukhia is responsible for convening the meeting of Gram Sabha. He/she maintain the records of Gram Panchayat. The Mukhia is responsible for the financial and executive administration. He has to superviseover the work of GP employees and transaction of business under the Act. There are number of Standing Committees and other Committees in each tier of PRIs headed by Adhyaksha / Upadhyaksha, Pramukh / Up-Pramukh and Mukhia in ZP, PS and GP respectively to regulate the affairs of the Panchayati Raj Institutions.6
In the given below figure the detail structure of the Panchayti Raj institutions; the administrative body as well as the elected body of representatives have been framed step by step. The following organogram represents the hierarchical structure of the PRIs at different levels.
175
Figure No. 4.5. Administrative Body Principal Secretary, Panchayati Raj Institution
Department
Director, Panchayat Raj Department
Zila Parishad Panchayat Samiti Gram Panchayat
D.D.C.•cum•C.E.O B.D.O. cum E.O. (The D.D.O) Panchayat Sewak
Assistant Engineer Assistant Engineer
Junior Engineer District Engineer
Junior Engineer
Figure No. 4.6. Elected body of Panchayati Raj Institutions
Minister, Panchayati Raj and Rural Development
Deapartment
Zila Parishad Panchayat Samiti Gram Panchayat
Mukhia Adhyaksha Pramukh
Upadhyaksh Up pramukh General Body
Members Members
176
4.5. The Mahatma Gandhi National Employment Guarantee Scheme:
The MGNREGS is the largest rural development programme in the country. It has been formulate as a public work programme in India. The motive of this programme is to address the issues of rights based approach of development. It provides income security to the rural households through guaranteed wage employment. It reduce or to check the distress migration from rural to urban area. It creates durable community assets in rural areas to tap the overall development of about 600,000 villages in India. 7
4.5.1. Socio-economic Context:
The increasing unemployment of the 1990s, the decline in the growth of agricultural productivity, the suicides by distressed farmer in various parts of the country and migration from rural to urban areas were the larger socio-economic context of programme. Lack of mandate for the ―India shining‖ slogan and some icons of economic reforms in the 2004 Parliamentary general election and Assembly election formed the immediate political context of the Act. It was also an attempt to moderate the consequences of economic reforms, which have increased income, regional inequalities and disparities in the reform phase.8
There is constitutional context as well. The Article 41 of the constitution of the India provides a non-justiciable right to work under Directive Principles of State Policies (DPSP) and proclaims: ―The State shall‖ within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing the right to work in case of unemployment. This Article remained dormant for fifty-five years until the MGNREGA till 2005. However, the MGNREGA is a partial fulfillment of the right to work. It assures employment at the households and guarantees a maximum of hundred days (now hundred fifty) days of wage employment. Nevertheless, it is landmark development approach in the sense that it highlights the confidence of the state in its economic capacity to convert non-justiciable rights provided in Part IV-th of the Constitution of India into justiciable ones.
The MNREGA was passed by the parliament of India in 2005. The Act received the assent of the president on 5th September 2005 and was notified in the gazette of India
177 on 7th September 2005. It came into force in 200 selected (backward districts) of the country on 2 February 2006 and was extended to 130 more districts from April 1, 2007 onwards. It has since been extended to all districts in the country from April 1, 2008, achieving universal converge in three years, a bold step in deed.9
The majority of works under MGNREGS are ‗green‘ in nature. Their focus is on the regeneration and conservation of natural resources and ecosystems. The main emphasis is on the land (farmlands, forests, pastures and waste lands) and water resources. In fact, from very beginning of MGNREGS more than 50 percent projects are related to water through implementation of water conservation works, flood control, irrigation, drought proofing, renovation of traditional water bodies and micro-irrigation.10 It‘s main developmental consequences are higher crop productivities and production.11 Drought proofing, floods management works and plantation in the coastal areas also reduce the potential damage due to extreme weather events. The categories of works permissible under the MGNREGA are water conservation, Drought Proofing including plantation and aforestation, flood protection, land development, minor irrigation and land development on the land owned by Scheduled Castes (SCs)/Scheduled Tribes (STs)/ Below Poverty Line/Indra Awas Yojna (IAY) families and land reform beneficiaries and rural connectivity. MGNREGA has become a powerful instrument for inclusive growth in rural India. It has an impact on social protection, livelihood security and democratic governance rural arena. It is a paradigm shift from previous wage employment programmes. It can also be marked with an approximate annual expenditure of Rs 40,000 crore ($6.7 billion), which is the biggest public works programme in the world. It has an integrated natural resource management and livelihoods generation perspective. The transparency and accountability mechanisms under MGNREGA create a possibility for unprecedented accountability of performance, especially towards immediate stakeholders. It is designed as bottom-up, people-oriented, self-selecting demand driven and rights-based. This demand-driven programme is produced by the demand for work by wage-seekers.
178
The main objective of the MGNREGA Act is:
I. To provide for the livelihood security to rural households by providing at least hundred days (now 150 days) of guaranteed wage employment in every financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work. II. To ensure social protection to the deprived section living in rural India through employment opportunities by providing them, III. To reduce distressed migration from rural to urban and from one part of rural to another rural area; IV. To create of durable assets, improved water security, soil conservation and higher land productivity in villages; V. Vitality of the civic and community life of rural India, as it has been entrusted to formulate, implement and monitor the scheme; VI. To empower the rural women by proving opportunity to earn income independently and participate in the social groups activities; VII. The overall development of the rural economy; VIII. The promotion of inclusive growth and development; IX. Facilitation of multiplier effects on the economy; X. To strengthen decentralised, participatory planning through convergence of various anti-poverty and livelihoods initiatives, XI. Deepening democracy structure at the grass-root level by the corroboration of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs); XII. To strengthen drought proofing and flood management in rural India; XIII. There must be priority given to women. At least one-third of the beneficiaries under the Scheme are to be women. At least 50 per cent of works, in terms of cost, are to be executed by the GPs. XIV. Effecting greater transparency and accountability in governance.
179
Features of the MGNREGA: 1. Registration: Adult members of a rural household willing to do unskilled manual work may apply for registration to the local Gram Panchayat (GP). The unit for registration is a household. Under the Act, each household is entitled to a 100 (now 150) days of employment every financial year. 2. Job Card: After due verification a Job Card (JC) will be issued to the adult members only. The registered Job Card forms the basis of identification for demanding employment. The Job card is to be issued within 15 days of registration. Each JC has aunique identification number. The demand for employment in the GP, or at block levelhas to be made against the JC number. It is also supposed to be updated with days of work and payment made to the beneficiary as and when the work is undertaken. 3. Application for Work: Job seeker will give a written application to the Gram Panchayat or Block Office, stating the time and duration for which work is sought. The GP will issue a dated receipt of the written application for employment, against which the guarantee of providing employment within 15 days operates. 4. Unemployment allowance: if the employment is not provided within 15 days to the needy one, the State will pay an unemployment allowance to the beneficiary in accordance of Act. 5. Provision of Work: It must be provided within 5 kilometres (kms) radius of the village while allocating work. In case, work is provided beyond 5 kms, the extra wages of 10per cent are payable to meet additional transportation and living expenses to the worker. 6. Wages: Wages are to be paid as per the State-wise Government of India (GoI) notified under MGNREGA wages Act. It is also to be paid according to piece rate. The Schedule of Rates (SoRs) Payment of wages has to be done on weekly basis. It should not be beyond a fortnight in any case. The wages should be paid through the individual/joint bank/post office beneficiary accounts. 7. Planning: Plans and decisions regarding the nature and choice of works to be undertaken in a financial year along with the order in which each work is to be
180
taken up, the selection of site, mode of job etc. are all to be made in open assemblies of the Gram Sabha (GS) and ratified by the GP. 8. Cost Sharing: The Government of India bears the 100 per cent wage cost of unskilled manual labour and 75 per cent of the material cost. It includes the wages of skilled and semi-skilled workers. 9. Worksite Management: The use of contractors or machinery in execution of the works must be prohibited. It is only to ensure that the workers are directly benefitted under the Scheme. The Act is to ensure that the spirit of the scheme is not diluted and wage employment is the main focus. The wage expenditure to material expenditure ratio should be 60:40. Worksite facilities such as drinking water and shade have to be provided at all worksites. 10. Transparency and Accountability: It is to ensure transparency and accountability in the programme through the Social audit. All records and works under the Scheme to be scrutinize or examine regularly by the Gram Sabha. The mechanisms of Grievance redressal and rules have to be put in place to ensure implementation process properly. All accounts and records related to the Scheme should be available for public scrutiny.12 4.5.2. Sharing of funds between Centre and State for MGNREGA:
The central government bears the entire cost of wages of unskilled manual workers. 75% of the cost of material, wages of skilled and semiskilled workers. All the Administrative expenses as may be determined by the Central Government, it includes, inter alia, the salary and the allowances of the programme officer and associated staff and work site facilities. The centre also bears Expenses of the National Employment Guarantee Council. On the other hand the State bears 25% of the cost of material, wages of skilled and semi-skilled workers (as a ration of 60:40 is to be maintained for wages of the unskilled manual workers and the material, skilled/semi-skilled Government has to bear only 25% of the 40% component, which means a contribution of 10 % of the expenditure. The unemployment allowance will be provided by the state Government, if it cannot provide wage employment on time. All the administrative expenses of the state Employment Guarantee Council will bear upon the State government.13
181
4.6. MGNREGA and the Governance Process:
MGNREGA marks a drastic mass departure from earlier wage employment programmes. However, there have been many problems in infusing the system with the new culture of demand-driven, rights-based, decentralized decision-making. In general, the implementation of MGNREGA in a State can be expected depend upon the quality of governance. States with better systems of governance and administration are more likely to have the ability to run complex programmes more effectively.14 On the other hand, the poor states have greater demand for work under MGNREGA programme. However, they also have higher rationing rates and greater unmet demand for work. This is perhaps because the state institutions are less capable of implementing MGNREGA programme. Therefore, there is a possibility that poorer states might end up in a vicious cycle in implementation of MGNREGA. They have higher demand for work but a lesser capacity to implement MGNREGA effectively because of institutional factors and end up with greater unmet demand for work.
The governance and process issues in the MGNREGA ‗life-cycle‘, i.e. the initial stage of planning, demand for work, implementation at work sites, wage payments, etc. as identified by independent evaluations. It also includes findings from a preparatory phase audit conducted by the Comptroller Auditor General (CAG) of India, of the 200 Phase I MGNREGA in 26 states in 2006. At the request of the Ministry of Rural Development, the Government of India (GoI) undertook an audit in 2006 to evaluate how effective were the states in making a transition from the earlier wage employment programmes to the MGNREGA programme. The sample for the audit included 25 per cent of the MGNREGA districts in each state. The audit was conducted in the introductory phase of the Act and a majority of the findings of the audit were regarding process deviations from the National Guidelines of the MGNREGA Act. It is important to note that several states took action on the findings of the CAG. It introduced systems to prevent procedural deviations and promote transparency in implementation of the Scheme. In fact 24 GPs from six states—West Bengal, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and Bihar—were selected for a limited scrutiny of record
182 maintenance for one month (November 2007). The audit found improvements in record maintenance.15
Over the last few years, on the basis these reports from the field, MGNREGA programme has instituted several reforms and policy changes in its implementation, for instance, bringing all documents and data in public domain through Management Information System (MIS). The Government of India (GoI) initiatives to address these challenges are mentioned under each issue. The awareness about the provisions of the Act is vital to exercising the demand to work and other entitlements under MGNREGA programme. Studies indicate that awareness levels among the potential beneficiaries of provisions of the Act, such as demanding work, unemployment allowance etc. are still unsatisfactory and low.
A National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) an independent agency panel survey on MGNREGA16 conducted in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, in one of its Rounds in 2010–11, the organization found:
I. Low awareness about unemployment allowance: In Madhya Pradesh only 18 per cent of the households while in Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan, less than 10 per cent of the households were aware of the legal provisions of the unemployment allowance of the scheme. II. Low awareness about grievance redressal mechanisms: About 35 per cent of the households in Andhra Pradesh, 28 per cent in Madhya Pradesh and 16 per cent households in Rajasthan were not aware of any grievance redressal mechanism in the MGNREGA. III. Low awareness about work on demand: In Rajasthan, 72 per cent of the households were aware about the work that can be demanded at any time during the year under MGNREGA. But only 47 per cent households in Madhya Pradesh and 29 per cent households in Andhra Pradesh were aware of it.
But there are also positive findings on this account. For instance, in a study undertaken in two districts of Maharashtra, out of 200 respondents, more than 75 per cent agreed that they were aware of MGNREGA porgramme. More than 75 per cent had also
183 received the information about MGNREGA from Gram Panchayats. Other sources of information were the GS, panchayat functionaries and other villagers.17 It is obvious; states like Maharashtra with more concern and active Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) seem to have higher awareness levels.
4.6.1. Planning at the Gram Sabha:
The mandates of the Act ensure that the selection and priority of works will be done by the Gram Sabha during a Financial Year (FY) under the Scheme. The Gram Sabha (GS) ensures planning and priority of the works of development needs in the village through active participation of the villagers. The Act also prescribes that works be allotted in a way that at least 50 per cent of the total works (in terms of costs) be undertaken by the GPs. This is to provide the Gram Panchayats a partial role in the implementation of works of the MGNREGA programme. However, field studies identify some constraints in the process, viz.
i. Gram Sabhas are not held frequently, ii. There is low participation at Gram Sabhas for the selection and priority of works, iii. The selection of work is not done according to the demand of the GS, iv. The proportion of the work undertaken by the GP was less than 50 per cent of the total cost of the scheme in the district.
Other field studies had also similar findings. A study in five districts of Uttar Pradesh found that for selecting the works to be undertaken; only 45 per cent of the 784 respondents (beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries) agreed that meetings of the GS were held regularly. Only 42 per cent respondents reported that the selection of works was done according to priorities of the GS.18 This percentage was found to be high (as noted in awareness levels above as well) in the case of states like Maharashtra. Out of 200 respondents interviewed in two districts of Maharashtra, 83 per cent in Thane and 60 per cent in Akola reported that GSs were held to discuss MGNREGA.19
184
4.6.2. Fulfillment of Demand accurately is required:
As per the provision of MGNREGA programme, an adult member of any rural household (willing to do manual unskilled work) who demands work should be provided work. However, it is found that due to low awareness, limited capacity of the delivery systems and traditional social structures among other reasons, households are not being provided employment under the scheme of rural development. In other words, there is a rationing of demand; households that are willing to work but not giving them proper work.20
As per the NSSO 66th Round report during 2009–10 indicated that for India as a whole, 25 per cent of rural households were provided work under the Scheme. Around 19 per cent of the total rural households sought work but did not get employment. The rationing rate varied from one state to another (see Table 4.3). A study21 analysing the NSSO data observed that some of the poorest states like Bihar (34 per cent), Odisha (29 per cent) and Jharkhand (28 per cent), have low participation rates and high levels of unmet demand. It creates a contradiction in implementation since these states perhaps require effective social safety nets the most for the poor. Potential benefits of the scheme to the poor people of rural areas are almost certainly undermined by such rationing. The higher rationing in these states may be due to:
i. Low level of institutional capacity to administer the Scheme that cannot fulfill the required demand, ii. Lower levels of awareness and empowerment among the rural people, iii. Weak Panchayati Raj Institutions, which have a key role to play in MGNREGA implementation.
In specific studies of some district identified some of the reasons that may be influencing rationing and limiting participation in other states. A longitudinal study in five districts (480 villages) of Andhra Pradesh 22 found that, out of 4,800 households, 53 per cent of the Poorest of the Poor (POP) households and 56 per cent poor households were Job Card holders. However, the actual participation rate (defined as the number of
185 people who have worked in the Scheme) was only 17 per cent in Phase 1 districts, 11 per cent in Phase 2 districts, and 5 per cent in Phase 3 districts in 2008. It is found in the study that the allocation of work was governed by local leaders in the village. Further, the low participation of women and illiterates, indicated low awareness of the programme or some other constraints, like social factors etc.23
Table No. 4.3 Unmet Demand across States as per NSSO 66th Round Per 1000 Headcount No. of er 1000 Per 1000 P distribution of index of households distribution of distribution household who poverty (% having household who State of household sought Below MGNREGA didn‘t seek who got MGNREGA Poverty per 1000 MGNREGA MGNREGA work but didn‘t line) JC household work work get Andhra Pradesh 22.8 434 354 117 529 Assam 39.9 286 176 224 570 Bihar 55.3 172 95 344 513 Chhattisgarh 56.1 589 479 211 310 Gujarat 26.7 300 181 141 522 Haryana 18.6 66 51 144 805 Himachal Pradesh 9.1 454 334 85 582 Jammu and 8.1 190 81 197 556 Kashmir Jharkhand 41.6 303 163 275 409 Karnataka 26.1 151 80 148 772 Kerala 12 196 112 120 768 Madhya Pradesh 42 688 364 215 318 Maharashtra 29.5 135 44 232 723 Odisha 39.2 404 219 287 493 Punjab 14.6 86 52 260 688 Rajasthan 26.4 709 590 108 256 Tamil Nadu 21.2 396 335 78 586 Uttarakhand 14.9 343 271 105 551 Uttar Pradesh 39.4 211 162 187 650 West Bengal 28.8 592 430 225 341 All India 33.8 347 242 193 538 Source: NSSO 66th Round 2009–10 and Press Note on Poverty, Planning Commission, March 2012
186
4.6.3. MGNREGA’s Performance:
MGNREGA shifts the focus from the administration to the people, who are the ultimate stakeholders of the Act. By mandating gender sensitive Scheduled of Rates (SoRs) and worksite facilities, it abides by the principles of ‗decent work‘. An overview of the performance of MGNREGA‘s on selected parameters is presented in the following section the data has been taken from the administrative MIS is presented on key parameters (Figures 4.5 and 4.6). Figure No. 4.7 An overview of the performance of MGNREGA on demand (data as on 5May 2015)
An overview of the performance of MGNREGA on demand
1400 1200 1000 2014-15 800 2013-14 600 2012-13 400 2011-12 200 0 Total CardTotal issueed CardTotal issueedTotal Card household SC issueedTotal STdemanded household works worked
Figure No. 4.8. An overview of MGNREGA‘s performance in terms of person-days
(data as on 5 May 2015)
1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 2014-15 300 200 2013-14 100 0 2012-13 2011-12
187
4.7. Status of MGNREGA in Purnia District:
The total number of rural households in Purnia district, as per the 2011 census, was 2,921,614 and average households size was six. There were 1,10,582 job cards holders in Purnia districts as on March 2015. Till the end of March 2015, only 15,490 households had been provided jobs and 1,98,375 persons-days were generated in the district in which the share of women was 35%. Cumulative number of households that completed hundred days of employment till March 2015 was three. Therefore, it can be inferred that Purnia district is yet to achieve significant milestones as far as MGNREGA is concerned. The outreach of MNREGA is limited to only 27% of the total households in the district and the resource projections are under estimated.
The current scenario (as on March 2015) of MGNREGA in Purnia district against the State of Bihar has been summarized in table no. 4.4.
Table No. 4.4.Current scenario of MGNREGA in Purnia District
Purnia District (0.8569 lakh Bihar (27.11177lakh households) households)
Person-days
Total 29.0474 25.4%
SCs 77,340 2.16%
STs 17,340 35.2
Women 2.59 94,024.98
Total Fund 74,24,392 989.5 crore
Expenditure 70,20,890 890.3 crore
188
Total works 1,670 127,544
Works Completed 509 54,198
Works in Progress 970 83,345
Source: www.mgnrega.co.in
Figure No.4.9. The work site under MGNREGA in Rural Purnia. (See Annexure 1 for further picture of the rural development in rural area of Purnia district.) In the above picture can be seen the development work of rural area of the Purnia District. The development work is considerable but on the other hand the condition of worker and sites are not feasible. They have to face number of problem at work site.
