Interventions:
Coastal Strategies to Resist, Retreat, and Adapt
A thesis submitted to the
Graduate School
of the University of Cincinnati
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Master of Architecture
in the school of Architecture & Interior Design in the College of Design, Architecture, Art, & Planning
by
Hannan Al-Timimi,
B.A. in Urban Studies and Planning
University of California San Diego
Committee Chair: Edward Mitchell, MArch
Committee Member: Vincent Sansalone, MArch Abstract:
Rising sea levels caused by the warming of ocean waters, and freshwater from melting ice sheets threaten the California coast. If the global warming trend continues, about two-thirds of Southern California beaches would disappear.1
There are three possible solutions for endangered communities – retreat, resist, or adapt. This project will examine a combination of techniques that exist and are nonexistent on Beach-Barber Tract, one of La Jolla’s sixteen neighborhoods but could be implemented into Fiesta Island’s, Mission Bay Park.
The proposition is that a combination of existing building solutions might be adapted. Those include walled courtyards varying from residential to civic scale, buildings raised on stilts or piloti, landscape- based solutions and hybrids between built form and landscape, including mat buildings. The mat building might be thought of as a constructed sponge, able to absorb storm surge and both accommodate existing use patterns and offer alternative use of urban space.
Case studies of architectural and landscape techniques will support the design thesis and a range of types and urban organizations will be roughly calibrated to anticipate future storms. The proposal will provide both a theoretical and practical set of projections to redesign a more resilient coastal community.
1 Rosanna Xia, “The California Coast Is Disappearing under the Rising Sea. Figure 0.1 Detail of the Marshes in La Jolla...... Our Choices Are Grim,” July 7, 2019, https://www.latimes.com/projects/la-me-sea- level-rise-california-coast/. 2 3 Acknowlegment:
Special thanks to my parents and my sisters Nour, Zehra & Koether for their continued support and encouragement.
“If you have built castles in the air, your work need not be lost ; that is where they should be. Now put the foundations under them.” copyright © 2020 Henry David Thoreau
4 5 Contents:
Abstract...... 3 01. Introduction...... 11 02. The Site...... 15 03. Computational Analysis...... 35 04. Politics of the Site...... 38 05. Regional Courtyard Infrastructure...... 41 06. Mat Building Defined...... 49 07. Natural and Artifical Interventions of the Landscape...... 53 08. Polders-the Dutch System...... 64 09. Newer Hybrids...... 67 10. Mircro Scale Interventions...... 74 11. Conclusion...... 77 12. Bibliography...... 78 13. Image Index...... 83
Figure 0.2 Overlooking Fiesta Island......
6 7 Illustrations:
Figure 0.1 Detail of the Marshes in La Jolla...... 2 Figure 6.1 Le Corbusier’s Mat Skyscrapers...... 48 Figure 0.2 Overlooking Fiesta Island...... 6 Figure 6.2 Free Berlin University Competition...... 49 Figure 1.1 Cars thrown from cliff -Night Render...... 10 Figure 7.1 Sand Dunes of Spain...... 52 Figure 1.2 Marine Street Beach...... 12 Figure 7.2 Sand Dunes of La Jolla...... 53 Figure 2.1 Different View of Marine Street Beach...... 14 Figure 7.4 Venice Hospital Floors Plans and Elevations...... 54 Figure 2.2 View of a Typical Mission Revival Home...... 16 Figure 7.5 Agadir Convention Center Model...... 55 Figure 2.3 Courtyard Close-Up...... 17 Figure 7.6 Agadir Convention Center Model with Base...... 56 Figure 2.4 Accumulation of Homes from Barber Tract...... 18-19 Figure 7.7 Agadir Convention Center Aerial Plan...... 57 Figure 2.5 Mediterranean Stlye Home...... 20 Figure 7.8 Las Terrenas Resort Axonometric...... 58 Figure 2.6 Redevelopment of Mission Bay...... 21 Figure 7.9-7.10 Courtyards of Spain...... 