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) as the first programme of its kind that views entitlements not as a limited benefit to the needy one, but as a matter of right for anyone willing to do manual work or labour. The incursion of funds for work in every Panchayat opens up possibilities for local planning and it‘s development These possibilities have not been fully recognized on account of many reasons– which mainly stem from the inability of the poor to exercise their citizenship and make local governance responsive. The implementation of MGNREGA programme was left to the Gram Panchayats. According to sources of the government, since the inception of the scheme, the
189 government of India has incurred a total expenditure of Rs. 2,89,817.04 crores for the scheme, thereby employing 68,26,921 workers on 2,61,942 worksites (data as of June 2015). The minimum wages initially determined were Rs. 100 a day. Later, it was revised in keeping with the state labour employment conventions. The minimum wages are now determined by the states and range between Rs. 163 in Bihar to Rs. 500 in Kerala. This programme has been at the receiving end of much criticism over the years. From being criticised for encouraging corruption to increasing inequality to being called an election card for the UPA – the scheme has been picked apart for a variety of reasons. Apart from causing a major financial drain on the country‘s resources, the actual benefits of the scheme do not reach the rural labourers detractors claim. There are several key factors in the implementation of MGNREGA within the political economy. One of the key factors is state capacity and commitments towards the implementation process of the scheme. The policy brief (Sen 2014) cited example of the Chhattisgarh which is one of the poor state in term of its organizational and economic capacity is performing better because of commitment of the state government and associated administration. Their commitment and awareness capturing demand accurately. In the current fiscal year, 4 per cent of the total 3.75 crore MGNREGA- registered households have been provided their entire 100 days work entitlement. The average number of days of employment provided per household for the entire country so far during 2015-16 is 38. Manik Sarkar, the chief minister of Tripura had sat on a dharna at Jantar Mantar in November to protest the ‗non-release‘ of MGNREGA funds by the Modi government, has registered the highest average of 78 person-days per household. The second best state, Maharashtra, has provided just 49 person-days of employment even in a drought year. Officials expect the overall average person-days per household to rise to 50 by the end of March. That would be the highest in four years — though its materialisation is subject to funds being made available. The NDA government under the head of Narendra Modi has initiated to improve the payment mechanism to tackle the issues of delayed wage payment. The Mobile Monitoring System (MMS) has been introduced by the government in the end of the 2014. It makes way for real-time monitoring of the progress of projects that employ labour under the scheme. This also regulates attendance and work environment in these
190 work sites. At the same time, the central government has sanctioned Rs. 147 crore, for this. It is developed for strengthen the social audit system and more transparent and clear. It was targeted to reduce corruption in the implementation of MGNREGA. On the other hand, since its inception the year recorded the worst performance of MGNREGA scheme. There were huge delays in the time required for payout of wages and the number of days of work that each household received was also reduced. Disbursement of funds was not comprehensive and structured.
191
Reference: 1. Retrieved from, http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/1009_PART_B_DCHB_PURN IA.pdf, date of access 20/1/2016 2. Retrieved from, http://purnea.bih.nic.in/ accessed date 12/10/2015 3. Retrieved from, http://www.census2011.co.in/census/district/63-purnia.html accessed on 12/10/2015. 4. See Note no. 3 5. See Note no. 2 6. Retrieved from, http://www.cag.gov.in/sites/default/files/audit_report_files/Bihar_PRI_2007_cha p_1.pdf accessed on 12/10/2015. 7. Retrieved from www.devalt.org/images/L2_ProjectPdfs/NREGA.pdf accessed on 20/10/2015 8. See Note no. 7 9. Retrieved from, www.ilo.org/newdelhi/whatwedo/publications/WCMS. Accessed on 10/12/2015. 10. Ravindranath & Murthy, Greening of MGNREGS, in (vol. 2) report Sameeksha 11. Shah, M., Mann , N., & Pande V. (2012). MGNREGS Sameeksha: An Anthology of Research Studies on the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (2005, 2006-2012), (pp 42-44). New Delhi: Orient Black Swan, 12. Report (2012). MGNREGA Sameeksha (2006-2012), Ministry of Rural Development; Government of India. New Delhi. 13. Retrieve from http://scienceflora.org/journals/index.php/imrj/article/viewFile/2680/2658. Accessed on 10/12/2015. 14. P. Dutta, R. Murgai, M. Ravallion and W. V. Dominique. (2012) ‗Does India‘s Employment Guarantee Scheme Guarantee Employment?‘ Policy Research Paper, Washington, DC: World Bank, 15. Report (2008). Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG), Performance Audit Report No. 11. New Delhi.
192
16. National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO), Survey of MGNREGA, NSSO, 2010–11. 17. Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE), ‗A Study Report on Appraisal of MGNREGA Programme in Thane and Akola Districts of Maharashtra‘, Report submitted to the Ministry of Rural Development/UNDP, CIFE, 2009. 18. Indian Institute of Management-Lucknow (IIM-L), ‗Quick Appraisal of Five districts of Uttar Pradesh‘, Report submitted to the Ministry of Rural Development/UNDP, Lucknow; IIM, 2009. 19. See Note no. 16 20. Dutta, P., Murgai, R., Ravallion, M., & Van de Walle, D. P. (2012). Does India's employment guarantee scheme guarantee employment? World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, (6003). 21. See Note no. pp 54 22. Liu, Y., & Deininger, K. (2010). Poverty Impacts of India's National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme: Evidence from Andhra Pradesh. Selected Paper prepared for presentation at the Agricultural & Applied Economics Association, 25-27. 23. See Note no. 21 pp 25-27
193
CHAPTER -V
Analysis and Interpretation
This chapter has descriptive analysis of the researcher work. The researcher has tried to find out the problem of the governance in terms of development with the help of questionnaires based on rural development and its functionary agencies.
The rural development is one of the major concerns of the government at central as well as state level. Without proper development of the rural areas, the livelihood of the rural people cannot be measured. The researcher has selected Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme as independent variable to check the various aspect of the mechanism of governance on rural development in general and Purnia District in particular as study area.
The mechanism of governance is one of the most important parts of any kind of development. The just, equality, service delivery, inclusiveness, effectiveness, responsibility etc. are major part of proper development. The development of rural as well as urban area cannot be fulfilled without proper injection of mechanism of governance. The responsibility of local authority, proper utilization of fund, wage payment, regular check and balanced of development work, implementation of programme and schemes are the important part of developmental aspect.
The researcher has selected marginalized group, Schedule caste, Schedule tribes and other backward class specially who are engaged in this scheme of rural development i.e. MGNREGA for gathering information about the governance and rural development. This chapter is based on the secondary as well as primary information from different sources. There has been six Blocks selected namely Amour, Baisa, Baisi, Banmanki, Purnia East and Dagrua. There are two Village Panchayats selected from each Block namely Barbatta, Adhang, BhogaKariyat, Lalganj, Bisanpur, Bohra, Routa, Aasiyani, AsjaMoba, Baisi, Adkheli, and Belgachi. There may be some error occur to collect information during the research work. All the information collected used for to draw the conclusion.
194
Table No. 5.1. Details of MGNREGA in Barbatta Panchayat
S. District –Purnia Block – Amour Panchayat— Barbatta No.
1. Total No. of Job Cards 1,630
2. No. of Workers 2,931
2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 2012-13
Total no. of Households 3. completed 150 days of 0 0 7 0 wage employment
4. Household worked 223 227 359 535
Percentage of Men 5. 49.78 59.47 54.6 79.82 worked
Percentage of women 6. 50.22 40.53 45.4 25.18 worked
Average wage rate per 7. 177 162 147.46 144 day person (Rs.)
8. Wage (Rs. In Lakhs) 0 15.8 16.4 23.1
Total Expenditure (Rs. 9. 0 17.41 25.76 52.05 In Lakhs)
Source: www.nrega.nic.in
Barbatta Gram Panchayat: It is a large village located in Amour of Purnia district, Bihar with total 617 families residing. The Barbatta village has population of 3089 of which 1643 are males while 1446 are females as per Population Census 2011. In Barbatta
195
village population of children with age 06 is 656 which make up 21.24 % of total population of village. Average Sex Ratio of Barbatta village is 880 which is lower than Bihar state average of 918. Schedule Caste (SC) constitutes 4.47 % of total population in Barbatta village. The village Barbatta currently does not have any Schedule Tribe (ST) population. In Barbatta village out of total population, 668 were engaged in work activities. 39.22 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 60.78 % were involved in marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 668 workers engaged in Main Work, 18 were cultivators (owner or coowner) while 219 were Agricultural labourers. Only 1,630 have MGNREGA green job cards meant for the poor while the number of workers is 2,931 identified. Rabi, Patua (Jute), Paddy, Wheat are grown in that area. Employment opportunities are insufficient. The area is flood prone. Due to this circumstances people migrates from rural to urban areas or big cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Patna, Punjab, Haryana etc. in search of job to lead their livelihood.
The detail of the households completed, worked, percentage of workers sex wise average and total expenditure are shown in table no. 5.1. The 1,630 job cards have been issued under the MGNREGA scheme and out of these 449 active job cards holders have provided employment under the MGNREGA Scheme but no wages provided them because of fund irregularities. There has not been allocated any fund to this panchayat yet in the financial year 2015-16 under the scheme namely drainage construction, Brick soling, Soil Cutting, Pul and Puliya Construction etc. As per constitution of India and Panchyati Raj Act, Barbatta village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected representative of village.
Table No. 5.2. Details of MGNREGA in Adhang Panchayat
S. District – Purnia Block - Amour Panchayat — Adhang No.
1. 2,137 Total No. of Job Cards 2. 4,281
196
No. of Workers
2014- 2015-16 2013-14 2012-13 15
Total no. of Households 3. completed 150 days of 20 0 2 1 wage employment
4. Household worked 557 654 913 854
Percentage of Men 5. 38.59 60.37 61.31 68.37 worked
Percentage of women 6. 61.41 39.63 38.69 31.69 worked
Average wage rate per 7. day 176.97 162 156 143.59 person (Rs.)
8. Wage (Rs. In Lakhs) 53.08 32.04 19.27 52.37
Total Expenditure (Rs. In 9. 70.37 40.15 55.02 7.63 Lakhs)
Source: www.nrega.nic.in
Adhang Panchayat: It is a large village situated in Amour Block of Purnia district. The Adhang village has population of 4,863 of which 2576 are males while 2287 are females as per Population Census 2011. Schedule Caste (SC) constitutes 0.58 % of total population in Adhang village. The village Adhang currently does not have any Schedule Tribe (ST) population. In Adhang village out of total population, 1230 were engaged in work activities. 86.02 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 13.98 % were involved in Marginal activity
197
providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 1230 workers engaged in Main Work, 158 were cultivators while 706 were Agricultural labourers.
Only 2,137 have MGNREGA green job cards meant for the poor while the number of workers is 4,281 identified. Rabi crop, Patua (Jute), Paddy, Wheat are main crops. The employment opportunities are insufficient. The area is also flood prone. The people migrate from rural to urban areas or big cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Patna, Punjab, Haryana etc. in search of job to lead their livelihood.
The detail of the households completed, worked, percentage of workers sex wise average and total expenditure are shown in table no. 5.2.The 2,137 job cards have been issued under the MGNREGA scheme and out of these 1,252 active job cards holders have provided employment under the MGNREGA Scheme. There has been Rs. 70.37 lakhs allocated fund to this panchayat in the financial year 2015-16 out of which 53.08 lakh has been utilized for wage and other work under the scheme namely drainage construction, Soil Cutting, Reconstruction work etc. As per constitution of India and Panchyati Raj Act, the village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected representative of village.
Table No. 5.3. Details of MGNREGA in Bhoga Kariyat Panchayat
S. District –PurniaBlock – Purnia East Panchayat— BhogaKariyat No.
1. Total No. of Job Cards 1,357
2. No. of Workers 2,234
2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 2012-13
Total no. of Households 3. completed 150 days of 3 0 0 22 wage employment
198
4. Household worked 192 135 180 199
5. Percentage of Men worked 63.64 84.17 77.72 79.05
Percentage of women 6. 36.36 15.83 22.28 20.95 worked
Average wage rate per day 7. person (Rs.) 177 162 147.51 144
Wage (Rs. In Lakhs) 8. 12.37 3.04 10.17 13.79
Total Expenditure (Rs. In 9. 14.61 6.12 22.96 21.88 Lakhs)
Source: www.nrega.nic.in
Bhoga kariyat Gram Panchayat: It is a medium size village located in Purnia East of Purnia district. The Bhoga kariyat village has population of 2,268 of which 1,155 are males while 1,113 are females as per Population Census 2011. In Bhoga kariyat village population of children with age 06 is 175 which make up 20.16 % of total population of village. Average Sex Ratio of Bhoga kariat village is 1038 which is higher than Bihar state average of 918. Child Sex Ratio for the Bhoga kariat as per census is 823, lower than Bihar average of 935. In Bhoga kariyat village, most of the villagers are from Schedule Caste (SC) and it constitutes 47.81 % of total population in Bhoga kariat village. The village currently does not have any Schedule Tribe (ST) population. In Bhoga kariyat village out of total the population, 220 were engaged in work activities, 40.00 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 60.00 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 220 workers engaged in Main Work, 56 were cultivators while 21 were Agricultural labourer. Only 1,357 have MGNREGA green job cards meant for the poor while the number of workers is 2,234 identified. Rabi crops, Patua (Jute), Paddy are main crops.
199
The employment opportunities are not adequate. The area is also flood prone. The people migrate from rural to urban areas or big cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Patna, Punjab, Haryana etc. in search of job for better their livelihood.
The detail of the households completed, worked, percentage of workers sex wise average and total expenditure are shown in table no.5.3. The 1,357 job cards have been issued under the MGNREGA scheme and out of these 373 active job cards holders have provided employment under the MGNREGA Scheme. There has been Rs. 14.61 lakhs allocated fund to this panchayat in the financial year 2015-16 out of which Rs. 12.37 lakh has been utilized for wage and other work under the scheme namely drainage construction, Soil Cutting, Reconstruction work etc. As per constitution of India and Panchyati Raj Act, BhogaKairiyat village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected representative of village.
Table No. 5.4. Details of MGNREGA in Lalganj Panchayat
S. No. District – Purnia Block – Purnia East Panchayat — Lalganj
1. Total No. of Job Cards 1,386
2. No. of Workers 1,870
2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 2012-13
3. Total no. of Households completed 150 days of 0 0 2 2 wage employment
4. Household worked 290 136 177 246
5. Percentage of Men worked 54.4 70 55.88 64.75
6. 45.6 30 44.12 35.15 Percentage of women
200
worked
7. Average wage rate per day 177 162 154.74 143.27 person (Rs.)
8. Wage (Rs. In Lakhs) 12.22 2.58 9.22 11.74
9. Total Expenditure (Rs. In 13.59 8.46 20.02 17.46 Lakhs)
Source: www.nrega.nic.in
Lalganj Gram Panchayat: It is a large village located in Purnia East of Purnia district, Bihar with total 2078 families residing. The Lalganj village has population of 11045 of which 5757 are males while 5288 are females as per Population Census 2011. Schedule Tribe (ST) constitutes 13.15 % while Schedule Caste (SC) 8.62 % of total population in Lalganj village. In Lalganj village out of total population, 3509 were engaged in work activities. 38.13 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 61.87 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. There are 3509 workers engaged in Main Work and 300 were cultivators while 722 were Agricultural labourers. Only 1,386 have MGNREGA green job cards meant for the poor while the number of workers is 1,870 identified. Rabi crops, Sugar cane, Maize, Paddy are main crops in this area. The employment opportunities are not adequate. This area is also flood prone. The people migrate from rural to urban areas or big cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Patna, Punjab, Haryana etc. in search of job for better their livelihood.
The detail of the households completed, worked, percentage of workers sex wise average and total expenditure are shown in table no. 5.4. The 1,386 job cards have been issued under the MGNREGA scheme and out of these 437 active job cards holders have provided employment under the MGNREGA Scheme. There has been Rs. 13.59 lakhs allocated fund to this panchayat in the financial year 2015-16 out of which Rs. 12.22 lakh has been utilized for wage and other work under the scheme namely drainage
201
construction, Soil Cutting, Reconstruction work etc. As per constitution of India and Panchyati Raj Act, Bhoga Kairiyat village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected representative of village.
Table No. 5.5. Details of MGNREGA in Bishanpur Panchayat
S. District – Purnia Block – Banmanki Panchayat — Bishanpur No.
Total No. of Job Cards 1. 1,629
No. of Workers 2. 3,131
2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 2012-13
Total no. of Households 3. completed 150 days of 0 0 1 6 wage employment
4. Household worked 50 84 387 300
5. Percentage of Men worked 41.67 69.05 53.95 61.78
Percentage of women 6. 58.33 30.95 46.05 38.22 worked
Average wage rate per day 7. 177 162 156.43 144 person (Rs.)
8. Wage (Rs. In Lakhs) 1.36 3.59 8.63 18.06
9. Total Expenditure (Rs. In Lakhs) 1.45 6.26 26.37 47.8
Source: www.nrega.nic.in
202
Bishanpur Gram Panchayat: It is a medium size village located in Banmankhi of Purnia district, Bihar with total 228 families residing. The village has population of 3,248 of which 1650 are males while 1598 are females as per Population Census 2011. Schedule Caste (SC) constitutes 10.10 % of total population in Bishunpur village. The village Bisanpur currently does not have any Schedule Tribe (ST) population. In Bishanpur village out of total population, 667 were engaged in work activities. 46.48 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 53.52 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 667 workers engaged in Main Work, 180 were cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 114 were Agricultural labourers. Only 1,629 have MGNREGA green job cards meant for the poor while the number of workers is 3,131 identified. Rabi, Patua (Jute), Banana, Wheat and Maize are primary cultivation. Employment opportunities are not adequate in the month of July to December because of disastrous flood situation in the region. Due to this circumstances people migrates from rural to urban areas.
The detail of the households completed, worked, percentage of workers sex wise average and total expenditure are shown in table no. 5.5. The 1,629 job cards have been issued under the MGNREGA scheme and out of theses 512 active job cards holders have provided employment under the MGNREGA Scheme. A fund of Rs. 1.45 has been allocated till the financial year 2015-16. But only Rs. 1.36 lakhs has been utilized for around 72 approved activities under the scheme namely drainage construction, Brick soling, Soil Cutting, Pul and Puliya Construction etc. As per constitution of India and Panchyati Raaj Act, Bisanpur Bahadur village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected representative of village.
Table No.5.6. Details of MGNREGA in Bahora Panchayat
S. District – Purnia Block – Banmanki Panchayat — Bahora No.
1. Total No. of Job Cards 1,965
2. No. of Workers 3,683 203
2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 2012-13
Total no. of Households 3. completed 150 days of 17 0 0 6 wage employment
4. Household worked 620 179 316 404
5. Percentage of Men worked 56.63 69.04 61.16 59.79
Percentage of women 6. 43.37 30.96 38.84 43.03 worked
Average wage rate per day 7. 177 162.31 158.74 144 person (Rs.)
8. Wage (Rs. In Lakhs) 37.69 4.84 9.48 18.14
9. Total Expenditure (Rs. In 53.78 8.66 16.44 26.69 Lakhs)
Source: www.nrega.nic.in
Bahora Gram Panchayat: It is situated in Banmanki Block of Purnia district. It has a population of 6,649 out of which 3,464 are male and 3185 are female as per the population census 2011 report. The schedule caste constitute 1,606 (24.15%) while Schedule tribes (ST) constitute 1,064 (16%) of the total population in Bahora Gram panchayat. As per constitution of India and Panchyati Raj Act, Bahora village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected representative of village. In Bahora village out of total population, 2489 were engaged in work activities. 90.20 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 9.80 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less
204
than 6 months. Of 2489 workers engaged in Main Work, 685 were cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 1426 were Agricultural labourers.
Only 1,965 have MGNREGA green job cards meant for the poor while the number of workers is 3,683 identified. Rabi, Patua (Jute), Banana, Wheat and Maize are grown in that area. Employment opportunities are not adequate in the month of July, November and December because of disastrous flood situation in the region. Due to this circumstances people migrates from rural to urban areas or big cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Patna, Punjab, Haryana etc. in search of job to lead their livelihood.
The detail of the households completed, worked, percentage of workers sex wise average and total expenditure are shown in table no.5.6. The 1,965 job cards have been issued under the MGNREGA scheme and out of theses 1,014 active job cards holders have provided employment under the MGNREGA Scheme. A fund of Rs. 53,00,000 has been allocated till the financial year 2015-16. But only Rs. 37.69 lakhs has been utilized for around 72 approved activities under the scsheme namely drainage construction, Brick soling, Soil Cutting, Pul and Puliya Construction etc. As per constitution of India and Panchyati Raaj Act, Bisanpur village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected representative of village.
Table No. 5.7. Details of MGNREGA in Routa Panchayat
S. No. District – Purnia Block – Baisa Panchayat — Routa
1. Total No. of Job Cards 2,064
2. No. of Workers 3,026
2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 2012-13
3. Total no. of Households completed 150 days of 0 0 10 6 wage employment
205
4. Household worked 144 172 458 340
5. Percentage of Men worked 31.79 58.69 65.04 71.21
6. Percentage of women 68.03 24.31 34.96 5.41 worked
7. Average wage rate per day 177 162 154.13 144 person (Rs.)
8. Wage (Rs. In Lakhs) 4.75 7.64 18.51 20.21
9. Total Expenditure (Rs. In 4.75 25.2 50.48 40.46 Lakhs)
Source: www.nrega.nic.in
Rauta Garm Panchayat: It is a large village located in Baisa of Purnia district. The Rauta village has population of 6,236 of which 3,167 are males while 3,069 are females as per Population Census 2011. In Rauta village population of children with age 06 is 1079 which makes up 17.30 % of total population of village. Average Sex Ratio of Rauta village is 969 which is higher than Bihar state average of 918. Child Sex Ratio for the Rauta as per census is 1095, higher than Bihar average of 935. Schedule Caste (SC) constitutes 5.84 % while Schedule Tribe (ST) were 1.15 % of total population in the village. In Rauta village out of total population, 1677 were engaged in work activities. 78.47 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 21.53 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 1677 workers engaged in Main Work, 141 were cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 737 were Agricultural labourers. Only 2,064 have MGNREGA green job cards meant for the poor while the number of workers is 3,026 identified. Rabi, Patua (Jute), Banana and Wheat are grown in that area. Employment opportunities are inadequate in the month of July, November
206
and December because of disastrous flood situation and other natural calamities in the region. Due to this circumstance people migrate from rural to urban areas or big cities like Delhi, Mumbai and Haryana etc. in search of job for the betterment of their livelihood.
The detail of the households completed, worked, percentage of workers sex wise average and total expenditure are shown in table no.5.7. The 2,064 job cards have been issued under the MGNREGA scheme and out of theses 691 active job cards holders have provided employment under the MGNREGA Scheme. A fund of Rs. 4.75 has been allocated till the financial year 2015-16 and 4.75 lakhs has been utilized for 72 approved activities under the scheme namely drainage construction, Brick soling, Soil Cutting, Pul and Puliya Construction etc. As per constitution of India and Panchyati Raaj Act, Bisanpur village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected representative of village.
Table No. 5.8. Details of MGNREGA in Aasiyani Panchayat
S. District – Purnia Block – Baisa Panchayat — Aasiyani No. 1. Total No. of Job Cards 1,998
2. No. of Workers 3,421
2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 2012-13
3. Total no. of Households completed 150 days of 0 0 0 5 wage employment
4. Household worked 72 131 488 379
5. Percentage of Men worked 60.53 72.39 71.93 75.99
6. 39.47 27.61 28.07 24.01 Percentage of women
207
worked
7.
Average wage rate per day person (Rs.) 177 162 153.55 144
8. Wage (Rs. In Lakhs) 2.81 6.64 16.89 18.83
9. Total Expenditure (Rs. In 2.81 21.11 28.98 32.74 Lakhs)
Source: www.nrega.nic.in
Aasianyani Gram Panchayat: it is a large village located in Baisa of Purnia district. The village has population of 3,666 of which 1897 are males while 1769 are females as per Population Census 2011. In Asiani village population of children with age 06 is 696 which make up 18.99 % of total population of village. Average Sex Ratio of Asiani village is 933 which is higher than Bihar state average of 918. Child Sex Ratio for the Asiani as per census is 955, higher than Bihar average of 935. Schedule Caste (SC) constitutes 10.31 % while Schedule Tribe (ST) were 0.03 % of total population in Aasianyani village. In the village out of total population, 1, 157 were engaged in work activities. 662 (57.22 %) of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 42.78 % were involved in Marginal work. Of 1157 workers engaged in Main Work, 172 were cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 453 were Agricultural labourers. Only 1,998 have MGNREGA green job cards meant for the poor while the number of workers is 3,421 identified. Rabi, Patua (Jute), Banana and Wheat are grown in the area. Employment opportunities are inadequate. The disastrous flood situation and other natural calamities in the region is reason of such inadequacy. Due to this circumstance people migrate from rural to urban areas or big cities like Delhi, Mumbai and Haryana etc. in search of job for the betterment of their livelihood.
208
The detail of the households completed, worked, percentage of workers sex wise average and total expenditure are shown in table no.5.8. The 1,998 job cards have been issued under the MGNREGA scheme and out of these 562 active job cards holders have provided employment under the MGNREGA Scheme. A fund of Rs. 2.81 lakh has been allocated till the financial year 2015-16 and 2.81 lakhs has been utilized for 72 approved activities under the scheme namely drainage construction, Brick soling, Soil Cutting, Pul and Puliya Construction etc. As per constitution of India and Panchyati Raj Act, Aasianyani village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected representative of village.
Table No. 5.9. Details of MGNREGA in Asja Moba Panchayat
S. No. District – Purnia Block – Baisi Panchayat — Asja Moba
1. Total No. of Job Cards 2,578
2. No. of Workers 2,618
2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 2012-13
3. Total no. of Households completed 150 days of 17 0 0 10 wage employment
4. Household worked 68 96 445 350
5. Percentage of Men worked 70.59 72.92 79.51 85.03
6. Percentage of women 29.41 27.08 20.49 14.97 worked
7. Average wage rate per day 177 162 152.81 144 person (Rs.)
209
8. Wage (Rs. In Lakhs) 2.74 2.54 9.65 10.62
9. Total Expenditure (Rs. In 4.27 9.53 23.14 17.09 Lakhs)
Source: www.nrega.nic.in
Asja Moba Gram Panchayat: It is a large village located in Baisi of Purnia district. The Asja Moba village has population of 9,199 of which 4778 are males while 4421 are females as per Population Census 2011. In the village population of children with age 06 is 1870 which makes up 20.33 % of total population of village. Average Sex Ratio of Asja Mawaia village is 925 which is higher than Bihar state average of 918. Child Sex Ratio for the Asja Mawaia as per census is 932, lower than Bihar average of 935. Schedule Caste (SC) constitutes 4.10 % of total population in Asja Moba village. The village currently does not have any Schedule Tribe (ST) population. In the village out of total population, 2,848 were engaged in work activities. 85.92 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 14.08 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 2,848 workers engaged in Main Work, 472 were cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 1696 were Agricultural labourers. Only 2,578 have MGNREGA green job cards meant for the poor while the number of workers is 2,618 identified. Rabi, Patua (Jute), Wheat and paddy are grown in the area. Employment opportunities are not adequate. The disastrous flood situation and other natural calamities in the region is reason of such inadequacy. Due to this circumstance people migrate from rural to urban areas or big cities like Delhi, Mumbai and Haryana etc. for the betterment of their livelihood.
The detail of the households completed, worked, percentage of workers sex wise average and total expenditure are shown in table no.5.9. The 2,578 job cards have been issued under the MGNREGA scheme and out of these 445 active job cards holders have provided employment under the MGNREGA Scheme. A fund of Rs. 4.27 lakh has been allocated till the financial year 2015-16 and 2.74 lakhs has been utilized for 72 approved
210 activities under the scheme namely drainage construction, Brick soling, Soil Cutting, Pul and Puliya Construction etc. As per constitution of India and Panchyati Raj Act, Aasianyani village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected representative of village.
Table No. 5.10. Details of MGNREGA in Baisi Panchayat
S. District –Purnia Block – Baisi Panchayat— Baisi No.
1. Total No. of Job Cards 2,074
2. No. of Workers 2,636
2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 2012-13
Total no. of Households 3. completed 150 days of wage 0 0 6 8 employment
4. Household worked 161 99 380 248
5. Percentage of Men worked 69.51 79 75 86.97
6. Percentage of women worked 30.49 21 25 86.97
Average wage rate per day 7. 177 173.44 156.22 144 person (Rs.)
8. Wage (Rs. In Lakhs) 15.4 2.43 5.95 13.69
Total Expenditure (Rs. In 9. 21.14 12.1 26.58 21.83 Lakhs)
Source: www.nrega.nic.in
211
Baisi Gram Panchayat: It is a large village located in Baisi of Purnia district. The Baisi village has population of 2,793 of which 1496 are males while 1298 are females as per Population Census 2011. In Baisi village population of children with age 06 is 501 which makes up 21.85 % of total population of village. Average Sex Ratio of Baisi village is 870 which is lower than Bihar state average of 918. Child Sex Ratio for the Baisi as per census is 822, lower than Bihar average of 935. Schedule Caste (SC) constitutes 1.05 % of total population in Baisi village. The village Baisi currently does not have any Schedule Tribe (ST) population. In Baisi village out of total population, 519 were engaged in work activities. The 507 (97.69 %) of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 2.31 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 519 workers engaged in Main Work, 43 are cultivators (owner or co- owner) while 433 were Agricultural labourers. Only 2,074 have MGNREGA green job cards meant for the poor while the number of workers is 2,636 identified. Rabi, Patua (Jute), Wheat and paddy are grown in the area. Employment opportunities are not adequate. The disastrous flood situation and other natural calamities in the region usually take place. Due to this circumstance people migrate from rural to urban areas or big cities like Delhi, Mumbai and Haryana etc. for the betterment of their livelihood.
The detail of the households completed, worked, percentage of workers sex wise average and total expenditure are shown in table no.5.10. The 2,074 job cards have been issued under the MGNREGA scheme and out of these 507 active job cards holders have provided employment under the MGNREGA Scheme. A fund of Rs. 21.14 lakh has been allocated till the financial year 2015-16 and 15.4 lakhs has been utilized for 72 approved activities under the scheme namely drainage construction, Brick soling, Soil Cutting, Pul and Puliya Construction etc. As per constitution of India and Panchyati Raj Act, Aasianyani village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected representative of village.
212
Table No. 5.11. Details of MGNREGA in Adkhali Panchayat
S. District – Purnia Block – Dagarua Panchayat — Adkhali No.
Total No. of Job Cards 1. 2,013
2. No. of Workers 3,752
2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 2012-13
Total no. of Households 3. completed 150 days of 41 0 63 19 wage employment
4. Household worked 591 123 456 294
5. Percentage of Men worked 54.97 57.25 62.02 78.45
Percentage of women 6. 45.03 42.75 37.98 21.55 worked
Average wage rate per day 7. 176.9 174.07 157.87 143.82 person (Rs.)
8. Wage (Rs. In Lakhs) 39.41 10.01 12.54 19.55
Total Expenditure (Rs. In 9. 56.76 15.22 38 37.23 Lakhs)
Source: www.nrega.nic.in
Adhkaili Gram Panchayat: it is a large village located in Dagarua of Purnia district The Adhkaili village has population of 4357 of which 2239 are males while 2118 are females as per Population Census 2011. In Adhkaili village population of children with
213 age 06 is 790 which makes up 18.13 % of total population of village. Average Sex Ratio of Adhkaili village is 946 which is higher than Bihar state average of 918. Child Sex Ratio for the Adhkaili as per census is 975, higher than Bihar average of 935. Schedule Caste (SC) constitutes 10.01 % of total population in Adhkaili village. The village Adhkaili currently does not have any Schedule Tribe (ST) population. In Adhkaili village out of total population, 1434 were engaged in work activities. 1,434 (97.14 %) of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 2.86 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 1434 workers engaged in Main Work, 411 were cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 927 were Agricultural labourers.
Only 2,013 have MGNREGA green job cards meant for the poor while the number of workers is 3,752 identified. Rabi, Patua (Jute), Wheat, paddy and Maize are grown in the area. Employment opportunities are not adequate. The disastrous flood situation and other natural calamities in the region usually take place. Due to this circumstance people migrate from rural to urban areas or big cities like Delhi, Mumbai and Haryana etc. for the betterment of their livelihood.
The detail of the households completed, worked, percentage of workers sex wise average and total expenditure are shown in table no.5.11. The 2,013 job cards have been issued under the MGNREGA scheme and out of these 955 active job cards holders have provided employment under the MGNREGA Scheme. A fund of Rs. 56.76 lakh has been allocated till the financial year 2015-16 and 39.41 lakhs has been utilized for 72 approved activities under the scheme namely drainage construction, Brick soling, Soil Cutting, Pul and Puliya Construction etc. As per constitution of India and Panchyati Raj Act, Aasianyani village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected representative of village.
214
Table No. 5.12. Details of MGNREGA in Belgachi Panchayat
S. No. District – Purnia Block – Dagarua Panchayat — Belgachi
1. Total No. of Job Cards 1,683
No. of Workers 2. 2,759
2015-16 2014-15 2013-14 2012-13
Total no. of Households 3. completed 150 days of 0 0 1 23 wage employment
Household worked 4. 91 0 446 437
Percentage of Men 5. 75.82 0 65.34 78.88 worked
Percentage of women 6. 24.18 0 34.66 21.12 worked
Average wage rate per 7. day 177 0 149.69 144 person (Rs.)
8. Wage (Rs. In Lakhs) 0 8.65 9.06 26.34
Total Expenditure (Rs. In 9. 0 12.78 22.44 40.7 Lakhs)
Source: www.nrega.nic.in
Belgachhi Gram Panchayat: It is a large village located in Dagarua of Purnia district. The Belgachhi village has population of 5936 of which 2986 are males while 2950 are
215 females as per Population Census 2011. In Belgachhi village population of children with age 06 is 1378 which makes up 23.21 % of total population of village. Average Sex Ratio of Belgachhi village is 988 which is higher than Bihar state average of 918. Child Sex Ratio for the Belgachhi as per census is 1069, higher than Bihar average of 935.Belgachhi village has lower literacy rate compared to Bihar. Schedule Caste (SC) constitutes 8.71 % while Schedule Tribe (ST) were 0.02 % of total population in Belgachhi village. In Belgachhi village out of total population, 1812 were engaged in work activities. 55.41 % of workers describe their work as Main Work (Employment or Earning more than 6 Months) while 44.59 % were involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months. Of 1812 workers engaged in Main Work, 202 were cultivators (owner or co-owner) while 708 were Agricultural labourers.
Only1,683 have MGNREGA green job cards meant for the poor while the number of workers is 2,759 identified. Rabi, Patua (Jute), Wheat, paddy and Maize are grown in the area. Employment opportunities are not adequate. The disastrous flood situation and other natural calamities in the region usually take place. Due to this circumstance people migrate from rural to urban areas or big cities like Delhi, Mumbai and Haryana etc. for the betterment of their livelihood.
The detail of the households completed, worked, percentage of workers sex wise average and total expenditure are shown in table no.5.12. The 1,683 job cards have been issued under the MGNREGA scheme and out of these 1,076 active job cards holders have provided employment under the MGNREGA Scheme. A fund of Rs. 56.76 lakh has been allocated till the financial year 2015-16 and no fund has been utilized for 72 approved activities under the scheme namely drainage construction, Brick soling, Soil Cutting, Pul and Puliya Construction etc. As per constitution of India and Panchyati Raj Act, Aasianyani village is administrated by Sarpanch (Head of Village) who is elected representative of village.
On the other hand the researcher has been develop a primary source to check the facts rural development in the selected research area i.e. Purnia district as below.
216
Table No. 5.13
Educational Qualification
Percentage No. of Respondents (Rounded off)
Illiterate 360 40
Below –Matric 270 30
Above –Matric 180 20
Intermediate to Graduate 90 10
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.13: Graphical presentation of respondent’s educational qualification
Educational Qualification
10% 20% 40%
30%
Illiterate Below –Matric Above –Matric Intermediate to Graduate
Table No. 5.13 and Figure No. 5.13 represents the response of the 900 beneficiaries under the scheme of MANREGA out of which 150 respondents have been
217 taken from each block. The researcher has found that 40% respondents are illiterate they do not have even basic education. Whereas 30% respondents are below metric, 20% are above metric to intermediate and 10% are intermediate to Graduate. Thus, it can be observed from the analysis that the majority of the population is still belongs from non- education background they are need to be educated. The education is required to make them more aware; about how they can be benefitted with the scheme of MGNREGA. Moreover government has to focus to promote basic primary education so that they come to know about the schemes, programmes and welfare policies of the center as well as state government.
Table No.5.14
Source of Income
Percentage Occupations No. of Respondents (Round of)
Unskilled labour 513 57
Semi skilled labour 225 25
Agriculture/livestock 72 8
Any other 90 10
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
218
Figure No: 5.14 Graphical presentation of respondent’s Source of Income
Source of Income
8% 10%
25% 57%
Unskilled labour Semi skilled labour Agriculture/livestock Any other
In the above Table No 5.14. and Figure No. 5.14 shows that among the 900 respondents out of which 150 respondents have been take from each block. It is found that in term of source of income the number of unskilled labour huge in comparison of semi and agriculture labour and many others are involved in sweeper, animal husbandry, daily wage labour work are there. There are 57% people of the unskilled labour, 25% are skilled labour, 8% are belongs to agriculture and other livestock field and 10% are involved in other works to lead their livelihood in that particular rural area.
Table No: 5.15
Monthly Income
Percentage Earning (Rs.) No. of Respondents (Rounded off)
1000-5000 549 61
5000-10000 180 20
219
10000-20000 54 6
Daily earning 117 13
900 100 Total
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.15 Graphical presentation of respondent’s Monthly Income
Monthly Income
13% 6%
20% 61%
1000-5000 5000-10000 10000-20000 Daily earning
In Table No. 5.15 and Figure No. 5.15 have been shown that in term of monthly income 61% respondents earning can earn only1000-5000 whereas 20% and 6% of the population can manage to earn 5000-10000 and 10000-20000 respectively.
There is 13% of the population whose livelihood based on daily earning in that particular rural area.
220
Table No. 5.16
Aware of rural development programmes
Percentage No. of Respondents (Rounded off)
Yes 549 61
No 351 39
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.16 Graphical presentation of respondent’s awareness of rural development programme
Awareness of Rural Dvelopment programme
39%
61%
Yes No
Table No. 5.16 and Figure No 5.16 shows that out of the 900 respondents 61% of the respondents’ are aware but partially about the rural development and only 39% of the respondents are not aware of the rural development programme.
It is oblivious that majority of the population are aware of the programme but due to lack of education, knowledge and information; keep them in dark side of large benefit.
221
This drawback of the governance at grass root level administration still prevailing in the rural area.
Table No. 5.17
Aware of given Rural Development Programme
Percentage No. of Respondents (Rounded off)
MGNREGA 360 40
Indra Awaas Yojna (IAY) 153 17
PGSY 72 8
PDS 54 6
Not Aware 261 29
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
222
Figure No 5.17 Graphical presentation of respondent’s awareness of givenrural development programme
Aware of Rural Development Programme
29% 40%
6% 8% 17%
MGNREGA Indra Awaas Yojna (IAY) PGSY PDS Not Aware
Table No. 5.17 and Figure No. 5.17 has been structured through some major rural development programme. These given programmes are more familiar to the rural masses. Out of the 900 respondents 40% respondents are aware of Mahtma Gandhi National Rural Employment Scheme, 17% are aware of Indra Awas Yojna. There are 8% and 6% of the respondents are aware of Pardhan Mantri Garmin Sadak Yojna (PSGY), and Public Distribution System respectively. On the other hand 29% of the respondents are unaware of the rural programme. This is only because of the improper communication between the administration and the needy people of the rural area.
Table No. 5.18
The benefit of Rural Development programmes
Percentage No. of Respondents (Rounded off)
Programmes for the benefit of the 333 37 rural people
223
Only for the Below Poverty Line 378 42
The benefit of the society as a whole 126 14
Any others 63 7
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.18 Graphical presentation of respondent’s about the benefits of rural development
The benefit of the Rural Development Programme
14% 7% 37%
42%
Programmes for the benefit of the rural people Only for the Below Poverty Line
The benefit of the society as a whole Any others
Table No. 5.18 and Figure No.5.18 represents the benefits of rural development programmes. Out of the 900 respondents 37% of the respondents agree that rural development programmes are made for the benefits of the rural people. There are 42% of the respondents supports for the below poverty line. There are 14% respondents agrees upon the benefits of the rural development programme of the society as a whole and only 7% are supposed for other aspect of rural development particularly in that rural area.