62-63 Figure 2.7 Mission Bay Overview Map...... 22 Figure 8.1 Peat Meadows: Polder Landscape...... 64 Figure 2.8 Living Vegetation...... 23 Figure 8.2 ANetwork of Dikes...... 65 Figure 2.9 Sea Wall and Beach...... 24 Figure 9.1 Sponge Ecosystem and Landscape...... 66 Figure 2.10 Cobblestone Sea Wall...... 25 Figure 9.2 Sponge Retention...... 68 Figure 2.11 Cars thrown from Cliff Day Render...... 26 Figure 9.3 Exterior Wetlands...... 71 Figure 2.12 Ocean View from Street...... 27 Figure 9.4 Oceanix Aerial of Hexagonal Modules...... 72 Figure 2.13 Water Rising Night Render...... 29 Figure 9.5 Floating City Prefabricated Blocks...... 73 Figure 2.14-2.15 Mediterranean Style Commercial...... 32-33 Figure 10.1 Turbine Powered Section...... 74 Figure 3.1 Erosion and Pedestrian Warning...... 34 Figure 10.2 Tree House Prototype...... 75 Figure 3.2 Flood Damage to a Property...... 36 Figure 11.1 Fiesta Island Park Concept Sketches...... 76 Figure 4.1-4.2 Belmont Park...... 38-39 Figure 5.1 Mediterranean Style Institutional...... 41 Figure 5.2 Courtyard Home #1...... 42 Figure 5.3 Courtyard Home #2...... 43 Figure 5.4 Schindler’s Residence...... 45 Figure 5.5 Public Courtyard in La Jolla...... 47
8 9 01 Introduction:
According to “Rising Seas in California: An Update on Sea Level Rise Science”, Southern California is showing early impact of coastal flooding from storms, periodic tidal flooding on shorelines, and increased coastal erosion.2 Along the California coastlines, sea levels may vary and change. One contributing factor of sea level rise is ocean thermal expansion. The document provides guidance on sea-level rise projections for planners and designers. The document discourages policymakers from taking a blasé attitude while waiting for further scientific certainty. The California Ocean Protection Council hopes that legislation would encourage investment and construction strategies to mitigate rising sea level.
Chapter two introduces the social history and boundaries of Beach Barber Tract in La Jolla and Fiesta Island Park in Mission Bay, San Diego. This chapter identifies the endangered species on the Mission Bay site. It further investigates the past and current history of storms and erosion for Beach Barber Tract and Mission Bay, identifying temporary fixes that utilize resilient strategies. In addition to coastal ordinance legislation to mitigate the current issues. Chapter three delves into the computational analysis of floods and erosions that are present in cliffs and shorelines. Chapter four introduces a brief discussion on the site’s politics and local suggestions to manage sea rise levels. Chapter five introduces the benefits of courtyard typology and utilizes courtyard case studies from the Southern California region. The end of chapter five slowly eases into the discussion of the mat scheme in conjunction with the courtyard
2 “Rising Seas in California,” OPC, April 2017, http://www.opc.ca.gov/ Figure 1.1 Cars thrown from Cliff -Night Render...... webmaster/ftp/pdf/docs/rising-seas-in-california-an-update-on-sea-level-rise-science. pdf. 10 11 and overlaps with chapter six where the mat building is defined. Several mat building precedents from various locations are utilized to emphasize the mat’s adaptability. Chapter seven identifies the juxtaposition of natural and manmade interventions that could be adopted to alter the landscape. Chapter eight outlines certain landscape strategies that have been utilized across varying coastal sites. Chapter nine is a summation of all these strategies that are weaved into the urban fabric through urban development projects such as Sponge Cities and Floating Cities. Chapter ten highlights singular infrastructure that responds to flood mitigation and water management.
Figure 2.1 Different View of Marine Street Beach......