224
Table No. 5.19
Medium of information about the rural development programmes/schemes
Percentage No. of Respondents (Rounded off)
243 27 Through Radio channels
225 25 Television
Newspapers 108 12
Block level officer 27 30
54 6 Any other please specify
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
225
Figure No: 5.19 Graphical presentation of respondent’s medium information of rural development
Medium of information about Rural Development
6% 27% 30%
12% 25%
Through Radio channels Television Newspapers Block level officer Any other please specify
Table No. 5.19 and Figure No. 5.19 describe that out of the 900 respondents, the medium of information through which the rural people can get information about the programme and schemes. In this concern, there are 27% of the respondents gets information through radio channels, 25% through television, 12% through newspaper, 30% agree upon that Block level officers are giving information about the rural development. And only 6% can get information through other sources like mobile van etc.
Table No. 5.20
The benefit from the rural development programme
Percentage No. of Respondents (Rounded off)
Yes 657 73
No 243 27
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
226
Figure No: 5.20 Graphical presentations of respondent’s benefits from Rural Development Programme
The benefit from the Rural Development Programme
27%
73%
Yes No
In the above Table No 5.20 and Figure No. 5.20 illustrate the benefits of the rural development programmes or the scheme run by the central as well as state government like MGNREGA, PGSY, PDS, etc. Out of the 900 respondents there 73% of the respondents say yes on the access of the benefits of the rural development scheme. There are 27% of the respondents says no on the benefit of the programme.
In spite of these, people always have to face number of problem like negligence by the block level administration, involvement of local strong holder in discharging the programme and policies.
Table No. 5.21
The kind of benefits rural people gets
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Agriculture 207 23
225 25 Rural Housing
227
Infrastructure 117 13
To start your own business 54 6
Job Under MGNREGA 297 33
If any other please specify 0 0
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.21 Graphical presentation of respondent’s kind of benefits people are getting
Benefits People getting 0%
33% 23%
6% 25% 13%
Agriculture Rural Housing Infrastructure To start your own business Job Under MGNREGA If any other please specify
In the above table no. 5.21 and Figure No. 5.21 describes the different kind of benefits that rural people are getting from the government for their livelihood. Out of 900 the respondents, in term of agriculture development 23% respondents are agree upon this. There are 25% are getting benefits of the rural housing and 13% infrastructural
228
development. On the other hand only 6% of the respondent accepted that they are getting very small amount of financial assistance to start their own business from the government. In term of job under the MGNREGA only 33% respondents getting proper benefits from this scheme.
Table No.5.22
The reasons for not availing the benefit of the programme
No. of Respondents Percentage
(Rounded off)
Not eligible 153 17
Not aware of such programmes 477 53
No need of the benefit 180 20
Any other 90 10
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
229
Figure No: 5.22 Graphical presentations of respondent’s not availing benefits of the programme
Reasons for not availing the benefits
10% 17% 20%
53%
Not eligible Not aware of such programmes No need of the benefit Any other
In above Table No. 5.22 and Figure No. 5.22 deals with reason for not availing the benefits of the programme like MGNREGA, IAY, and PDS etc. Out of the 900 respondents there are 17% of the respondents considered as not eligible for such benefits. There are 53% of the respondents considered as not aware of the programme in the locality. Only 20% are considered as no need of such benefits. There are 10% of the respondents facing many other reasons.
Table No. 5.23
The rural development programme is functioning properly
Percentage No. of Respondents (Rounded off)
Yes 540 60
No 360 40
230
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.23 Graphical presentation of respondent’s awareness proper functioning programme
Proper functionig of programme
40%
60%
Yes No
Table No. 5.23 and Figure No. 5.23 describes the rural development programme. Out of the 900 respondents 60% respondents have agreed on the proper functioning of the rural development programmes which is initiated by the central as well as state government. Only 40% of the respondents have disagreed on the proper functioning of the programmes. This disagreement of the respondent is only because of the malfunctioning of administration at grass root level in discharging the development.
Table No. 5.24
The Reasons for not proper functioning
Percentage No. of Respondents (Rounded off)
No proper information 180 20
231
The intervention of 423 47 local strong holders
The Block level officers are not more 180 20 interested
Local people are kept unaware of the 117 13 rural programme
0 Any other reason please specify 0
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.24 Graphical presentation of respondent’s if not functioning
Reasons for not proper functioning
0% 13% 20% 20%
47%
No proper informantion The intervention of local strong holders Reluctanant act of Block offices Local people are kept unaware of the rural programme Any other reason
Table no. 5.24 and Figure No. 5.24 shows that there are various reasons of not proper function of the rural development at grass root level. Out of the 900 respondents 20% of the respondents have agreed that the improper function of the programmes and policies prevailing at grass root level. There are 47% respondents agreed upon the intervention of the local strong holders, 20% and 13% of the respondents are claimed that Block level officers also reluctant and keep them unaware of the programme respectively.
232
Table No. 5.25
Nature of services under MGNREGA programme
Percentage No. of Respondents (Rounded off)
Regular 432 48
Irregular 189 21
Satisfactory 180 20
Unsatisfactory 99 11
Any Other 0 0
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
233
Figure No: 5.25 Graphical presentation of nature of services under MGNREGA
Nature of Services under MGNREGA 0%
11% 20% 48%
21%
Regular Irregular Satisfactory Unsatisfactory Any Other
Table no. 5.25 and Figure No. 5.25 shows that out of the 900 respondents working under the MGNREGA programme, there are 48% of the respondents agreed upon the regular services, whereas 21%, 20% and 11% of the respondents says irregular, satisfactory and unsatisfactory in the MGNREGA programme respectively.
Table No. 5.26
Wages Payment (Amount)
Percentage No. of Respondents (Rounded off)
As per governments guidelines 513 57
Commission for wages by 387 43 mediocre
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
234
Figure No: 5.26 Graphical presentation of wage payments
Wage Payment
43%
57%
As per governments guidelines Commission for wages by mediocre
Table No. 5.26 and Figure No. 5.26 deals with working under MGNREGA, the wages provided to them is not up to the expectation. Out of the 900 respondents 57% of the respondents are agreed that wage payment provided them are as per the government guidelines. There are 43% of respondents say that in wage payment services mediocre also involved and take commission from the workers under the scheme.
Table No. 5.27
Mode of job under the MGNREGA Programme
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Land Development 297 33
Plantation 180 20
Water conservation 153 17
144 16
235
Drought Proofing
Rural Connectivity 126 14
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.27 Graphical presentation of mode of jobs
Mode of Jobs
14% 33% 16%
17% 20%
Plantation Land Development Water conservation Drought Proofing Rural connectivity
Table No. 5.27 and Figure No. 5.27 shows the mode of job under MGNREGA programme provided by the government. Out of the 900 respondents there are 35% of the respondents are agree on the land development activities that indicate maximum people involved in land activities where as rural connectivity secure only 14% and it is the lowest in term of mode of job under the scheme . There are 20%, 17%, and 16% of respondents agrees the plantation, water conservation and drought proofing provided under the scheme of MGNREGA.
236
Table No. 5.28
The problem address by the government official at local level (Block , Panchayat )
No. of Respondent Percentage (Rounded off)
Wage payment services & inquiry 189 21 regarding implementation
Assurance of 150 days jobs under 252 28 the scheme
Service delivery problem 126 14
Identification of the needy people 135 15
Local level influence of the people 198 22
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
237
Figure No: 5.28 Graphical presentations of problems addressed by officials
Problem addressed by the Governemt officals
22% 21%
15% 28% 14%
Wage payment services & inquiry regarding implementation Assurance of 150 days jobs under the scheme Service delivery problem Identification of the needy people
Local level influence of the people
Table No. 5.28 and Figure No. 5.28 shows in term problem addressed by the government officials at local level (Block and Panchayat level) out of the 900 respondents , there are 21% of the strongly agree on wage payment and inquiry regarding implementation. There are 28% respondents who agree on the assurance of 150 day jobs under the scheme. The 14% were neutral on service delivery problem, 15% of the respondent on identification of needy people and 22% respondents says local level influence of people.
Table No. 5.29
The MGNREGA as a programme helps in uplifting the quality of people in rural area
No. of Percentage
Respondents (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 180 20
Agree 360 40
207 23 Neutral
238
Disagree 90 10
Strongly Disagree 63 7
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.29 Graphical presentation of the upliftment in quality of people in rural areas
Upliftment the quality of people
7% 10% 20%
23%
40%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Table No. 5.29 and Figure No. 5.29 shows that MGNREGA as a rural development programme help in uplifting the quality in term of livelihood of the people in the rural area particularly in that locality. Out of the 900 respondents strongly agree whereas 40%, 23%, 10% and 7% respondents agree, neutral, disagree and strongly disagree respectively. The majority of the rural people are agrees upon the upliftment through the programme in their livelihood. Despite, the people are still not getting satisfied with their pattern of developmental programme of the rural areas. They are still facing lot of problem in getting job under the scheme to lead their livelihood.
239
Table No.5.30
The scarcity of rural employment solved with the help of MGNREGA in the locality.
No. of Respondent Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 153 17
Agree 333 37
Neutral 207 23
Disagree 117 13
Strongly Disagree 90 10
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.30.Graphical presentation of scarcity of rural employment
Scarcity of Rural Employment
10% 17% 13%
23% 37%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
240
Table No. 5.30 and Figure No. 5.30 shows that out of the 900 respondents 17% respondents strongly agree to solve the scarcity of rural with the help of MGNREGA programme. There are 37% respondents agree on that. Whereas 23%, 13% and 10% respondents are neutral, disagree and strongly disagrees respectively.
Table No. 5.31
This programme has effectiveness in providing equity, accessibility to the rural people.
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 117 13
Agree 387 43
Neutral 180 20
Disagree 153 17
Strongly Disagree 63 7
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
241
Figure No: 5.31 Graphical presentation of effectiveness in providing equity and accessibility
Effectiveness in Providing Equity & Accessibility
7%
13% 17%
20% 43%
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
Table No. 5.31 and Figure. No. 5.31 shows out of the 900 respondents 13% of the respondents strongly agree in term of effectiveness in proving equality, accessibility to the rural people. Whereas 43%, 20% 17% and 7% of the respondents are agree, neutral, disagree and strongly disagree respectively, with the effectiveness of the MGNREGA programme especially in that in that particular rural area.
It can be observed the effectiveness of any programme of rural development assured only through the proper utilization of workforce. The effectiveness ensures the capability of mechanism of governance for the betterment of livelihood of rural people and as a whole to the society.
242
Table No. 5.32
The MGNREGA programme provides women participation in distribution of the employment.
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 117 13
Agree 297 33
Neutral 207 23
Disagree 207 23
Strongly Disagree 72 8
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.32 Graphical presentation of women’s participation
Women Participation
8% 13% 23%
33%
23%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
243
Table No.5.32 and Figure No. 5.32 shows that out of the 900 respondents 13% of the respondent do strongly agree, 33% of the respondents agree, 23% neutral ,23% disagree and 8% of the respondents disagree in term of providing women participation through the MGNREGA programme of rural development.
Hence, it can be seen that there is a need to create more opportunity of employment in general and for women in particular as a participatory development in term of better governance.
Table No. 5.33
This programme will help in transforming the rural development environment.
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 180 20
Agree 387 43
Neutral 90 10
Disagree 153 17
Strongly Disagree 90 10
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
244
Figure No: 5.33 Graphical presentation of transformation in rural development environment
Transforming the Rural Development
10% 20% 17%
10% 43%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Table No. 5.33 and Figure No. 5.33 shows that out of the 900 respondents 20% of the respondents strongly agree, 43% respondents agree, 10% of the respondents are neutral, 17% are disagree and 10% are strongly disagree in term of the programme that can transform the rural development.
It can be observed that around 43% of the respondents are agreed on this transformation of development but due to the improper rural development management like utilization of fund, distribution of wage etc. for development work not properly used.
Table No.5.34
The MGNREGA programme should use innovative technology for better implementation.
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 835 23
Agree 360 40
245
Neutral 117 13
Disagree 63 7
Strongly Disagree 153 17
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.34 Graphical presentation of use of innovative technology
Innovative Technology
7% 17% 23%
13%
40%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Table No. 5.34 and Figure No. 5.34 shows that out of the 900 respondents on the use of innovative technology through the MGNREGA programme for the betterment of rural development. There are 23% of the respondents strongly agree , 40% of the respondents are agree, 13% are neutral, 7% are disagree and 7% of the respondent are strongly disagree.
It can be observed that the disagreement of the respondent only because of the lack of the technological knowledge and skills.
246
Table No. 5.35
The MGNREGA Programme will help in generating higher rural employment.
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 117 13
Agree 387 43
Neutral 153 17
Disagree 90 10
Strongly Disagree 153 17
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.35 Graphical presentation of generation of higher employment
Generating Higher Employment
17% 13% 10%
17% 43%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
247
Table No. 5.35 and Figure No. 5.35 shows that out of the 900 respondents 13% of the respondents strongly agree, 43% agree, 17% neutral, 10% are disagree and 17% strongly disagree that this programme will help in generating higher employment to the rural people.
It can be found that MGNREGA programme is one of the major flagship programmes which is creating employment in the rural areas but still huge number of needy people are in the raw to get this opportunity. In term of the generating high employment it must be better service oriented to the people of rural areas.
Table No. 5.36
This programme has the potential to deliver a quality life for marginalized and deprived section of the rural area.
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 90 10
Agree 360 40
Neutral 126 14
Disagree 207 23
Strongly Disagree 117 13
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
248
Figure No: 5.36 Graphical presentation of quality of life for marginalized sections
Quality Life
13% 10%
23% 40%
14%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Table No. 5.36. and Figure No. 5.36 shows that out of the 900 respondents 10 % of the respondents strongly agree, 40% agree, 14% neutral, 23% are disagree and 13% strongly disagree in term of the potential to deliver a qualitative life for marginalized and deprived section of the rural area.
It can be observed that the MGNREGA programme is one of the major flagship programme to create employment opportunity for rural people. Despite, there is a huge gap to cover the potential to deliver the quality of life with the help of these policies and programme specially for marginalized and deprived sections of the society. It is need to identify the deprived section to deliver the better opportunity. The mechanism of governance should be qualitative in its orientation of development as a whole particularly in that area of research.
249
Table No. 5.37
The block level administration is following government rules and regulations to provide better services through this scheme of rural development.
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 90 10
333 37 Agree
Neutral 72 8
Disagree 234 26
Strongly Disagree 171 19
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.37 Graphical presentation of better services at Block level
Better services at Block level
10%
19%
37% 26%
8%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
250
Table No. 5.37 and Figure No. 5.37 shows that out of the 900 respondents 10% of the respondents strongly agree, 37% agree, 8% neutral, 26% are disagree and 19 % strongly disagree that the block level administration is following government rules and regulation to provide better services through this rural development programme.
It can be observed that huge number of respondent still in search of better services from the government and it delegated authority at grass root level. By the above responses it can be seen that the administrative governance is conscious but the unwillingness of the system still exist. The officials should be more attentive towards the developmental approach at grass root level. The block level officers should not get intervene the local strong holder in the developmental process.
Table No. 5.38
The wage administration under this scheme is satisfactory
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 63 7
Agree 180 20
Neutral 63 7
Disagree 360 40
Strongly Disagree 234 26
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
251
Figure No: 5.38 Graphical presentation of wage administration under the scheme
Wage Administration
7% 26% 20%
40% 7%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Table No. 5.38. and Figure No.5.38 shows that out of the 900 respondents 7 % of the respondents strongly agree, 20% agree, 7% neutral, 40% are disagree and 26 % strongly disagree on the wage administration. Most of the respondents are disagreed on the wage administration. It can be observed that in term of wage administration huge workforces are unsatisfied as shown in the above figure. There is big number in term of denying the satisfaction level in getting wages. It is a big issue for the government in this concern. There is a need to take strict action against the wage management and distribution channel. It is need to find out the reason of the people’s un-satisfaction on wage administration. This unsatisfactory level of wage is one of the causes to migrate rural to urban area.
Table No. 5.39
This MGNREGA will lead to better governance in the locality to improve the economic status.
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 117 13
369 41 Agree
252
Neutral 126 14
Disagree 180 20
Strongly Disagree 108 12
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.39 Graphical presentation of better governance
Better Governance
12% 13% 20%
41% 14%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Table No5.39 and Figure No. 5.39 shows that out of the 900 respondents13 % of the respondents strongly agree, 41 % agree, 14% neutral, 20 % are disagree and 12 % strongly disagree on the better governance. Most of the people are agrees on the better governance if it could be implemented properly. The MGNREGA can be a one of the programme to establish better governance at grass root level to improve the economic status of the rural area.
253
It can be observed that major portion of the respondents are agree on the part of better governance but the level of livelihood seems to be stagnant in term of development of the rural people.
Table No. 5.40
The block level officials are involved in corruption under this programme.
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 153 17
Agree 333 37
Neutral 207 23
Disagree 207 23
Strongly Disagree 00 00
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
254
Figure No: 5.40 Graphical presentation of level of corruption
Corruption Level among officials 0%
23% 17%
23% 37%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Table No. 5.40 and Figure No. 5.40 shows that out of the 900 respondents 17% of the respondents strongly agree, 37 % agree, 23% neutral, 23 % are disagree on the corruption level of Block level officials; most of the respondents agrees on the involvement of the officials in corruption in the scheme. The corruption is one of the major causes of the obstacle before the development. It is prevailing only because of the mal-governance of the system at garss root level.
It is observed that after the formulation of the well-built rule and regulation corruption is not able to control. To control this practice there is need of regular vigilance on the financial matter related to development programme. There must be check and balance on the part social audit.
Table No. 5.41
The MGNREGA programme is effectively implemented in the rural area.
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 153 17
540 60 Agree
255
Neutral 117 13
Disagree 63 7
Strongly Disagree 27 3
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.41 Graphical presentation of effective implementation
Effectively Implementation
3%
7% 17% 13%
60%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Table No. 5.41 and Figure No. 5.41 shows that out of the 900 respondents 17% of the respondents strongly agree, 60 % agree, 13% neutral, 7% are disagree and 3% strongly disagree on the one part of effective implementation of the programme. Most of the respondent agrees on the effective implementation of the programme as per the guidance of the government. But at grass root level the delay in the process of implementation hinder the development of the rural area.
It is observed that the effectiveness as a characteristic of governance must be considered tool to the rural development in general and particular in that area of research. 256
In term of the effectiveness there must be regular inspection of the development programme in the locality.
Table No. 5.42
The block level officers are performing their responsibility to make this programme successful.
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 189 21
Agree 324 36
Neutral 207 23
Disagree 117 13
Strongly Disagree 63 7
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
257
Figure No: 5.42 Graphical presentation of Responsibility of the officers
Officers Performing their Responsibility
7% 13% 21%
23% 36%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Table No.5.42 and Figure No. 5.42 shows that out of the 900 respondents 21% of the respondents strongly agree, 36% agree, 23% neutral, 13 % are disagree and 7% are strongly disagree on the part of the responsibility of the government official.
It can be observed that in the above figure the government official are performing their responsibility as per their own convenience. Most of the officers are neglecting their responsibility to make the programme a success. It is to be noted that responsibility is an ethical or moral ground of the action taken by the authority. Hence, there must be given a moral teaching to the government official to perform their responsibility to make it success.
Table No. 5.43
This programme is capable of fulfilling the equity and inclusiveness for rural development.
Percentage No. of Respondents (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 90 10
Agree 279 31
63 7
258
Neutral
Disagree 423 47
Strongly Disagree 45 5
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.43 Graphical presentation of equity and inclusiveness
Equity and Inclusiveness for Rural Dvelopment 10% 5%
31% 47%
7%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Table no. 5.43 and Figure No. 5.43 shows that out of the 900 respondents 10% of the respondents strongly agree, 31% agree, 7% neutral, 47 % are disagree and 5% are strongly disagree in tem of inclusive growth.
It can be observed that the programme is capable of fulfilling the equity and inclusiveness for over all development of rural area. In spite of all these inclusiveness, it cannot be achieve without proper people’s participation in the work of development. The participation of the people must be development oriented and socially motivated. For inclusive development their equal participation must be appraised.
259
Table No. 5.44
The programme is consensus oriented towards the people of rural area.
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 153 17
Agree 225 25
Neutral 81 9
Disagree 342 38
Strongly Disagree 99 11
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
260
Figure No: 5.44 Graphical presentation of consensus orientation
Consensus Oriented
11% 17%
25%
38% 9%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Table No. 5.44 and Figure No. 5.44 shows that out of the 900 respondents 17% of the respondents strongly agree, 25 % agree, 9% neutral, 38 % are disagree and 11% are strongly disagree in tem of consensus oriented. The consensus orientation is one of the important characteristics of the governance. It means the requirement of the different interests to reach a broad consensus of the society. It also requires a broad and long-term perspective on what is needed for sustainable human development and to achieve the goals of such development. It can only be understand through the historical, cultural and social contexts of the society or community.
It term of consensus orientation major of the respondents are unsatisfied. The reason of this un-satisfaction is only; the social context of the locality is not understood by the authority properly. The local bureaucrats are less interested to know the genuine problems of the people of rural areas.
261
Table No. 5.45
This programme is having strategic vision for the rural development.
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 135 15
Agree 180 20
Neutral 198 22
Disagree 252 28
Strongly Disagree 135 15
Total 900 100
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No: 5.45 Graphical presentation of strategic vision
Strategic Vision for the Rural Revelopment
15% 22% 20%
28% 15%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
262
Table No.5.46 and Figure No. 5.46 shows that out of the 900 respondents 15% of the respondents strongly agree, 20 % agree, 22% neutral, 28% are disagree and 15% are strongly disagree in tem of strategic vision for the rural development.
It is a broad and long-term perspective on governance and human development, along with a sense of what is needed for such development in general. There is also an understanding of the historical, cultural and social complexities in which that perspective is beached.
It is observed that in term of strategic vision on the perspective of development in rural areas majority of the respondent are not satisfied. It is because of the social complexities. It is very necessary to solve these social complexities with the help of proper injection of the mechanism of governance at every step of development.
Table No. 5.46
This programme is having transparency for the rural development.
No. of Respondents Percentage (Rounded off)
Strongly Agree 115 13
Agree 125 14
150 17 Neutral
Disagree 235 26
Strongly Disagree 275 30
Total 900 100
263
(Source: Primary data)
Figure No. 5.46 Graphical presentation of Transparency
Transperncy in the Rural Development Programme
13%
30% 14%
17% 26%
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Table No.5.46 and Figure No. 5.46 shows that out of the 900 respondents 13% of the respondents strongly agree, 14 % agree, 17% neutral, 26% are disagree and 30% are strongly disagree in tem of strategic vision for the rural development.
It means the information should be provided in easily understandable forms and media. It should be easily available and accessible to all those who would be affected by governance policies and practices of the government. The outcomes must be in fulfillment with established rules and regulations in a rational way.
It can be observed in the above table and figure that majority of the respondents are not satisfied with performance of the local system of governance in term of transparency. This intransparency is only because of the lack of information regarding programme and policies of the government and disbursement process of the funding among the people.
For establishing better mechanism of the governance the government should establish the people awareness programme. This programme should be result oriented in term awareness regarding healthy development of rural areas particularly the rural area of Purnia District.
264
CHAPTER -VI
Conclusion, Suggestions and Recommendation
6.1. Conclusion Local level governance or rural governance has increasing significanceof rural policies. The process of decentralization isgranting new responsibilities at different level of administration for better governance. At the same time, the greater attention of rural development polices is to put the inflection on the role of local entities in the implementation of developmental policies. The New bottom-top approaches to rural development areencouraged by the governmentand voluntaryorganization of localgovernments and community participation. They are become increasingly interdependent and thus requirestronger co-ordination among them. These actors are creating the boundaries of theirterritory. It is based on factors like natural resource, common identity, shared economic characteristics or even caste differentiations. These changes lead to a number ofimportant questions related to how local governments can effectively sustain rural development programme and policies of welfare.
It isnecessary that public agents should not dominate the local governancearrangements and that there be strong representation of the local people to capitalise on new opportunities and resources generated by public orcollective action.There is, however, a failure of governance, which has multiple dimensions and it is not confined to the inefficiency of the delivery system only. It is not unexpected that overwhelmingly large sections of society. It constituting the delivery system comes from landowning dominant castes or well-off middle classes, with their attachment to ownership of property, cultural superiority, purity pollution governed behaviour and a state of mind which rationalizes and asserts their existing position of dominance in relation to others. This influences their attitudes, behaviour and performance.As it happens, the politics has also been aligned with this social segment which constitutes the power structure in rural and urban areas since colonial times. It is this coalition of interests and social background that deeply affect governance at all levels.
265
The paradox of rural development challenges andpotential are extremely diverse in nature. The public expenditure is still largelyconcentrated into one hand. There are signs that theassets of rural regions, in many cases, outweigh the traditional drawbacks ofrural life. The employment opportunities are still more limited, but therecord of employment creation in the majority ofrural area Purnia districtisrelatively good, although extremely uneven.Despite bringing large resources into rural areas, agricultural subsidiesare not intended to trigger rural development directly and, in most cases, theydo not do so. The main reason for this is that such type of policy is focused ona small segment of the rural population (farmers and others involved inagricultural enterprises) rather than on places. Many evidence suggests that current policies are not effective toaddresssome of the most socio-economic challenges facing ruralcommunities and having uneven impacts across the rural territory.
The heterogeneity in the challenges facing by rural areas and theresources that they have at hand to tackle these challenges suggests theneed for a different approach to rural policy and programme. The positive signs coming frommany rural areas indicate that policy can be less “defensive” – i.e., focusedon limiting decline – in the future and concentrate more on confiscating newopportunities. The issue for rural development policy is how to adapt strategies to take intoaccount the different development opportunities. Many of the policies are based onexploitation of resources availableand the exploitation of locales. While some of the opportunities are connected with agriculture.Thenon-agricultural sector is still strong in developmental activities.Consequently, governments (central or state) are increasingly recognizing the need for more territorial approach.
The agricultural sector is often the engine for growth inrural economies and it development. It is predominant source of rural income,employment and output. Consequently, rural and agricultural issues wereconsidered to be virtually synonymous. Itis often assumed thatagricultural and rural objectives could be pursued through a single set ofpolicies designed to aid the transition of the agricultural sector. Gradually, the situationhas changed, because agriculture is no longer the main sector inrural areas in terms of output or employment.
266
The complexity and heterogeneity ofrural areas is represented by the flood prone areas. On the one hand,the Plain region is rich repositories of natural resources specially in agriculture sectorwhich are threatened by local market failures and thus it require proper policy intervention by government.On the other hand, this plain floodedand remote area is traditionally providers ofhuman capital, and food resources for the society. Thus,it possesses an important economic potential in different sectors of the rural economy. Rural development policy has become a policy arena in its own right.It seeks to address the specific needs and opportunities of rural areas andits dwellers. The emerging “new ruralparadigm” is a focus on places rather than sectors and an emphasis oninvestments rather than subsidies.
Thus, the various steps have alreadybeen taken by the central as well as state government but still major hurdles to triumph over if the rural area is to realize its full potential of development. The rural area need to proper mobilization of local resources to regulate the developmental approach. There is a need to establish balance between the governance mechanism and rural development. In particular, there is a need to develop systematic decisions by the local peopleon various rural developmentstrategies for wider penetration of the development as whole. It will certainly help the rural people to establish a livelihoodin their own way. These development strategies provide insights that can help in understanding its effectson growth of the people in term of socio-economic condition.The efficiency in the quality of services, maximizing the potential of rural development strategies for the people, and improving the level ofsatisfaction in term of development in a framework are the fundamental tenets better governance.The government must establish assertive initiatives to acquire faith of the rural people.
Adoptingthe different kind of development strategies by the government to reach maximum benefit to the rural people willlead to better confidence on the governance mechanism through the channel ofdistribution of welfare scheme like MGNREGA. Long-term financial stability for the rural poor or deprived section of the society can come only from the efficient operation of proper channelization monetary process. The present status of rural development is still in unsteadiness position in India and particularly in rural area of the district of Purnia.In addition, a major segment of the
267
ruralpopulation has low disposable income, which creates unsatisfaction for their livelihood. The channelization monetary process can somehow reduce the unsatisfaction among the working labour class. The intermediariesshould notbe involve in the process of rural development work, so there should be clear segregation in the rural developmental strategies and need to emphasize more on needy people centric approach. The rural development programme should be uniform for all way that and reflect the inclusion of maximum needy people base for wider penetration. It must be empowered with the right of quality of life, employment, equal opportunity at right time. Coupled with the maximum development, it will help the rural people to survive and flourish in better way.
Through the study researcher has attempted to identify the prevailing rural development strategies of the government in term of better mechanism of governance in current scenario. Then discuss issues that may arise specific in rural areas with the help of different rural development scheme particularly MGNREGA scheme of the government in the Purnia district. At the same time the mode of governance has been changing. The focus is now shifting and become more people oriented. The relationship among administrative hierarchy who are involve in rural development process often seen as an important agent of development work.They are reluctant in adoptinginnovative way to provide more benefits to the needy people. In addition the prevailing rural development programmes emphasize more on developmental approach not on the basics of the people those who are beneficiary of the scheme. The rural programme usually concentrates on traditional approach of development.In fact the government should take more innovative steps towards the development of the rural masses through the welfare scheme. The machinery of governance at local level has continued to focus on to provide employment to the deprived sections of the rural area. The government and its implementing agencies from top to bottom havetried to regulate the different alternative channel by using a segmentedapproach and designing specific way of development and growth as a whole.
In the rural development arena, implementing agencies will need to increase efforts to design new and innovative process that could be more suitable for the overall
268
development of the rural people. There are huge untouched areas and segments in the rural development process, which needs to be explored by the governing body and develop the citizen centric strategies to meet the requirements of the rural people. The local level of implementing agencies will have a key role to play in providing better employment opportunity to the rural people. The Government spending on productivity-enhancing infrastructure has a more significant and lasting impact on poverty reduction than spending on subsidies. The Village-level connectivity has improved especially roads, electricity and communications. Yet results are not commensurate with expenditure of the government. The house hold level access is poor, especially for the most vulnerable section, and infrastructure assets are often of poor quality, incomplete, unusable or badly maintained. The Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) were envisaged to create more participatory, accountable and resource-efficient governance but they have not succeeded for several reasons like reluctant act of the local administrative bodies, procedural delay, wage payment problem etc. The States and specially Bihar need to allot more funds, support staff and functions as well as ensure regular revenue flows to PRIs. They must also clarify and assign responsibilities to avoid overlap with parallel agencies, and strengthen capacity building of PRIs at grass root level.The interference by local elites or strong holders and corruption could be addressed by increasing gram sabha awareness on participation rights of the local people, and social audits.
Further, the local level authorities need to make an effort to reduce complexity of the information about the welfare scheme. They should not only be limited to „handling‟ the few grievances but also try to offer long term qualitative service delivery in the future. It can be achieved by constantly taking proactive measures which will address the concerns of the rural people who have facedand grievances towards the services of the government. It can only be done if the government or implementing agencies take step beyond the regulatory requirements.Finally, the large section of the rural people is underserved and holds great promise from the government for reaching out maximum benefits to the people through the welfare scheme. To unleash this prospective, the government and its implementing body will need to show long-term commitment to the marginalizedsection or needy people.There is need to design more 269
compatible programme for rural people that are suitable for the maximum population, adopt traditional as well as innovative techniques and utilize appropriate distribution mechanisms for employment. The government will have to pay special attention to the different characteristics of the rural labour force, the prevalence of irregular income streams effective rural employment strategies before they can successfully penetrate and increase overall development for the betterment of livelihood.
The governing bodies need to address the changing developmental scenario by reinventing itself to a new generation of governance process with strategic vision. They should offer innovative and satisfactory employment to the labours with effective strategies. There is a crucial need to take initiatives to revamp developmental strategies of the government to reach out maximum benefits to the rural people. There is need to offer right employment to the right people at the right time with the help of effective strategies. There is still lot to be done in the area of rural development in India and particularly in the rural area of Purnia district. The rural development strategies can be more effective, when the implementing body want to satisfy maximum numbers of rural people with quality services and employment opportunity through the welfare policies of the central as well as state government. To sum up, one need to understand that the mechanism of governance is indefinable in nature and providing qualitative services to the rural people is the gateway of success of it.
The National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme has been taken as independent variable to check the effectiveness and efficiency of the governance mechanism. It has provided an average of 40-50 days of employment per year to about 25percent of all rural households making it the largest public works programme in thehistory of India.It is one of the most important and wider social security schemes of the central government. It attempts to provide employment and livelihood to rural labourers in the country. It is an effort to make inclusive and overall development a reality.It has helped to empower women by providing them employment on equal terms. The womenaccount for almost half of the total person days of employment under the Scheme.It has contributed to reduce poverty, both directly as well as indirectly, byputting upward strain on agricultural wages.The NREGA was passed as a labour law
270
and implemented across 200 districts in 2006. By 2008, it came to cover the entire country. It includes non-skilled work, making it one-of-its-kind across the world and ensures to provide 100 days (now 150 days) employment. It was later renamed the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA).The implementation of MGNREGA was left to the Gram Panchayats. According to government sources, since the inception of the scheme, the government of India has incurred a total expenditure of Rs 2,89,817.04 croresfor the scheme, thereby employing 68,26,921 workers on 2,61,942 worksites (data as of June 2015). The minimum wages initially determined were Rs. 100 a day but later revised in keeping with the state labour employment conventions. The minimum wages are now determined by the states and range between Rs. 163 in Bihar to Rs. 500 in Kerala. It has been at the receiving end of much criticism over the years. From being criticised for encouraging corruption to increasing inequality to being called an election card for the UPA – the scheme has been picked apart for a variety of reasons. Apart from causing a major financial drain on the country‟s resources, the actual benefits of the scheme do not reach the rural labourers detractors claim.But the programme has inadequate coverage amongst the needy people (despite their demandfor work) especially in those states like Bihar, Odisathat have a high numbers of poverty, possiblyreflecting weaker governance inthe states. Other issues that must be dealt withurgently are delays in providing work and in wage payments, and shortage of technically skilled staff.It holds considerably more potential which can be unlocked by ensuring thatgood quality assets are built. There is need of more active participation by the gram sabhawhich strengthens local government. The MGNREGS works are not leading to drought proofing, effective afforestation and land development because there is no proper monitoring, if these works are indeed being done and then maintained properly. Thus, employment can be the by-product of labour-intensive economic development programmes. Similarly for drought proofing and watershed or land development programmes, one needs to involve Gram Sabha, social workers, and professional as well as voluntary organizations to focus on building and maintaining the assets created. However, many studies show that there was hardly any effort to involve people in protection and maintenance of assets created under the
271
scheme.Richer states are doing better than poorer states in creating employment under the scheme. It makes no sense to run the programme in the labour scarce districts of Kerala, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and the north-east. On the other hand, the assets which are created under the scheme such as ponds, bunds, check dams and planted saplings being monitored for at least five years. Rural Connectivity (e.g., village kuchhaand soling roads, etc.) form about 19 per cent of total works under MGNREGS. These should be reduced and Water Conservation and Water Harvesting e.g., farm ponds, etc should be increased. The Central government has often got away with poor performance of the scheme by emphasizing that implementation is the responsibility of the states and it‟s implementing agencies at grass root level. The administrative problems associated with implementation are well known such as frequent transfer of key officials, lack of accountability, irregularities in identifying the actual beneficiaries, corruption related strategy and the very design of programmes are hardly questioned. Unfortunately, MGNREGS has a serious design flaw, besides being tarred by inappropriate policies and a total lack of outcome orientation.
An autonomous research institute under the Ministry of Finance has claimed that 50 percent of the MGNREGA beneficiaries "pay bribes" for payment of their wages. This is very shocking on the part of development of rural Bharat. There must be a provision to check corruption and pay bribe, grievance redressal mechanism, national as well as state level quality monitors.
6.2. Findings
The present study shows that the development of the rural area especially Purnia District of Bihar is the most important aspect of Governance aspeople centric approach. The rural people can be satisfied if the better opportunity of employment, delivery of services etc. providedto themforbetter livelihood.In terms of awareness about the rural schemes people are agreed to some extent with a view to accessibility of the scheme. The governance mechanismof the local level officesisnot better in this respect. The overall awareness about rural development is the most unsatisfied dimension of
272
governance. The MGNREGA is adopted for effective development of the rural areain terms of awareness of the scheme.Most of the rural people have shown their interest to adopt innovative technologies such use of machines for rural construction, and enabled them technology friendly.There ispositive relation between governance and rural development found in the rural area of Purnia district. So, the researcher has tried to establish more orientation towards the effective and efficient development. There is need of effective ways for more employment generation through the scheme of rural development in that area.The governmenthas adoptedvarious development programme but due to lack of legal effectiveness it seems to be unsatisfactory in its target.
For the proper functioning of the rural development programme it is observed that most of people are agreed on the function of the development programme. On the other hand at implementation level the functioning of the programme is not up to the mark of the people. This is only because of the malfunctioning the grass level administration in the discharge of development work.
In term of not proper functioning of the programme, the researcher has found that the people are usually not informing properly about the welfare scheme. Even in some place also found that reluctant act of the implementing officer, involvement of the local strong holder people in the management of the rural development programme. In term of wage payment it is also found that labours were unsatisfactory. Most of the people said that wage payment is lower for the livelihood. They can hardly manage their living stander on the in getting wage they have pay bribe too or commission to the involved person or authority.
In the dimension of the problem address by the government official at local level were also not up to the mark of the expectation of the people. Usually people are facing the problem in the enquiry of wage payment services like delay in getting information, evasion by the authority etc. The researcher also found that there is also no proper assurance about the employment under scheme run by the government.It is also found that that there is problem in identification of needy people too.
273
In regard to the upliftment in the quality of life with the help of the MGNREGA scheme, people are supporting it. But on the other hand in the discharging of the programme people are not unanimous. This is only because of the mismanagement or bad governance at local level administration. In addition, the overall scarcity rural employment with the help of this programme can‟t be solved. However, the programme has developed more option of employment generation the rural area. In terms of the effectiveness in providing social equity, accessibility to the rural people the MGNREGA programme is helpful. Due to some social biasness, it is not able to provide proper equality like caste, gender discriminationin the rural area. It is found that the participation of the women is also remarkable in this direction for employment. The social transformation is equally important; it is found that the people have shown their consent on the transformation of the rural area and this transformation can be possible through the proper utilization available workforce, fund utilization and wage distribution etc. It is also found that people were supporting the technology. The use of technology is not only the solution. It should be used in such a way that rural people can be user friendly the technology for the betterment of development.
With the rapid growth of social equality, it is also found that the MGNREGA programme is having potential of delivering quality of life for marginalized section of the society.It is also indicated that transparency,wage administration are giving them opportunity in pumping the development of the rural programme. Further, it was found that there are ample amount of fundsavailable for disbursement in the name of rural development and for wage distribution, but the distribution pattern of wage is so grubby that people are not able to maintain their minimum standard of life.
In terms of better governance the MGNREGA progarmme can be a success story of development, if the programme is implemented in the rural area specially in Purnia district properly. The governance mechanism is so complicated that each step of programme is not worthy full for the all employment seeker. It should be more vibrant in nature. In the matter of corruption at Block level officers are involved. There is need to spout them in discharging their duty. As the effectiveness is the key of governance, in terms of effective implementation it is found that the rural development programme
274
implanted only on the basis of their choice. The MGNREGA is demand driven programme for rural development but it is still fail to fulfill the required demand specially in rural area of Purnia District.
Keeping in view the responses of the rural people in regard to responsibility it is found that the local officers are always involve in the red tape activity. The responsibility is one of the factors to make rural programme a success. The officers are always showing unwillingness to discharge their responsible duty in term of developmental work in the rural area particularly in rural area of Purnia district. The inclusiveness and equity of the programme is indispensible part of development. In regard to the MGNREGA programme the researcher has found that inclusiveness is prime requisite for proper development. For the inclusive development equal and maximum part of the rural people must explore.