12 13 02 The Site:
• Boundary and Brief History • Revival Style • History of Mission Bay • Vegetation and Endangered Ecosystems • History of Storms and Erosions • Temporary Fixes to Ecological Concern • Permit Type and Coastal Ordinance
Boundary and Brief History:
Beach-Barber Tract sits on La Jolla’s rugged coastline, adjacent to Windansea Beach and Marine Street Beach, known for its big waves and sandy beaches. Pedestrians and bicyclists typically walk or bike along La Jolla Boulevard whose small business district consists of a few cafes, restaurants, and museums. The Beach-Barber Tract became a popular parcel to build on in the early 1920s after Phillip Barber, heir to the Barber & Company Steamship Firm in New York, came to San Diego.3 The rugged sand dunes on Windansea Beach and Marine Street Beach reminded Barber of his family’s vacations in Long Island, N.Y. Barber decided to move his family to La Jolla and would become a landowner and developer of the property.4 When the Great Depression slowed
3 Linda Marrone, “Dig Deep for Barber Tract’s Rich History,” sdnews.com, accessed January 2021, http://www.sdnews.com/view/full_story/2639084/article-Dig- deep-for-Barber-Tract’s-rich-history. Figure 1.2 Marine Street Beach...... 4 ibid 14 15 development, Barber selected architects to help the neighborhood grow. Revival Style-From Barber’s real estate in La Jolla to Adjacent Neighbors: The historic structure that Barber built in 1922, in Beach-Barber Tract Many of the European revival-style homes were built from 1920s to was known as Casa de la Paz or the Dunes and is located at 325-333 1940s. They were designed by some of San Diego’s noteworthy architects Dunemere Drive. The house is intact because it was designated as a such as Edgar V. Ullrich, Tom Shepherd, Herbert Palmer, George historic landmark by the San Diego Historical Resources Board. Most of Washington Smith and Florence Palmer. Their eclectic architectural styles the homes at Beach-Barber Tract have kept their architectural integrity. are still part of the seaside terrain today.5 From 1924-33, the homes in Due to the structure’s age and the master builder associated with the Beach-Barber Tract were designed in either the Spanish Colonial Revival home, they are listed as historic. The acreage of the tract spreads from La style, or the English Tudor style. Barber’s home would be designed in the Jolla Boulevard to the sea and from Westbourne to Sea Lane. Spanish Colonial Revival Style sitting on a sprawling oceanfront. Once his wife and children arrived in La Jolla in 1921, Barber would sell small parcels of land to architects who were influenced by the European revival
5 Linda Marrone, “Dig Deep for Barber Tract’s Rich History,” sdnews.com, accessed January 2021, http://www.sdnews.com/view/full_story/2639084/article-Dig- deep-for-Barber-Tract’s-rich-history.
Figure 2.2 View of a Typical Mission Revival Home...... Figure 2.3 Courtyard Close-Up......
16 17 Figure 2.4 Accumulation of Homes from Barber Tract......
18 19 styles. Barren sand dunes that once surrounded Barber’s home, was History of Mission Bay: transformed to a landscape filled with trees, plantings, and expansive The second site located in Mission Bay, Fiesta Island Park, offers a lawns. The Depression in 1932 put a halt to any further development second condition that is more intimately involved with the water. of the area for several years and many homes were left vacant. Unable Currently on the site is the San Diego Youth Aquatic Center. The San to cover the loan, Barber himself was forced to relinquish his home Diego River enters Mission Bay a large, shallow, manmade bay with at the time.6 People who arrived at Beach-Barber Tract were new 4,235 acres. The bay is built for recreational purposes with the shoreline homeowners or retired executives like Barber or were widows from back consisting of a soft sand. The Mission Bay Channel has a maximum east. With the government housing loans made available by late 1930’s, depth of 20 feet and other parts of the bay area are 12 feet deep.7 there was a slight increase in the number of homes built in the Barber Mission Bay borders the Sea World San Diego to the south, Pacific Beach Tract. Additional styles would fill the Beach-Barber Tract from Minimal to the north, Interstate 5 to the east, and Mission Beach to the west Traditional to California Ranch style homes. Beach-Barber Tract has the which provides amenities and attractions like Belmont Park. Mission San potential to be designated as a historic district. While it would benefit the Diego de Alcala was founded by Father Junipero Serra in 1769 making residents, many are still opposed. Being designated historic would prevent San Diego the oldest city on the west coast. Mission Bay was formerly the destruction of these homes through zoning breaks. The residents would be exempt from certain building codes, they would be offered tax credits and they would see an increase in property values. Most important 7 “Mission Bay Fishing,” San Diego Fishing, accessed January 2021, https:// it would preserve the neighborhood’s character and scale. sdfish.com/mission-bay/.
6 Linda Marrone, “Dig Deep for Barber Tract’s Rich History,” sdnews.com, accessed January 2021, http://www.sdnews.com/view/full_story/2639084/article-Dig- deep-for-Barber-Tract’s-rich-history.
Figure 2.5 Mediterranean Stlye Home...... Figure 2.6 Redevelopment of Mission Bay......
20 21 called the False Bay up until 1810.8 Due to climate change, the river Vegetation and Endangered Ecosystems: changed course due to numerous floods with the worst flood occurring The San Diego region has many threatened species around Mission Bay. in 1862. The bay alternates between periods of recession and advance. The subaquatic ecosystems provide a response that contributes to their In 1945, the State of California granted the City of San Diego resilience while the intertidal ecosystems types are more vulnerable. with the deed to Mission Bay with one condition: the land and Subaquatic systems are already submerged in the water but are prone to water had to remain open for public use.9 In January 1948, sensitivity if the water quality changes. Intertidal ecosystems suffer from construction was started on the project to mitigate floods and sediment erosion, water salinity, and tidal changes. When these changes control the direction of the San Diego River. In 1955, sand and occur, species and ecosystems attempt to relocate to higher elevations.10 silt were dredged to create land formations on the bay; dredging also Two habitat types are expected to be exposed to coastal flooding: bog/ removed toxic smells and unattractive mud flats. Today, the bay marsh and scrub/chaparral; the scrub/chaparral will also be exposed to is entirely man-made. At the same time, a yacht basin for enthusiastic erosion.11 Currently the federally listed animal and plant species that are yachties was created. most vulnerable. They include the California least tern, the light-footed 8 Gerald G. Kuhn and Francis P. Shepard, Sea Cliffs, Beaches, and Coastal Valleys clapper rail, the western snowy plover, and the salty marsh’s bird beak of San Diego County: Some Amazing Histories and Some Horrifying Implications (Berkeley: .12 Spotted bay bass are abundant, as is halibut and corvina. Bat rays, University of California Press, 1991). 9 Ed Gabrielson, “Mission Bay Aquatic Park,” The Journal of San Diego History: 10 “Sea Level Rise Adaptation Strategy for San Diego Bay”(ICLEI , January San Diego Historical Society Quarterly 48, no. 1 (2002), https://sandiegohistory.org/ 2012), https://icleiusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/San_Diego_Bay_SLR_ journal/2002/january/gabrielson/. Adaptation_Strategy_Complete.pdf, 42. 11 “City of San Diego: State Lands Sea Level Rise Vulnerability Assessment,” San Diego.gov, July 2019, https://www.sandiego.gov/sites/default/files/ab691_report_ san_diego.pdf. 12 “Sea Level Rise Adaptation Strategy for San Diego Bay”(ICLEI , January 2012), https://icleiusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/San_Diego_Bay_SLR_
Figure 2.7 Mission Bay Overview Map...... Figure 2.8 Living Vegetation......
22 23 leopard sharks, and other sand dwelling species are common. Eelgrass beds support 20% of the species, including the Bay Pipefish.13
History of Storms and Erosions:
When Philip Barber, brought his fist parcel in La Jolla and moved his family here, more people from the east coast would soon follow, increasing the population of La Jolla. Little did he know that he would also be altering the regional landscape, and that rising sea levels would cause flooding. To resolve the ecological issues, many temporary solutions were provided from beach nourishment projects to groundwater system, to driving old cars. Each of these projects had their failures and were unsuccessful.
Early 1940s erosion began to occur at Marine Street due to a period of large waves. The small bluff in front of the Revelle house near Windansea Beach was being eroded away by the waves. Erosion was halted by dumping large boulders. A seawall was later constructed by the Revelles.14
Adaptation_Strategy_Complete.pdf, 39. 13 “Sea Level Rise Adaptation Strategy for San Diego Bay”(ICLEI , January 2012), https://icleiusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/San_Diego_Bay_SLR_ Adaptation_Strategy_Complete.pdf, 41. 14 “La Jolla and Its Projecting Point,” Sea Cliffs, Beaches, and Coastal
Figure 2.9 Sea Wall and Beach...... Figure 2.10 Cobblestone Sea Wall......