The rural development programme or any development programme is considered to be welfare programme for all. The strategic vision for any development is as important as inclusiveness, equality etc. The researcher has found that there is huge lack of strategic vision for the development. It is only fulfill their established pattern with any sustained future development. There must be simplicity in the nature of developmental approach, easily accessible, more people oriented.
In terms of transparency the researcher has found that the MGNREGA is not transparent specially in that area. The transparency can only be ensured through the regular audit of the running scheme. It is to make the more people orientated rather than complex in structure. There is need of basic awareness of the programme for rural development.
6.3. Suggestions:
To reach out the maximum benefits to the rural people, the government should take more constructive step to fulfill their demand of employment opportunity. Since the government is welfare in nature, so the government must be more citizen centric.
275
As the awareness level among the rural people about the welfare schemes are very squat, there must be periodical awareness programmes like Jan Sampark Abhiyan, seminars etc. at local level conductedby the government authority to establish better governance.
It is necessary to improve the level ofexisting process of development and to avoid delay in discharging the services to the rural people and local surveys should be conductedby the government at grass root level periodically.
Rural development programme is made for the welfare of the rural masses. Most of the programmes are not getting satisfactory level of success as per the expectation of the people. The reason of the failure as found in research that usually, at implementation level the Block level officers are showing reluctant act in discharging their duties. Even most of the programme which is sanctioned in the rural area (Purnia District) usually not running on the time that people can get maximum benefits of the scheme. On the other hand local strong holders are always intervening in the distribution process of the rural development programme. Ultimately, the needy people are unable to get benefits of the development programme.
There should be implementation of Multi-channel Model for distribution of rural programme by the government and must address the needs and actual demand of the rural people for maximum benefits of the schemes.
There should be a feedback provisionfrom the rural people in regard to the problem in getting the benefits of the development programme by the higher authority, at least at district level officers should be involve on regular basisand take action on issues positively.
There is need to understand the social and cultural causes in the implementation of the rural programmes. Generally, the government or the implementing agencies are failed to understand the social and cultural problems.
The government should reviewthe operational process of the running rural development programme and implement the „single window systems‟for the wage
276
employment to the rural labours, immediate settlement of problem faced by the rural people and everything that stands in the way of giving employment must be easy in process.
The Block level or local implementing agenciesneed to work in strategic way by providing them proper assistance for accessing more rural employment like work under Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), Self Help Group (SGH), Aangan Wadi etc.
The primary occupation of the rural people is depending upon the agriculture sector. There is need to focus this sector with rural development policy in such a way that it could be commercialized at primary level in general and particularly in the rural area of Purnia District.
Usually, the rural development policy is facing mismanagement in its implementation. It is only because of the mal-administration of the implementing agencies at grass root level. So there is need to make these agencies more public oriented through regular interaction between the needy people and officers at various level works for social welfare.
As the participation of the people in development is an indispensible part. The participation of the people is not more development oriented. Generally, it is just a formality performed by the government officials at grass root level. There must be a coordinated participation of the people in the development work as part of decision making process. For this people must be aware by government officials of District level particularly in that area of research.
There must be a parallel service delivery in the rural areas in term of development as well as employment generation by the government. If, there is a delay in the service delivery means mal governance or bad governance by the implementing agencies. To avoid this governing process the government or the higher authority should establish vigilance on the lower or implementing agencies through proper inspection of field of development.
277
After the research on the issue of the effectiveness of the governance for development the researcher has develop a possible model to strengthen the implementing agencies and to avoid the communication gap between the rural people and different level of agencies of the government. This model is named as Jan Sampark Sewa Kendra Model. This model could be a lowest form of decentralised government at village level unit.
Suchana Awem Jankari Kendra
Jan Yonjan Parshikhan Kendra Kendra
Figure No. 6.1:Jan Sampark Sewa Kendra Model 278
In the above model there are three junction of the communication between the rural people and the authority. At the centre of the Village Panchayat there will a SuchnaAwamJankari Kendra (Information and Knowledge Centre) headed by the Pardhan i.e. Chief of the Village and Sarpanch. It will be the duty of these representatives to inform the people about the development scheme. There will be a Jan Yojna Kendra (i.e. Policy and Programme Centre). At this point all the information related to policy and programme will be provided by the appointed officers at village level. There will also be a Parshikshan Kendra for Rural employment at village level (i.e. Training centre for rural employment). This centre will be helpful in getting employment through proper training about the rural development programme. Since at Block level the work load is overburdened and the dissemination of information is not easily provided to the rural people. They have to face many problems in seeking the information, wages etc. In this concern this model can a pro-people centre for them. Ultimately, it will helpful in better governance at grass root level.
The government is providing green job card under the scheme of MGNREGA to ensure the guaranteed job for all. It is needed to improve more and must follow the “Smart e- MGNREGA Card” given by the researcher. The objective of any welfare scheme is to proper utilization of the fund and development of the targeted area. This card will have all the information within a single chip about the employee to whom it will be issued. It will include name of employee, number of days worked, place of worked, wages provided under the scheme etc. It will be very helpful in reducing the corruption and exploitation of the employment seekers. Ultimately, it will also be helpful in establishing transparency, effectiveness for better governance.
279
Figure No. 6.2:smart e-MGNREGA card
6.4. Recommendations:
The overall motive of development is to improve the quality of life of rural people. It is a process leading to sustainable improvement in the quality of life of rural people, especially the poor people. The aim of rural developmental programmes is to reduce the poverty and unemployment in the rural areas and to fulfill the basic needs such as food, shelter and clothing of the rural people.To improve the conditions of rural people, Government launched various programmes and policies such as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), RastriyaSamaVikasYojana (RSVY), Indira AwasYojana (IAY), SampoornaGrameenRozgarYojana (SGRY), PradhanMantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) etc. The aim of these schemes is to reduce the gap between rural and urban people, which would help in reducingthe development imbalancesand speed up the development process in the rural area.
With a view of these the researcher has recommended some significant step to strengthen the rural development process and governing bodies.
I. Need to increase focus on amenities: The important persuade of rural development policy is conceived across country the value that society (both rural and urban) is giving to natural and cultural amenities. It is only the people in the place who are aware of both the threat to its survival and its
280
true developmental meaning. It is obvious that these amenities could be a resource of development. Thus, it could be a key pillar of area- based policies for rural development. In the way same, the rural area of Purnia District having ample amount of natural resources as well as cultural amenities in particular.
II. Need to effective implementation of Legislation:
As the policy and programme formulated by the legislation but not implemented properly cause of under development of the rural area. It shows the ineffectiveness of the governance at grass root level. It can only be protected through the effective implementation of legislation. There should be regular inspection by the higher authority at work site of development in rural area. The legislation should be more pro- people and pro-development. On other hand the State should more responsible in the legislative implementation on administrative ground. The Acts like National Rural EmploymentGuarantee Act, 2005, Provisionsof the Panchayats Extension of the Schedule Areas Act 1996 need to review on the part of pro-development approach.
III. Re-structuring of the local administrative agencies: The constitution does not stipulate any size for panchayat on the basis of population.The district and its administrative units are well designed across the country.The Blocks have grown into subsidiary governing units in the rural areas. But, the village Panchayat which is considered to be the lowest structure at grass root level and the most active part of local governance is of nascent origin. Its size becomes critical to its functioning.The States should ensure that as far as possible Village Panchayats should be of an appropriate size. It would be able to make it viable units of self-governance and also enable effective popular participation. There must be take an of account local geographical and demographic conditions of the rural areas. This would be helpful in establishing better governance.
281
IV. Financial regulation must be Public: The development of rural area or any other aspects depends upon the financial regulation. Financial ir-regulation is the only cause of corruption. To reduce or eliminate this practice the State agency must instruct the subordinate agencies to publicize the financial expenditure before the Public to make it more transparent.
V. Universalise the basic welfare Services to Standards: The development of the rural areas is the prime objective of the rural development programme formulated by the central as well as State government. The failure to providebetter services as per normsis one of the discriminatory demonstrationsof Governance. Therefore, these disparitiesresult in poorly provided services. Hence, universalization of the basic welfare services to standards among the people should be given top priorities in this area.
VI. Security for Livelihood in rural area: Rural development is having two objectives i.e. basic infrastructural development and livelihood of the rural people. It is to ensure the livelihood of the rural people with the help of various flagship progarmmes like MGNREGA, PGSY etc. it creates employment opportunity for all those who is needy of that. Today, MGNREGA is the most resourceful and accepted programme of the government for livelihood security. Therefore, it would be recommended that resource depleted area with involuntary migration be identified for saturation under the scheme as the first priority. It should be implemented as “Mission First Mode” for livelihood security.
6.5. Research Contributions This research has focused on the mechanism of governance and the rural development. This work has provided a theoretical and analytical understanding of complexities of governance in the functionaries of the development of the rural area. In the study, it has been focused on the level of development, its effectiveness, efficiency as well as the transparency of the implementing agencies. The researcher has developed
282
a model for better governance at the village level unit called Jan Sampark Sewa Kendra Model. This model could be helpful in establishing efficient, effective and transparent mechanism of governance at village level.
On the other hand the researcher has also suggested a Smart e-MGNREGA Card service for employment and collective information about the employment seeker in a single card. It will also be helpful to establish transparent flow of information about the employer and employee working under rural development programme.
During the research, many reasons were found behind the slow development of the rural areaswith ineffective and complicated governing procedure prevailing therein. To sort out the ineffectiveness and slow penetration of development in rural area model has been developed for the betterment of governance and ultimately the livelihood of the rural masses. It would also be helpful in reducing the level of corruption at village level.
6.6. Direction for Future Research
In India, still huge population residing in Villages. As MahtamaGnadhi Said “if the Village perish, India will perish too. It will be no more India. His one mission in the world will get lost” (Harijan, 29.28.1936). In this concern without proper development of the rural area a well developed nation cannot be imagined. The greatest happiness lies in the greatest number of well being of the people, therefore the socio-economic development and livelihood of the rural people must be on priority.
In the research study the focus is on the effectiveness of the mechanism of the governance and rural development. The study was confined on a single rural development programme i.e. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme to check the governance mechanism in the process of rural development. Henceforth, the result is not the representation of the whole development in the rural India. But it can be considered as the first step to highlight the inefficiency, ineffectiveness etc. of the governing agencies in term of development of rural areas.
283
Further study can be conducted considering other aspect of development with different mode of implementation and its impact on the development of the rural area.
The study can also be conducted with respect to the financial performance and it regulation, strategic vision for development etc.
More study can be done on macro level of economic status and livelihood of the people residing in rural area.
Further study can also be possible on single window rural development process for effective governance. Finally it can be studied also on the rural employee insurance through the rural development programme.
6.7. Epilogue
This study has been aimed at the governance mechanism and its effectiveness on rural development.The study has been conducted with the sole objective of knowing the reality of rural development in general and particularly in Purnia district of Bihar. To find out the consequences primary and secondary data and empirical method has been used. The study has provided valuable results and further scope for more improvements. Thus, thestudy has fulfilled its aims and objectives; and hence, is now completed.
284
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS:
Arora, R.K. (Ed.). (2001) People Centred Governance, Jaipur: Aaklesh Publication
Anwar, S. (Ed). (2005). Public Sector Governance and Accountancy Series Public Services Delivery, Washington, D.C: The World Bank.
Barthawal, C.P. (2003). Good Governance in India (p-70). New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publication.
Basu, (1985). Trends in Employment in Indian Agriculture, I.J.E. 42(4) pp. 537-560.
Baghael C.L. (2006), Good Governance Concept and Approaches p.231, New Delhi: Kanishka Publication.
Brautigam, D. (1991). Governance and Economy: A review (Vol.815). World Bank Publications.
Buchanan, J. M., &Tullock, G. (1965).The Calculus of Consent: Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy, (p. 312.).Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
Brayene, F.L. (1946), Better Villages, (p.268). Bombay: Oxford University Press.
Barten, F.M, Espinoza, E. RP., & Morales, C (2002).Democratic Governance - Fairytale or Real Perspective? Lessons from Central America ', Environment and Urbanization, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 129-44.
Brown, O. (2007). Promoting 'Good' Governance through Trade and Aid: Instruments of Coercion or Vehicles of Communication? In O Brown, M Halle, SP Moreno & S Winkler, Trade, Aid and Security: An Agenda for Peace and Development (Eds., pp. 72-91). London: IISD Earthscan.
Chaturvedi S. K. & Sharma, S. (Ed.). (2005) Facets of Good Governance. New Delhi: Publisher Originals.
i
Chakarbarty, B., & Bhattacharya, M. (Ed.). (2008). The Governance Discourse: A Reader (pp. 1-2). New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Castells, M. (2000).The Rise of the Network Society (Vol.I, pp. 1-2). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Chambers, R. (2004) Ideas for Development. IDS Working Paper 238. Sussex: IDS.
Chadurvedi, P. (1997). Food Security and Panchayati Raj. (p.11). New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
Dhadave, M.S. (Ed.). (1996), Rural and Urban Studies in India, Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
Dr. Minimol, M. C. (2007), E-Governance and Rural Self Government.New Delhi:Sonali Publications.
Dr. Reddy, P.L. S. & Prof. Rajesh S.(Ed.).(2006).Good Governance –Case studies in Administrative Innovations. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers Distributers.
Devi, (1986). Quality, quantity and spatial variation of prices, , 78(3) pp. 413-430.
Desai, I.A. &Chaudhri, B.L., (1977).History of Rural Development in Modern India, (Vol. II, p.161), New Delhi: Impex India.
Despande, V. (1985), Struggle of the Deprived for Development: Adivasis of Thane, p.14, Pune: DastaneRamchandra Co.
Dey, S.K.(1986). Panchayati Raj in Independent India: Some Personal Reflections. In George Mathew (Ed.) Panchayati Raj in Karnataka Today: Its National Dimensions, p.35. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
Datta, P. (1998).Major Issues in the Development Debate: Lessons in Empowerment from India, (p.11). New Delhi:Kanishka Publishers.
Elliot, C. (Ed.). (2003). Civil Society and Democracy: A Reader. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
ii
Frederickson H, G. (1999). John Gaus Lecture. In Repositioning of American Public Administration (p. 5).Mimeo.
19. Friedman, M. (1962). Capitalism and Freedom.In N.K. Singh, & N. Stern, (Ed.). (2013). The New Bihar,(p.164) New Delhi: Harper Collins Publication
Guhan (1986).Measurement of Poverty, pp. 258-309.
Gore, C. (2000). The rise and fall of the Washington Consensus as a paradigm for developing countries.World development, 28(5), 789-804.
Ghosh, R. &Pramanik, A.K. (1999) Panchayat system in India: Historical, Constitutionaland Financial Analyses, (p.33-34). , New Delhi: KanishkaPublishers.
Gulathi, I.S. (et al). (1996). PanchayatVikasanaSahayi(Malayalam),(p.11). Thiruvaninthapuram: Kerala ShastraSahityaParishad.
Hirst, P (2000). 'Democracy and Governance', In J Pierre (Ed.), Debating Governance, (p.p. 13-35.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Haldipur, R.N. (I981). On Remodeling Panchayati Raj, In T.N.Chadurvedi (Ed., p. 166.), PanchayatiRaj. New Delhi: Indian Institute of Public Administration.
Iyyar, R.K. (2007). Global Governance. New Delhi: Mahaveer& Sons Publication.
Judge (1989).The Household trap, Vikas Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 1175-78.
Khera S.S. (1964), District Administration in India. Bombay: Asia Publishing House.
Keraudren, P., &Mierlo, V. H. (1998).Theories of public management reform and their practical implications. In Innovations in public management: perspectives from East and West Europe by Tony Verheijen and David Coombes, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Kothari, R. (1988). State Against Democracy: In Search of Humane Governance, (p. 88). New Delhi: Ajanta Publications.
iii
Leftwich, A. (1993). Governance, democracy and development in the Third World. Third World Quarterly, 14(3), 605-624.
Lele, U. (1975). Design of Rural Development: Lessons from Africa. (p.2). London: The Johns Hopkin University Press.
Moni M. (Ed).(2009). Rural India Achieving Millennium Development Goals and Grassroots Development, pp231-232, New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
Murthy, N. (Et al).(Ed).(1988). Two Approaches to Rural Development: Case Study of Sewa and Mahiti,(pp.283-309).Asian Seminar on Rural Development - The Indian Experience, New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.
Maheshwari, S.(1985). Measurement of General Cost of Living, November.
Manrai S. (1986). Housing Demand in Developing Countries, World Bank Staff working paper, no. 733, World Bank: Washington.
Murari (1988).On the quality of Indian consumption, Ahmedabad.
Michalski, W., Miller, R., & Stevens, B. (2001). Governance in the 21stCentury: Power in the Global Knowledge Economy and Society. In Governance in the 21st Century: Future Studies (p. 9). London: OECD.
Minogue. M, Polidano. C. & Hume.D. (1998). 'Introduction: the Analysis of Public Management and Governance', In M. Minogue, C. Polidano& D. Hume (Eds.), Beyond the New Public Management: Changing Ideas and Practices in Governance (pp. 1-14.). Cheltenham:Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.
Mishra. B.B.(1983). District Administration in India and Rural Development.(p. vi). Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Maheshwari, S. (1995).Rural Development India: A Public Policy Approach, (p.14). New Delhi: Sage Publication.
Mohanlal, G. M. (1994). Rajiv Gandhi and Panhayati Raj: Democracy and Development at the Grassroots. (p.9.). New Delhi: Konark Publishers.
iv
Mukherji, A.&Mukherji, Anjan (2012) 'Bihar: What Went Wrong? And What Changed?' NIPFP Working Paper No. 2012-10. In N.K. Singh, & N. Stern, (Ed.). (2013). The New Bihar, New Delhi: Harper Collins Publication.
Nagarjuna (1987).Household Income and Its disposition, New Delhi.
Niranjan, P. (1979). The Politics of Panchayati Raj Administration: A Study Official and Non-official Relations, New Delhi: Concept publications.
Prasad, R. (2003). Perspectives on Democratic Decentralized Governance for Rural Development in Mizoram.In Good Governance Initiatives in India (p. 127). New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited.
Pradeep, S. &Uma, M. (Ed.). (2003)Governance for Development: Issues and strategies. New Delhi:Publication, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
Paranjape, P.V. (1984). Grass-Roots Self-Reliance in ShramikSanghatana, Dulia District India, In Md. AnisurRahman, (Ed), Grass-Roots Participation and Self- reliance:Experiences in South and South-East Asia - A study prepared for the International Labour Office within the framework of the World Employment Programme, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co, in collaboration with Society for Participatory, Research in Asia, New Delhi
Putnam, R. (1993). Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Pierre, J. (2000). 'Introduction: Understanding Governance', In Pierre, J.(Ed.), Debating governance: Authority, steering, and democracy, (pp.1-10.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Prasad, B.K. (2004). Rural Development and Village Democracy. (vol-I,. pp. 10-15). New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt.Ltd.
Pareck, U. (1982).Education and Rural Development in Asia, (Ed. p.1-5) New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
v
Prakash, C. (1990). Indian Government and Politics, p.278. New Delhi: Cosmos Bookhive.
Rhodes, R. (1999). Governance and Public Administration.In Debating Governance. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ramabai, B. (1959), The Silent Revolution, p.10. Delhi: JiwanPrakashan.
Rajput, R.S. &Meghe, D.R. (Eds.). (1984),.Panchayati Raj in India: Democracy at Grassroots, p.24. New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publications.
Rangarajan, L. N. (Ed.). (1992) Kautilya’sArthashastra, (p.116) New Delhi: Penguin Books,.
Srivastava, A.K.(1986 ). Integrated Rural development Progarmme in India (p-68). New Delhi: Deep and Deep Publication.
Srinivas, M.N., (Ed.). (1993), India's Villages, Bombay: Media Promoters & Publishers.
Sharma M. (1985). The Politics of In-equality, Competition and Control in an Indian Village, Honolulu: University of Howaii.
Singh (1987).Poverty and Social change: With a Reappraisal, Orient Longmans. New Delhi,
Salskov-Iversen, D., Krause Hansen, H., &Bislev, S. (2000). 'Governmentality, Globalization and Local Practice: Transformation of a Hegemonic Discourse', Alternatives: Social Transformation and Human Governance (25th ed., Vol. 2, p. 186).
Sitaramayya, P. (1935), the History of the Indian National Congress (1885-1935) Allahabad, (1342), Working Committee of the Congress.