24 25 In January 1978, the city had severe storms. Moderate measures were Temporary Fixes to Ecological Concerns: tried to stop the erosion of the bluffs, since coastal measures had been Current practices used to resolve rising seas levels in coastal postponed for so long. On one of the threatened regions, homeowners communities’ advocate for nourishment projects and groundwater obtained old cars only to ultimately drive them onto the beach.15 This management systems. The San Diego Association of Governments did not help to buffer the cliffs. Instead, the car would smash into many (SANDAG) have employed a sand expert, Principal Regional Planner, pieces, leaving a pile of glass and steel frames on the beach. Eventually, Robert Rundle, who explains that during El Nino years, strong storms the steel frames were removed by the homeowners. In another attempt caused depletion. Beach nourishment projects are costly and only they poured concrete to stop the waves, except the waves were still temporary.17 Nourishment projects would incorporate new sand, but stronger causing the existing concrete wall to collapse and accelerate that sand gets depleted quickly and strong storms wash it away. Due erosion to neighboring properties. The seawall method was partially to climate change, coastal erosion will continue. Beach nourishment is successful, due to some of the seawall collapsing during construction. artificial, a man-made substitute. The sand would come from ongoing Most of the homes are protected by a continuous seawall that remains development construction projects that would replenish natural sand. today. Sea walls and inland dams reduce the amount of sediment available. The loss of sand and sentiment cause an increase in erosion.16 ArcGIS StoryMaps (Esri, July 29, 2020), https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/ Valleys of San Diego County, accessed November 2020, https://publishing. d0c1df224a97418bb4dad129ea4c6d17. cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft0h4nb01z&chunk.id=d0e4327&toc. 17 Rosanna Xia, “The California Coast Is Disappearing under the Rising Sea. id=d0e2312&brand=ucpress. Our Choices Are Grim,” July 7, 2019, https://www.latimes.com/projects/la-me-sea- 15 Ibid, 122 level-rise-california-coast/. 16 Shellby Johnson, “Sea Level Rise in California: Planning for the Future,”
Figure 2.11 Cars thrown from Cliff -Day Render...... Figure 2.12 Ocean View from Street......
26 27 Los Angeles’s coastal regions such as Santa Ana have had similar issues, 331 acres in total. Over time, these parcels will experience both sea-level their use of a groundwater management system would replenish aquifers. rise and storm surge.20 Office space parcels show a projected exposure The benefit of uplift along the coast is that the city and the coastal to sea-level rise, storm surge, and shoreline erosion. Currently there are suburbs are less exposed to flooding caused by increased sea level rise.18 102 acres of office space. Restaurants in this area also face exposure to Like nourishment projects, the groundwater management systems are flooding from sea-level rise and storm surge and projected exposure to temporary solutions. Since sea level are not constant and can vary from coastal flooding.21 Currently there is a lack of adaptation strategies to one coast to another, solutions will need to be adapted to that local address vulnerabilities on the current infrastructure in place. region. 20 “City of San Diego: State Lands Sea Level Rise Vulnerability Assessment,” The document “Rising Seas in California” confirms that sea levels are San Diego.gov, July 2019, https://www.sandiego.gov/sites/default/files/ab691_report_ changing in specific parts of the Southern California region. These san_diego.pdf, 12 documents introduce key findings on coastal flooding and periodical 21 Ibid, 19 tile flooding. Waiting on scientific data will cause more harm as changes are happening periodically. While the potential loss from a storm is short term, when sea level rises, the damage is permanent. San Diego’s response to the flood areas along the Pacific coast has been minimal. In the document, City of San Diego: State Lands Sea Level Rise Vulnerability Assessment, illustrates an overview map of granted lands in the city, where the City was granted lands along the coastline, with Mission Bay Park being the largest area of concentration. On granted lands public and private infrastructure are vulnerable to permanent loss of land from sea level rise or temporary flooding from storm surge. To determine exposure, when parts of a parcel are exposed to coastal hazards then the whole parcel is considered exposed, this method overestimates the area of the flood.19 Hotel, and motel parcels amount to
18 Adam Voiland, “California’s Rising and Sinking Coast,” NASA (NASA), accessed March 10, 2021, https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/147439/ californias-rising-and-sinking-coast. 19 “City of San Diego: State Lands Sea Level Rise Vulnerability Assessment,” San Diego.gov, July 2019, https://www.sandiego.gov/sites/default/files/ab691_report_ Figure 2.13 Water Rising Night Render...... san_diego.pdf. 28 29 California’s high tides such as the daily tides, King Tides, El Nino tides, Reclamation, Resilience, and Regeneration Strategies: and storm surges contribute to higher tide levels giving waves greater Marna Hauck suggests adopting the new 3 Rs: reclamation, resilience, inland access. El Niño causes warmer surface waters in the Pacific and regeneration in lieu of Pelling’s climate change model of mitigation, Ocean, resulting in an increase in sea levels. In the winter and summer adaptation, and transformation .24 Resilience is a necessary strategy solstice, El Niño tides are the highest and strongest.22 When El Niño for disaster readiness advocating for a community scale response. tides simultaneously occur with a King Tide, the tides become higher. Community resilience will reduce risk and social inequities using adaptive To describe high tides, King tides are a non-scientific term that people tools such as economic development, social capital through community use. According to local scientists, king tides are becoming more severe competence and infrastructure. In Beach-Barber Tract, the community consequentially causing more floods and washing onto the sidewalks.23 responded by creating sea walls but the response to cliff erosions Daily tides are high tides and low tides that occur twice per day. During has been ignored. Whereas Mission Bay is at risk of flooding and a storm, the abnormal rise in water levels is called a storm surge which could potentially displace many people. Adapting these three different is caused by a predicted tide. When storm surge coincides with high tide strategies, Fiesta Island Park would create a new infrastructure that and the water level rises, extreme flooding could occur. would respond and house those who are not prepared for catastrophic emergencies. This site would encourage the use of water through 22 “Coastal Flooding in California,” NOAA’s National Ocean Service, December landscape strategies such as canals and ponds. Regeneration involves the 10, 2015, https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/news/dec15/california-flooding.html. capacity of living ecosystems to evolve and transform. 23 “Rising Seas in California,” OPC, April 2017, http://www.opc.ca.gov/ webmaster/ftp/pdf/docs/rising-seas-in-california-an-update-on-sea-level-rise-science. pdf. 24 Marna Hauk, “The New ‘Three Rs’ in an Age of Climate Change: Reclamation, Resilience, and Regeneration as Possible Approaches for Climate- Responsive Environmental and Sustainability Education,” Journal of Sustainability Education 12 (n.d.), http://www.susted.com/wordpress/content/the-new-three-rs-in-an- age-of-climate-change-reclamation-resilience-and-regeneration-as-possible-approaches- for-climate-responsive-environmental-and-sustainability-education_2017_02/.
30 31 Permit type and coastal ordinance: California’s coastal communities have been protected by the Coastal Act. Since 1972, the California Coastal Commission’s mission is to protect For this site, two types of permits must be approved by the La Jolla California’s coast and ocean. Coastal Acts are important for present and Development Permit Review Committee, a coastal development permit future generations as they impact Beach Barber Tract for its adjacency to and a site development permit. Infrastructure that sits on the hillside two beaches, the Windansea Beach and Marine Street Beach, but it also both residential and commercial must follow the City’s Environmentally impacts Mission Bay. The loss of beaches due to rising sea levels and Sensitive Lands regulations.25 This area is protected from excessive diminishing amounts of sand and sediment result in increased erosion development by the city. Along the bluffs are single dwelling family from the strength of ocean currents. Strong currents will cause the homes and city parks. A current review on proposed projects in the typography to erode faster than others and flooding continues to impact Barber Tract show the use of stormwater drainage and vegetation as coastal areas. In California, weather patterns have changed drastically. a wall barrier. Several council members from the review committee To retain healthy and stable beaches, an adequate supply of sand could encourage new infrastructure whether residential or commercial to replenish the beach.26 This process would occur annually. Seawalls and respond and provide certain care to the public realm. inland dams are not the best solution because they reduce the amount of 25 “La Jolla Community Plan and Local Coastal Program Land Use Plan”(La available sediment. Jolla Community Planning Association, August 2014), https://www.sandiego.gov/sites/ default/files/lajollacommunityplanaug2014.pdf. 26 Rosanna Xia, “The California Coast Is Disappearing under the Rising Sea. Our Choices Are Grim,” July 7, 2019, https://www.latimes.com/projects/la-me-sea- level-rise-california-coast/.
Figure 2.14-2.15 Mediterranean Style Commercial......
32 33 03 Computational Analysis:
• Flood Factor Data • FEMA Zone Designations • Computer Data Analysis
Flood Factor Data: Flood Factor is a site where people can determine a property’s vulnerability by scores ranging from 1-10 with 1 being of minimal factor and 10 being of extreme flood factor where the property is more likely to experience floods.27 The scores reflect water reaching the building footprint but not the building’s interior. The site offers a comprehensive assessment of a property’s risk of flooding due to increasing rain, high tides, storm surges, etc. The data comes from the First Street Foundation Flood Model, a nationwide flood model that calculates the risk of a flood and uses the location’s history and geographic information.