Suresh, V. (Ed.).(1999). Dynamics of Rural Development.(Vol.1, p.197) Delhi: Dominant Publishers.
vi
Sharan, P. (1978).Modern Public, Administration. (pp. 296-299). New Delhi: MeenakshiPrakashan.
Sivalinga V. P. (1981).Panchayats and Development. (p.95.). New Delhi: Light and Life Publishers.
Singh, U.B. (1997). Urban Local Government, (p.25). New Delhi: Rawat Publications
Singh, N.K. & Stern, N. (Ed.). (2013). The New Bihar, New Delhi: Harper Collins Publication.
Tewari, R.T. &Sinha R.C., (1988).Rural Development in India, p.1-2, New Delhi: Ashish publishing House.
Vayunandan, E., & Mathew, D. (Eds.). (2003). Good Governance Initiative in India (p. 7). New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited.
Vittal N. (2002), Ideas for action, New Delhi: Macmillan India Ltd.
Vasant, D. (2010). Rural Development in India Past, Present, Future A challenge in the Crisis, New Delhi: Himalya Publication.
Yatish, M. (2002), Empowering People - Grassroots Organizations and Rural Development. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers& Distributors.
JOURNALS:
Journal of International Development and Cooperation
International Journal of Application or Innovation in Engineering &Management
American Economic Review
American Political Science Review
Social Change, (Vol. II)
International Journal of Public Administration, 27(13 &14)
vii
Economic and Political Weekly
Econometrica
Yojana
Indian Journal of Public Administration
Indian Journal of Political Science
International Journal of Public Sector Management
Kurushetra
Rural Sociology
ARTICLES:
Islam, M. T., & Fujita, K. (2012). Dimension of Decentralization Process and Rural Local Government in India: A Comparison with Bangladesh. Kyoto Working Papers on Area Studies No. 130.
Subbarao K. (1989). Improving nutrition in India programmes and policies and their impact, the World Bank discussion, paper – 49.
REPORT:
OECD (1991)
UNICIRD (1989)
World Development Report (1992)
UNDP, (1997)
Economic-Survey-2014-15
MGNREGA Sameeksha
World Bank
viii
National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO)
NEWS PAPERS:
Times of India
The Hindu
The Business Economic
The Indian Express
WEBSITE: http://www.ijaiem.org http://planning.bih.nic.in http://www.undp.org www.indianjournals.com www.biharpanchayat.gov.in http://www.panchayat.gov.in http://finance.bih.nic.in http://www.censusindia.gov.in http://purnea.bih.nic.in http://www.cag.gov.in www.ilo.org
ix
CHAPTER - III
APPENDIXES
Table No. 1 (Appendix),Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) and Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) of Bihar at Factor Cost
GSDP NSDP Per Capita (Rs. Crore) (Rs. Crore) GSDP(Rs)
At At
current At constant At current At constant At current constant Year prices (2004-05) prices (2004-05) prices (2004-
prices prices 05) prices 2004-05 77781 77781 70167 70167 8773 8773 2005-06 82490 76466 74144 68419 9149 8481 2006-07 100737 88840 91331 80260 10994 9695 2007-08 113680 93774 102853 84415 12215 10076 2008-09 142279 107412 129690 97284 15060 11369 2009-10 162923 113158 148151 101938 16998 11806 2010-11 203555 130171 185745 117503 20944 13393 2011-12 243269 143560 222442 129521 24696 14574 2012-13(P) 296153 158971 271439 143312 29679 15931 2013-14(Q) 343054 174734 315529 158117 33954 17294 CAGR 18.9 10.1 19.2 10.1 17.2 8.5 Source:Directorate of Economics and Statistics, GOB Note: P – Provisional, Q – Quick
Table No. 2 (Appendix),Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of Bihar at Factor Cost (Current Prices) (Rs. crore)
No. 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 CAGR Sector Agriculture/Animal 1. 20673 20827 27148 27049 36660 15.1 Husbandry 2. Fishing 1132 1164 1317 1442 2352 18.2 3. Mining/Quarrying 42 97 74 78 143 24.9 Sub-Total (Primary) 21572 21883 29643 29681 38369 13.2 Manufacturing 4379 4256 4856 6429 8363 18.6 4.1 Registered 1123 643 550 1385 3050 31.9 4. 4.2 Un-registered 3256 3613 4306 5044 5313 14.0 5. Construction 5138 6649 8992 11557 14497 30.0 Electricity / Water Supply / 6. 1146 1162 1137 1391 1460 6.9 Gas Sub-Total (Secondary) 10664 12067 14985 19378 24320 23.6 7. Banking / Insurance 2586 2731 3192 3526 3953 11.7
i
Real Estate/ Ownership of Dwelling/Business 8. 4041 4778 5770 6844 7954 18.7 Services
Sub-Total (7&8) 6626 7509 8962 10369 11906 16.1 9. Public Administration 5179 5471 5846 6376 8556 12.3 10. Other Services 9842 11383 12615 13900 16279 12.8 Sub-Total (Tertiary) 42545 45540 54109 62621 75590 15.8 Total GSDP 77781 82490 100737 113680 142279 16.5 11. Per Capita GSDP 8773 9149 10994 12215 15060 14.7 Contd……
S. 2009- 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 CAGR No. Sector 10 Agriculture/Animal 1. 35475 47415 57981 72627 66419 18.3 Husbandry 2. Fishing 2436 2366 3244 3953 5171 22.4 3. Mining/Quarrying 122 120 116 117 117 -1.1 Sub-Total (Primary) 38033 49901 63094 76697 71707 15.7 Manufacturing 8281 11046 10818 11752 12751 9.7 4.1 Registered 2593 4718 4092 4469 4763 12.3 4. 4.2 Un-registered 5688 6328 6726 7282 7988 8.5 5. Construction 19003 27590 32049 34815 43158 20.6 Electricity / Water Supply / 6. 1365 1661 2539 2917 3452 27.4 Gas Sub-Total (Secondary) 28649 40297 45405 49484 59361 18.1 7. Banking / Insurance 4935 6363 7672 9434 11600 23.4 Real Estate/ Ownership of Dwelling/Business 8. 9945 12440 14922 17563 20779 19.9 Services
Sub-Total (7&8) 14880 18803 22594 26997 32379 21.1 9. Public Administration 10111 12040 13598 16821 19844 18.3 10. Other Services 20226 22413 26704 33412 42897 21.0 Sub-Total (Tertiary) 92999 109858 132770 166014 207810 22.4 Total GSDP 162923 203555 243269 296153 343054 20.5 11. Per Capita GSDP 16998 20944 24696 29679 33954 18.9 Source:Directorate of Economics and Statistics, GOB Note: Data of 2012-13 is Provisional Estimates and 2013-14 Quick Estimates
ii
Tables No.3 (Appendix),Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of Bihar at Factor Cost (2004-05 Prices) (Rs. crore) No. 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 CAGR Sector
Agriculture/Animal 1. 20673 17875 23338 21290 25983 6.5 Husbandry 2. Fishing 1132 1183 1105 1188 1273 2.4 3. Mining/Quarrying 42 70 58 57 126 22.0 Sub-Total (Primary) 21874 19128 3501 22535 27382 5.5 Manufacturing 4379 4104 4368 5446 6535 11.4 4.1 Registered 1123 622 516 1154 2262 22.4 4. 4.2 Un-registered 3256 3482 3852 4291 4273 7.8 5. Construction 5138 6371 7959 9442 10746 20.6 Electricity / Water Supply / 6. 1146 3 1188. 1247 1341 1466 6 Gas Sub-Total (Secondary) 10664 11664 13574 16229 18748 15.7 7. Banking / Insurance 2586 2941 3513 3915 4205 13.4 Real Estate/ Ownership of Dwelling/Business 8. 4041 4402 4818 5269 5788 9.4 Services
Sub-Total (7&8) 6626 7342 8331 9184 9994 11.0 9. Public Administration 5179 5107 5153 5284 6525 5.1 10. Other Services 9842 10594 10870 11179 12059 4.7 Sub-Total (Tertiary) 42545 43003 48153 52453 58771 8.8 Total GSDP 77781 76466 88840 93774 107412 8.9 11. Per Capita GSDP 8773 8481 9695 10076 11369 7.2 Contd……
No. 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 CAGR Sector
Agriculture/Animal 1. 21987 26365 29931 32694 28908 7.9 Husbandry 2. Fishing 1259 1223 1458 1694 1830 11.3 3. Mining/Quarrying 92 93 104 92 92 -0.1 Sub-Total (Primary) 23338 27681 31493 34480 30830 6.3 Manufacturing 6270 7698 6990 7117 7377 2.5 4.1 Registered 1931 3150 2501 2534 2554 3.5 4. 4.2 Un-registered 4339 4548 4489 4583 4822 2.2 5. Construction 13511 18156 19573 19597 22464 11.6 Electricity / Water Supply / 6. 1657 1706 1849 1981 2173 7.2 Gas Sub-Total (Secondary) 21438 27560 28412 28695 32013 8.8 7. Banking / Insurance 5266 6304 7316 8816 10624 19.0 Real Estate/ Ownership of Dwelling/Business 8. 6343 6834 7517 8302 9209 9.9 Services
iii
Sub-Total (7&8) 11608 13138 14833 17118 19832 14.3 9. Public Administration 6872 7492 7743 8100 9731 8.0 10. Other Services 13294 13530 14943 17145 20244 11.4 Sub-Total (Tertiary) 65920 72517 81290 93476 109613 13.6 Total GSDP 113158 130171 143560 158971 174734 11.3 11. Per Capita GSDP 11806 13393 14574 15931 17294 9.8 Source:Directorate of Economics and Statistics, GOB Note: Data of 2012-13 is Provisional Estimates and 2013-14 Quick Estimates
Tables No. 4 (Appendix),Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) of Bihar at Factor Cost (Current Prices) No. 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 CAGR Sector
Agriculture/Animal 1. 18623 18575 24607 24116 33268 15.3 Husbandry 2. Fishing 990 1022 1152 1249 2022 17.7 3. Mining/Quarrying 35 79 59 62 114 23.7 Sub-Total (Primary) 19648 19676 25818 25427 35404 13.7 Manufacturing 3437 3292 3822 5350 7255 21.9 4.1 Registered 609 160 62 889 2603 58.8 4. 4.2 Un-registered 2828 3132 3760 4460 4652 14.4 5. Construction 4906 6349 8561 10986 13767 29.8 Electricity / Water Supply / 6. 652 645 613 739 773 4.9 Gas Sub-Total (Secondary) 8996 10285 12996 17074 21795 25.6 7. Banking / Insurance 2541 2682 3136 3467 3890 11.7 Real Estate/ Ownership of Dwelling/Business 8. 2470 3004 3713 4419 5015 19.8 Services
Sub-Total (7&8) 5010 5687 6849 7886 8905 15.9 9. Public Administration 4196 4423 4713 5118 7170 12.9 10. Other Services 9637 11133 12312 13536 15931 12.8 Sub-Total (Tertiary) 38835 41424 49452 57280 69318 16.0 Total GSDP 70167 74144 91331 102853 129690 16.8 11. Per Capita GSDP 7914 8223 9967 11051 13728 15.0 Contd……
No. 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 CAGR Sector
Agriculture/Animal 1. 31426 42365 52480 65987 60348 19.1 Husbandry 2. Fishing 2070 2018 2730 3350 4382 22.2 3. Mining/Quarrying 94 97 93 91 91 -1.4 Sub-Total (Primary) 33590 44480 55303 70248 64821 17.3 Manufacturing 6893 9506 8971 9529 10352 8.5 4.1 Registered 1959 3998 3150 3196 3405 9.2 4. 4.2 Un-registered 4934 5508 5821 6333 6947 8.6 iv
5. Construction 18008 26148 30366 32802 40664 20.4 Electricity / Water 6. 760 923 1262 1462 1730 23.4 Supply / Gas Sub-Total (Secondary) 25661 36577 40599 43793 52746 17.6 7. Banking / Insurance 4858 6271 7568 9305 11442 23.5 Real Estate/ Ownership of Dwelling/Business 8. 6519 8376 10349 12269 14515 21.9 Services
Sub-Total (7&8) 11376 14646 17917 21573 25956 22.6 9. Public Administration 8519 10114 11417 14099 16632 18.2 10. Other Services 19784 21920 26028 32715 42003 21.0 Sub-Total (Tertiary) 85701 101231 122831 154305 193835 22.8 Total GSDP 148151 185745 222442 271439 315529 20.8 11. Per Capita GSDP 15457 19111 22582 27202 31229 19.2 Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, GOB Note: Data of 2012-13 is Provisional Estimates and 2013-14 Quick Estimates
Tables No. 5 (Appendix),Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) of Bihar at Factor Cost (2004-05 Prices) (Rs. crore)
No. 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 CAGR Sector
Agriculture/Animal 1. 18623 15713 21044 18781 23294 6.5 Husbandry 2. Fishing 990 1046 950 1015 998 -0.1 3. Mining/Quarrying 35 53 44 43 102 21.5 Sub-Total (Primary) 19648 16812 22038 19839 24394 4.2 Manufacturing 3437 3176 3411 4479 5589 14.1 4.1 Registered 609 154 59 703 1876 45.7 4. 4.2 Un-registered 2828 3021 3352 3776 3713 8.0 5. Construction 4906 6081 7555 8922 10115 20.1 Electricity / Water Supply / 6. 652 692 768 766 892 7.5 Gas Sub-Total (Secondary) 8996 9949 11733 14166 16595 17.1 7. Banking / Insurance 2541 2894 3462 3862 4151 13.6 Real Estate/ Ownership of Dwelling/Business 8. 2470 2685 2971 3259 3556 9.7 Services
Sub-Total (7&8) 5010 5579 6432 7121 7708 11.7 9. Public Administration 4196 4098 4115 4183 5391 5.4 10. Other Services 9637 10353 10591 10857 11769 4.6 Sub-Total (Tertiary) 38835 39022 43911 47885 53816 9.0 Total GSDP 70167 68419 80260 84415 97284 9.0 11. Per Capita GSDP 7914 7588 8759 9070 10297 7.3 (Contd…)
Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) of Bihar at Factor Cost (2004-05 Prices) (Contd…) (Rs. crore)
v
No. 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 CAGR Sector
Agriculture/Animal 1. 19087 23045 26533 28901 25555 8.4 Husbandry 2. Fishing 966 957 1096 1294 1398 11.0 3. Mining/Quarrying 69 76 88 74 74 1.2 Sub-Total (Primary) 20122 24078 27717 30269 27027 7.5 Manufacturing 5121 6471 5577 5474 5690 0.4 4.1 Registered 1400 2567 1768 1581 1593 -2.2 4. 4.2 Un-registered 3721 3904 3809 3894 4097 1.9 5. Construction 12685 17005 18283 18114 20765 11.1 Electricity / Water Supply / 6. 1182 1155 942 994 1090 -3.1 Gas Sub-Total (Secondary) 18988 24630 24803 24583 27545 7.7 7. Banking / Insurance 5201 6231 7236 8721 10510 19.0 Real Estate/ Ownership of Dwelling/Business 8. 3850 4079 4633 5187 5754 11.0 Services
Sub-Total (7&8) 9052 10309 11869 13909 16263 15.9 9. Public Administration 5669 6140 6303 6434 7730 6.9 10. Other Services 12940 13153 14453 16664 19676 11.3 Sub-Total (Tertiary) 60395 66408 74664 86164 101292 13.8 Total GSDP 101938 117503 129521 143312 158117 11.4 11. Per Capita GSDP 10635 12090 13149 14362 15650 9.9
Table No. 6 (Appendix). District-wise Progress under MGNREGS
Percentage share of SC Percentage of No. of households households among households with issued job cards (lakh) households with job cards demanding District job cards employment 2013- 2012-13 2012-13 2013-14 2012-13 2013-14 14 Patna 5.59 5.40 46.07 42.60 10.69 14.43 Nalanda 3.98 4.08 46.84 46.00 15.2 13.00 Bhojpur 3.24 3.43 48.47 44.94 25.16 19.96 Buxar 2.41 2.36 20.65 28.54 16.43 19.61 Rohtas 3.7 3.78 49.24 48.95 21.54 19.94 Kaimur 2.2 2.10 46.69 43.97 16.78 18.52
Gaya 5.38 5.98 65.09 66.00 24.74 21.07 Jehanabad 1.33 1.22 43.37 43.80 26.91 18.84 Arwal 0.95 0.96 41.59 41.55 10.99 15.06 Nawada 3.2 3.36 61.09 29.60 19.73 23.76 Aurangabad 3.24 3.15 57.35 42.24 19.09 22.28
W.Champaran 4 4.38 38.1 35.01 40.64 34.57 E. Champaran 5.88 6.23 18.45 19.50 18.26 14.83 Muzaffarpur 6.4 6.50 52 24.11 24.3 12.82 Sitamarhi 4.21 4.30 36.6 35.95 11.22 22.48 Sheohar 0.88 0.87 25.4 22.31 40.32 25.10 vi
Vaishali 5.05 5.24 50.5 46.63 10.44 8.58 Saran 4.76 4.76 48.61 48.61 13.8 17.01 Siwan 3.72 4.10 14.87 25.95 10.27 9.65 Gopalganj 3.22 3.40 21.33 20.56 11.91 19.37
Darbhanga 4.78 4.67 38.27 30.42 9.59 9.91 Madhubani 6.91 5.39 40.64 23.88 14.76 14.67 Samastipur 5.46 5.33 51.81 49.46 10.65 9.79
Begusarai 3.11 3.11 22.29 23.92 14.8 19.40 Munger 1.82 1.81 22.88 19.26 11.23 8.27 Sheikhpura 0.95 0.96 49.59 47.28 21.21 23.49 Lakhisarai 1.47 1.45 32.87 24.25 21.29 16.21 Jamui 2.37 2.44 31.92 31.54 23.23 26.30 Khagaria 2.24 2.02 35.98 33.07 11.44 15.28
Bhagalpur 3.62 3.62 23.28 23.31 17.34 12.75 Banka 3.01 3.01 26.27 26.27 26.43 20.90
Saharsa 2.98 3.09 23.71 23.58 27.21 22.59 Supaul 3.14 2.90 30.31 25.16 14.75 17.50 Madhepura 3 3.02 58.63 27.44 31.69 20.39
Purnea 4.32 4.49 30.22 23.65 26.11 20.81 Kishanganj 2.62 2.52 11.86 12.52 12.89 15.62 Araria 4.34 4.41 29.48 29.68 16.83 12.43 Katihar 3.98 2.98 23.00 15.96 28.71 35.73
Bihar 133.49 133.83 38.52 33.53 18.5 17.67 (Contd…)
Household getting 100 Percentage Persondays of days of employment share of women in employment District as percentage those total employment generated (lakh) obtaining employment generated 2012-13 2013-14 2012-13 2013-14 2012-13 2013-14 Patna 8.32 3.21 28.57 28.243 33.78 35.08 Nalanda 10.71 9.45 24.83 25.19 35.41 39.18 Bhojpur 2.26 2.19 21.77 13.77 24.99 25.75 Buxar 8.48 6.63 17.18 19.83 5.03 18.45 Rohtas 3.88 1.78 25.44 23.86 13.35 19.03 Kaimur 8.76 7.70 14.94 18.25 17.15 19.54
Gaya 5.73 7.54 80.15 73.75 35.00 39.46 Jehanabad 5.41 5.50 11.96 8.03 33.95 37.98 Arwal 2.26 4.79 5.38 4.95 30.11 33.94 Nawada 1.15 1.94 20.36 22.43 4 28.70 41.9 Aurangabad 5.93 9.47 34.55 28.23 30.01 25.61
W.Champaran 15.19 4.17 51.89 39.34 24.65 30.96 E. Champaran 32.27 6.16 82.00 40.99 27.30 32.35 Muzaffarpur 4.01 4.67 45.03 32.44 31.65 33.69 Sitamarhi 0.78 4.91 14.25 26.54 33.62 34.09 Sheohar 8.80 3.84 15.25 8.66 40.95 63.34 Vaishali 7.43 6.75 25.15 17.05 17.30 32.32 vii
Saran 6.17 7.87 30.21 31.82 18.25 22.17 Siwan 7.05 5.07 21.37 15.95 18.48 21.87 Gopalganj 10.99 8.54 19.92 26.77 25.72 31.41
Darbhanga 3.46 0.84 31.43 14.69 39.18 41.29 Madhubani 2.33 2.54 31.14 18.82 36.61 40.63 Samastipur 0.74 3.82 16.74 25.36 31.10 37.83
Begusarai 7.50 4.30 21.66 21.88 49.79 56.90 Munger 4.74 1.26 7.88 3.74 29.80 27.31 Sheikhpura 3.49 4.31 8.72 9.48 36.97 40.98 Lakhisarai 4.51 5.12 12.16 9.04 37.78 38.20 Jamui 5.53 9.19 24.09 31.77 38.44 39.28 Khagaria 1.73 2.16 8.50 10.22 39.04 41.85
Bhagalpur 7.94 7.27 27.80 18.78 27.60 28.23 Banka 2.68 5.53 22.64 21.74 31.43 35.30
Saharsa 0.75 1.52 22.08 22.04 34.14 47.18 Supaul 3.38 4.03 14.77 17.81 35.74 36.26 Madhepura 2.08 9.38 20.56 24.13 32.98 32.99