FEMA Zone Designations: Flood Factor unfortunately does not use FEMA zone designations as a factor into their calculation. Since flood risks occurs over time, the calculations use 1 inch of water as a minimum standard on a property. 28 Special Flood Hazard Area is defined as an area that is likely to have a 1-percent chance of a flood event in a year. The 1-percent annual chance flood is also referred to the 100-year flood. SFHAs’ flood zones labeled Zone A or V are the most hazardous. Zone A tends to be any area near
27 “3500 Bayside Walk, San Diego, California,” Flood Factor, accessed January 2021, https://floodfactor.com/property/3500-bayside-walk-san-diego- california/603496747_fsid. 28 “How Is My Flood Factor Calculated?” Flood Factor, accessed January 2021, Figure 3.1 Erosion and Pedestrian Warning...... https://help.floodfactor.com/hc/en-us/articles/360047585694-About-Flood-Factor- scores. 34 35 large body of water and Zone V are coastal regions that experience flash flooding. The National Flood Insurance Program requires homeowners to purchase flood insurance.
Computer Data Analysis:
Sean Vitousek author of “A Model Integrating Longshore and Cross- Shore Processes for Predicting Long-Term Shoreline Response to Climate Change,” uses computational analysis to show shoreline change simulations for the coast of La Jolla Shores. While this developed model took 15–20 minutes of computer time, the WW3 and SWAN models took days to compute.29 The WW3 and SWAN are computer models that show that, without continued nourishment, the total beach loss is estimated to be more than five meters of erosion into cliffs and infrastructure for the years 2050 and 2100. The proposed models indicate that due to accelerated sea level rise, 31% to 67% of shoreline beaches in Southern California will be lost by 2100 and sea level rise projections will be under 3 to 6.5 feet if management efforts continue to be absent, affecting Beach Barber Tract and Mission Bay.30 One problem with this study is that the shoreline model does not consider erosion based on different substrates such as rocky cliffs or concrete structures, it is problematic because the data treats the entire model as a sandy substrate.31
29 Sean Vitousek et al., “A Model Integrating Longshore and Cross-Shore Processes for Predicting Long-Term Shoreline Response to Climate Change,” Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 122, no. 4 (March 15, 2017): pp. 782-806, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016jf004065. 30 Sean Vitousek et al., “A Model Integrating Longshore and Cross-Shore Processes for Predicting Long-Term Shoreline Response to Climate Change,” Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 122, no. 4 (March 15, 2017): pp. 782-806, https://doi. org/10.1002/2016jf004065. Figure 3.2 Flood Damage to a Property...... 31 ibid 36 37 because replenishment of the beach must occur annually.32 While high 04 Politics of the Site: tides continue to increase, and no solution in hindsight, constituents and beach goers are not happy. Politicians continue to receive property taxes from homeowners while homeowners question the candidate’s use of The interactive online game titled, The Ocean Game: The Sea is local expenditures. This back-and-forth game proves that regardless of Rising: Can you Save your Town, illustrates the issues of flooding and funds, no one wins. erosion which could threaten homes and displace people. The game was simplified for users where the user is allocated a limited number Legislative policies could introduce a set of criteria that coastal cities of funds once they play. People perceive that the game could be won. with sea rise levels could implement. These three strategies include: a Several options are given such as build a sea wall, add sand, or relocate hard defense (retaining seawall, stepped seawall, levees), a soft defense existing seaside homes with limited funds given to the player. Property (constructed wetlands, bioswales, stormwater parks, low impact owners need incentive to relocate. While the owners are not interested in development), and accommodations (elevated structure, floating being bought out from the city, a few of the homes flood during a strong structure) to serve Mission Bay. tide. Homeowners agree to building a sea wall as a resistant strategy. This does not stop beach loss. Homeowners realize that sand need to 32 Rosanna Xia, Swetha Kannan, and Terry Castleman, “The Ocean Game: The be replenished and request aide from politicians. Politicians raise taxes Sea Is Rising. Can You Save Your Town,” Los Angeles Times, July 7, 2019, https:// www.latimes.com/projects/la-me-climate-change-ocean-game/.
Figure 4.1-4.2 Belmont Park......