Purnea 2.35 1.85 37.33 27.11 29.71 35.89 Kishanganj 4.62 3.22 13.88 14.81 26.10 27.85 Araria 5.17 2.83 27.93 16.99 23.37 27.46 Katihar 2.06 2.28 25.91 31.15 41.99 39.74
Bihar 6.36 4.82 965.41 845.69 29.93 34.35 Source: Department of Rural Development, GOB
Table No. 7 (Appendix).District-wise Financial Progress under MGNREGS 2012-13 2013-14 Fund Fund Fund District Fund utilised Percentage Percentage available available utilised (Rs. lakh) of utilisation of utilisation (Rs. lakh) (Rs. lakh) (Rs. lakh) Patna 8483.48 7202.50 84.90 11383.77 10090.12 88.64 Nalanda 7079.36 6105.99 86.25 6222.95 5178.18 83.21 Bhojpur 5825.38 4479.08 76.89 4900.92 3896.17 79.50 Buxar 4578.28 4188.07 91.48 6199.22 5939.90 95.82 Rohtas 6343.87 5788.42 91.24 6264.81 5849.76 93.37 Kaimur 3396.66 2909.07 85.65 4624.53 4069.94 88.01
Gaya 16975.38 13884.31 81.79 12914.77 10424.79 80.72 Jehanabad 3034.63 2590.51 85.36 2361.52 2039.59 86.37 Arwal 1158.17 996.37 86.03 873.74 815.62 93.35 Nawada 4545.27 4254.13 93.59 6117.59 5846.19 95.56 Aurangabad 7783.19 6892.84 88.56 7981.48 6813.12 85.36
W.Champaran 10613.48 9324.19 87.85 10524.06 9226.41 87.67 E. Champaran 15187.15 13068.54 86.05 13160.41 12350.22 93.84 Muzaffarpur 14405.87 8427.26 58.50 10227.85 7792.41 76.19 Sitamarhi 3899.43 2681.58 68.77 5342.56 4439.64 83.10 Sheohar 3667.29 3120.50 85.09 3015.41 2349.05 77.90 Vaishali 6773.51 6048.59 89.30 5534.74 4420.06 79.86 Saran 7503.52 6792.58 90.53 8250.26 8240.94 99.89 viii
Siwan 5277.10 4172.42 79.07 5655.19 4249.63 75.15 Gopalganj 4204.58 3264.85 77.65 5932.23 5321.54 89.71
Darbhanga 8797.67 7275.67 82.70 5436.09 4050.27 74.51 Madhubani 7766.45 6724.60 86.59 6816.21 5090.51 74.68 Samastipur 6809.46 5092.79 74.79 7757.89 6768.82 87.25
Begusarai 5777.86 4468.88 77.34 7034.22 5751.38 81.76 Munger 1734.37 1317.25 75.95 1547.37 1174.54 75.91 Sheikhpura 1887.53 1749.01 92.66 2367.41 2165.16 91.46 Lakhisarai 3512.66 3191.08 90.85 3351.77 2899.95 86.52 Jamui 4707.88 4447.80 92 94.48. 6454.65 6255. 58 96 Khagaria 2163.46 1841.44 85.12 3005.33 2652.17 88.25
Bhagalpur 6524.64 5610.46 85.99 5490.85 5574.22 101.52 Banka 5475.93 5172.93 94.47 6191.14 5928.51 95.76
Saharsa 3565.13 3067.65 86.05 4311.93 3694.28 85.68 Supaul 5632.62 3670.69 65.17 3748.92 3368.83 89.86 Madhepura 6115.52 4243.05 69.38 5785.55 5384.31 93.06
Purnea 8484.52 7672.57 90.43 7910.03 6975.23 88.18 Kishanganj 3316.94 2848.86 85.89 4751.56 4239.97 89.23 Araria 7546.42 5958.42 78.96 5666.65 3971.22 70.08 Katihar 7213.31 6567.94 91.05 9306.69 8550.24 91.87
Bihar 237767.96 197112.88 82.90 234422.26 203848.492 86.96 Source: Department of Rural Development, GOB
Table No. 8 (Appendix),Overview of IAY (2013-14) IAY Components IAY (New) IAY IAY Total (Upgraded) (C & S)
Total Target 60550 — — 60550 House Completed 695462 — — 695462 House Completed 292948 — — 292948 (SC) House Completed 19640 — — 19640 (ST) House Completed 257340 — — 257340 (Others) House Completed 125534 — — 125534 (Minority) Total Funds 542561.24 — — 542561.24 Available (Rs in Lakh) Total Funds Utilised 360184.51 — — 360184.51 (Rs in Lakh) Percentage of 66.4% — — 66.4% Utilisation Source: Department of Rural Development, GOB
Table No. 9 (Appendix).District-wise Distribution of PDS Dealers by Their Social Background in Bihar
ix
No. of PDS Dealers(September, 2014) Need of No. of Helper District PDS PDS Backward Samiti/ Dealers Dealers Scheduled Caste / Women/ PAC/ as per (September, Castes/ Extremely Minority Women Other Samiti General Total 2001 2014) Tribes Backward SHG of Ex- Census Castes Army Personnel Patna 3525 2574 17 45 3 11 0 8 15 100 Nalanda 1459 1196 15 42 4 10 2 16 12 100 Bhojpur 1344 1427 13 38 4 8 0 11 26 100 Buxar 929 791 19 29 3 5 2 16 27 100 Rohtas 1601 1025 24 37 5 3 0 14 17 100 Kaimur 866 615 24 40 7 9 0 4 16 100 Gaya 2416 1889 31 33 5 6 1 10 14 100 Jehanabad 630 502 19 30 4 8 0 15 24 100 Arwal 382 327 20 37 5 6 0 20 12 100 Nawada 1108 916 14 33 5 13 0 14 21 100 Aurangabad 1363 1178 17 37 1 4 0 11 30 100
W.Champaran 1745 1944 21 34 12 7 0 11 15 100 E. Champaran 2610 2168 13 38 9 5 1 10 24 100 Muzaffarpur 2886 2014 17 31 4 9 1 12 25 100 Sitamarhi 1702 948 18 41 7 5 2 12 14 100 Sheohar 324 229 12 29 5 5 1 20 28 100 Vaishali 1879 1456 16 38 2 7 1 15 21 100 Saran 2147 2336 11 29 3 15 0 12 30 100 Siwan 1691 1585 13 38 9 6 1 7 28 100 Gopalganj 1381 1246 12 25 5 9 0 16 33 100
Darbhanga 1963 1289 11 31 11 10 1 9 27 100 Madhubani 2318 1574 19 36 8 5 2 12 18 100 Samastipur 2266 1448 18 37 3 5 1 14 22 100 Begusarai 1660 1092 27 29 5 13 0 4 22 100 Munger 700 602 8 50 5 9 0 12 16 100 Sheikhpura 359 289 17 36 2 7 0 12 26 100 Lakhisarai 399 408 13 33 2 11 0 13 27 100 Jamui 913 776 19 34 3 5 0 14 25 100 Khagaria 886 626 18 54 4 5 4 6 9 100
Bhagalpur 1712 1320 15 46 10 7 0 10 11 100 Banka 1079 792 15 46 8 9 4 5 13 100
Saharsa 956 690 17 39 9 4 1 16 13 100 Supaul 1195 757 11 50 9 4 0 14 12 100 Madhepura 1116 596 14 49 5 8 0 17 8 100 Purnea 1792 1068 18 37 17 10 3 7 9 100 Kishanganj 927 634 15 18 39 16 0 9 3 100 Araria 1409 1085 16 33 24 12 0 8 7 100 Katihar 1567 1039 18 33 18 6 1 13 12 100 Bihar 55205 42451 17 37 7 8 1 11 19 100 Source: Department of Food and Consumer Protection, GOB
x
Table No. 10 (Appendix),District-wise Allotment and Lifting of Wheat and Rice for BPL Households (2013-14) ('000 qntls)
Rice Wheat Districts Allotment Lifting Lifting Allotment Lifting Lifting Percentage Percentage
Patna 677.63 634.39 93.62 534.49 500.61 93.66 Nalanda 379.73 379.69 99.99 299.73 289.19 96.48 Bhojpur 335.54 326.86 97.41 268.09 266.69 99.48 Buxar 199.06 199.06 100.00 156.63 156.63 100.00 Rohtas 332.78 332.78 100.00 274.16 260.61 95.06 Kaimur 218.38 218.38 100.00 174.54 174.54 100.00
Gaya 485.57 485.57 100.00 382.02 378.69 99.13 Jehanabad 105.34 105.34 100.00 85.04 85.04 100.00 Arwal 84.67 84.67 100.00 68.32 68.32 100.00 Nawada 218.83 218.83 100.00 183.33 183.33 100.00 Aurangabad 285.90 285.90 100.00 234.08 234.08 100.00
Saran 411.76 411.76 100.00 335.16 335.16 100.00 Siwan 331.70 331.70 100.00 266.00 264.34 99.37 Gopalganj 274.83 273.33 99.45 224.80 185.99 82.74 W. champaran 516.19 472.86 91.61 420.63 380.17 90.38 E. Champaran 719.25 719.25 100.00 573.84 563.58 98.21 Muzaffarpur 630.76 630.76 100.00 519.16 519.16 100.00 Sitamarhi 538.78 526.07 97.64 422.90 387.98 91.74 Sheohar 103.98 102.48 98.56 81.70 72.24 88.43 Vaishali 566.58 550.74 97.20 445.29 441.20 99.08
Darbhanga 479.43 479.43 100.00 415.68 397.60 95.65 Madhubani 762.07 610.00 80.05 444.58 432.45 97.27 Samastipur 486.69 486.69 100.00 386.65 364.76 94.34
Begusarai 354.77 311.26 87.74 275.33 265.78 96.53 Munger 169.21 169.21 100.00 139.67 125.91 90.15 Sheikhpura 76.23 76.23 100.00 60.73 54.62 89.95 Lakhisarai 105.96 103.65 97.82 83.00 74.17 89.37 Jamui 230.70 230.70 100.00 190.72 182.59 95.74 Khagaria 203.42 184.74 90.82 168.95 160.35 94.91 xi
Bhagalpur 374.61 310.11 82.78 291.20 271.78 93.33 Banka 229.97 212.64 92.46 180.47 158.47 87.81 Saharsa 254.66 250.61 98.41 207.63 186.09 89.63 Supaul 359.80 331.99 92.27 279.56 186.44 66.69 Madhepura 312.12 312.12 100.00 257.50 257.50 100.00 Purnea 460.79 433.62 94.10 357.16 308.80 86.46 Kishanganj 296.43 296.43 100.00 226.41 224.55 99.18 Araria 435.57 433.42 99.51 337.43 334.36 99.09 Katihar 397.15 395.69 99.63 313.02 287.03 91.70 Bihar 13406.83 12918.94 96.36 10565.59 10020.80 94.84 Source: Department of Food and Consumer Protection, GOB
Table No. 11 (Appendix),District-wise Allotment and Lifting of Wheat and Rice for Antoday Households (2013-14) ('000 qntls) Rice Wheat Districts Allotment Lifting Lifting Allotment Lifting Lifting Percentage Percentage
Patna 93.96 93.96 100.00 62.64 62.64 100.00 Nalanda 90.27 89.83 99.51 60.18 60.18 100.00 Bhojpur 208.16 208.16 100.00 138.77 138.77 100.00 Buxar 55.02 55.02 100.00 36.68 36.68 100.00 Rohtas 172.16 172.16 100.00 114.78 114.78 100.00 Kaimur 324.58 324.16 99.87 216.39 216.10 99.87
Gaya 107.86 107.86 100.00 71.91 71.91 100.00 Jehanabad 147.68 147.68 100.00 98.45 98.45 100.00 Arwal 197.78 194.23 98.21 131.85 129.28 98.05 Nawada 121.88 121.88 100.00 81.25 81.25 100.00 Aurangabad 151.97 151.97 100.00 101.31 101.31 100.00
Saran 90.47 89.16 98.55 60.31 60.31 100.00 Siwan 171.86 169.14 98.42 114.57 106.76 93.18 Gopalganj 233.15 233.15 100.00 155.43 155.43 100.00 W. champaran 81.51 74.10 90.91 54.34 52.68 96.94 E. Champaran 126.65 126.65 100.00 84.43 84.43 100.00 Muzaffarpur 245.26 243.28 99.19 163.51 152.91 93.52 Sitamarhi 27.62 27.62 100.00 18.42 18.42 100.00 xii
Sheohar 36.78 36.78 100.00 24.52 24.52 100.00 Vaishali 129.03 118.59 91.91 86.02 78.30 91.03
Darbhanga 41.94 41.94 100.00 27.96 27.96 100.00 Madhubani 213.42 213.42 100.00 142.28 142.28 100.00 Samastipur 124.92 124.92 100.00 83.28 83.28 100.00
Begusarai 121.26 121.26 100.00 80.84 80.84 100.00 Munger 355.71 354.98 99.79 237.14 237.14 100.00 Sheikhpura 112.09 112.09 100.00 74.73 74.73 100.00 Lakhisarai 274.54 269.33 98.10 183.03 174.80 95.50 Jamui 124.35 124.35 100.00 82.90 82.90 100.00 Khagaria 175.74 175.74 100.00 117.16 117.16 100.00 100.00 Bhagalpur 99.28 99.28 100.00 66.19 66.19
Banka 70.33 70.33 100.00 46.89 46.89 100.00 Saharsa 150.39 150.39 100.00 100.26 100.26 100.00 Supaul 111.77 99.42 88.95 74.51 72.32 97.06 Madhepura 325.15 325.15 100.00 216.77 208.11 96.01 Purnea 151.46 151.46 100.00 100.97 94.41 93.50 Kishanganj 32.36 32.36 100.00 21.57 21.57 100.00 Araria 283.51 282.74 99.73 189.01 186.83 98.85 Katihar 195.45 195.45 100.00 130.30 126.02 96.71 Bihar 5777.31 5729.96 99.18 3851.54 3788.79 98.37 Source: Department of Food and Consumer Protection, GOB
xiii
Annexure i
Figure No.1. Rural Development under MGNREGS in Rural Purnia
Figure No.2. Rural Road under MGNREGS in Rural Purnia
i
Figure No.3. Land Development under the MGNREGS in Rural Purnia District
Figure No.4. Land Development under the MGNREGS in Rural Purnia District
ii
Figure No. 5. Soil cutting under the MGNREGA in rural area
Figure No. 6. The road construction under the MGNREGA Programme
iii
Figure No. 7. The condition of rural road under the MGNREGA programme
Figure No. 8. Water conservation under the programme
iv
Annexure ii
Questionnaire
Dear Respondent
I am conducting a survey for primary information on Governance and Rural development: A study of Purnia District of Bihar for research. In this regard, Iseek your valuable cooperation in obtaining the necessary information. Iwould like to request you to fill up this questionnaire and give your valuable suggestions in the given space wherever necessary. Your co-operation in filling up the questionnaire will be highly appreciated. All information given by you will be treated as confidential.
For your assistance, I will be greatful to you ever and forever.
Thanking you in Anticipation
Amir Mahmood Research Scholar Department of Political Science A.M.U,
Details of Respondent
Name:------Age:------Gender:------Profession: :------State:------District: ------Block:------Village Panchayat------Questions:
(Please tick {} your answer and write wherever necessary) 1. Educational Qualification a) Primary b) High School c) Graduation d) Illiterate 2. Source of Income (Occupation): a) Unskilled Labour b) Semi Skilled Labour
i
c) Agriculture Livestock d) any other 3. Income monthly: a) 1000-5000 b) 5000-10000 c) 10000-20000 d) Daily Earning PERCEPTION ON RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES: 4. Doyou aware of rural development programmes? a) Yes b) No 5. Do you aware of given rural development programme a) Indra Awaas Yojna (IAY) b) MGNREGA c) PGSY d) PDS e) Not Aware 6. Do you know the benefit of rural development programmes? a) Programmes for the benefit of the rural people b) Programmes only for the Below Poverty Line c) Programme for the benefit of the society as a whole d) Any others 7. Medium through which you know about the rural development programmes/schemes? a) Through Radio channels b) Television c) Newspapers d) Block level officers e) Any other please specify 8. Have you get any benefit from the rural development programme? a) Yes b) No 9. What kind of benefits did you get? a) Agriculture b) Rural Housing c) Infrastructure {Road, Plantation, Rural Electricity etc} d) To start your own business e) Job Under MGNREGA
ii
f) If any other please specify------10. Reasons for not availing the benefit of the programme. a) Not eligible b) Not aware of such programmes c) No need of the benefit 11. Do you think that rural development programme is functioning properly? a) Yes b) No 12. Reasons for not proper functioning. a) No proper information about the Rural development progrmamme b) The intervention of local strong holders c) The Block level officers are not more interested d) Local people are kept unaware of the rural programme e) Any other reason please specify------
Information Related toMGNREGA Programme in the Rural Area:
(Please tick {} your answer and write wherever necessary)
1. Name of Block: 2. Name of the Village Panchyat: Nature of the Service under MGNREGA programme: 3. (a) Regular (c) Satisfactory (e) Others (b) Irregular (d) Unsatisfactory 4. Number of household members benefited: ------Wage payment (Amount) ………………………. 5. (a) As per government guidelines (b) commission by mediocre Mode of Job under the MGNREGA programme (a) Plantation (f) Water conservation (b) Land development (g) Drought proofing, 6. (c) water harvesting (h) Rural Connectivity (d) Rural Roads (g) Any other please specify (e) Flood Control
iii
The problems addressedby the government officials at local level of administration 7. (Block, Panchayat) to run rural development programmes in your opinion? (a) Wage payment Services & inquiry regarding implementation (b) Assurance of 150 days Jobs under the Scheme (c) service delivery problem (d) identification of the needy people (e) local level influence of the people Please tick {} the appropriate alternative in the following questions with the given code:
1= Strongly agree 2= Agree 3= Neutral 4= Disagree 5= Strongly disagree The MGNREGA is a mass rural development programme to (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 8. uplift the quality of people in rural area. The scarcity of rural employment solved with the help of (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 9. MGNREGA in the locality. This programme has effectiveness in providing equity, (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 10. accessibility to the rural people. The MGNREGA programme provides gender equality in (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 11. distribution of the employment. This programme will help in transforming the rural (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 12. development environment.
The MGNREGA programme should use innovativetechnology (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 13. for better implementation.
14. The MGNREGA Programme will help in generating higher (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) rural employment.
This programme has the potential to deliver a qualitative life (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 15. for marginalized and deprived section of the rural area. The block level administration is following government rules (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 16. and regulations to provide better services through this scheme
of rural development.
iv
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 17. The wage administration under this scheme is satisfactory.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 18. This MGNREGA will lead to better governance in the locality to improve the economic status. The block level officials are involved in corruption under this (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 19. programme.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 20. The MGNREGA programme is effectively implemented in the rural area.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 21. The block level officers are performing their responsibility to make this programme successful. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 22. This programme is capable of fulfilling the inclusive growth for rural development. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 23. The programme is consensus oriented towards the people of rural area. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 24. This programme is having strategic vision for the rural development.
25. This programme is having transparency for the rural (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) development.
Surveyor Thanks for Cooperation
v