38 39 With manmade interventions, the risk of flooding and erosion could potentially be mitigated. One management technique, the city could 05 Regional Courtyard utilize is stormwater parks, but they are not seen as attractive. De Infrastructure: Urbanisten, an architectural firm in Rotterdam, designed a Water Plaza • Courtyards in Temperate Climates that could be used for all seasons.33 Stormwater parks could incorporate • Courtyard Case Studies elements from Rotterdam water plazas, like sunken plazas, terraced • Efficiency of Courtyards in a Mat Scheme landscapes, paved surfaces, etc. This would temporarily collect rainwater and release it gradually into canals. Though sunken plazas could work for urban landscapes, residential districts could incorporate sunken courtyards to gain the same benefit.
33 Tracy Metz and Heuvel Maartje van den, Sweet & Salt: Water and the Dutch (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2012), 179.
Figure 5.1 Mediterranean Style Institutional......
Courtyards in Temperate Climates:
Courtyard building gained a presence in California in the 1930s, as a building type, it had an historic legacy in the region’s Spanish cultural legacy. Courtyards are successful in climates of the Middle East, Spain, and California where the climate tends to be hot and dry but cooler at nights. San Diego’s climate, like the Mediterranean region, could adapt the courtyard typology. This would accommodate the inhabitant’s 40 41 outdoor lifestyle. With increasing warmer weather, during winter seasons, but the shorter side of the wall gets direct sun access so it would be a the courtyard becomes a necessity. If done well, courtyards can have disadvantage.35 Courtyards can serve different social classes. varying control on the climate and increases the user’s satisfaction and Besides the courtyard, the building’s mass should add thermal comfort. comfort. To offset the hot, dry days, high living room ceilings and cross Incorporating thick structures as a solution could aide to weathering ventilation became an important design strategy. storms and earthquakes. Thermal insulation, better sound insulation, During rainy seasons, a movable skylight technology can be used, or a and less reliance on power consumption because thick walls can store folding glass panel could be added. The use of vines or a shading cloth solar heat are the benefits of a thick wall.36 In Banham’s book, The can help reduce the amount of light and heat generated throughout the Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment, he speaks about the day. The arcade if included with the courtyard could be left open during conservative mode which suits dry and Mediterranean climates. The warmer months and in colder months, the arcades could be closed with conservation mode utilizes massive adobe walls, smaller openings to leaded glass walls.34 The arcade is either wide or narrow or shallow or insulate indoors, and shaded courtyards. deep, responding to the courtyard proportions. The orientation of the courtyard can have advantages and when the courtyard is oriented to the elongated east-west axis which to prevents direct sun in the summer; 35 John Reynolds, Courtyards: Aesthetic, Social, and Thermal Delight (New York, NY: or it could be elongated to the north-south axis to welcome winter sun, John Wiley, 2002), 80. 36 Reyner Banham, The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009). 34 John Reynolds, Courtyards: Aesthetic, Social, and Thermal Delight (New York, NY: John Wiley, 2002), 81.
Figure 5.2 Courtyard Home #1...... Figure 5.3 Courtyard Home #2......
42 43 Courtyard Case Studies: given to the austerity of the cubical white structure.39 In California, the design of courtyards predominately utilized an enclosed square The courtyard house, common to Southern California serves as an configuration with an arcade as in the Fulford House. Circulation organization typology that exists in different regions of the world. becomes an important aspect of the courtyard where a direct relationship Courtyards in California were introduced with the Spanish colonial style was generated between rooms that accessed the courtyard. Courtyard referred to as patios by the Spanish. In his book, The Modern Courtyard users created outdoor activities for their families. The courtyard was an House, Macintosh, identifies architects: Irving Gill, Rudolph Schindler active system, that could be utilized throughout the day for an afternoon and the Greene brothers who borrow elements from the Spanish style. siesta or as a place to rest during the night. The courtyard in the Fulford Architects in California also began to design in Adobe and Mission styles. House utilized furniture such as swinging couches and hammocks to reap Courtyards can be used beyond domestic purposes; the functional aspect the benefits of the courtyard. Simultaneously, the courtyard provided of the courtyard will remain even as the form and program of the pre- intimacy detaching people from the outside world creating a clear existing building changes. Since open space is a necessity, Reynolds separation between public and private spaces. emphasizes that courtyards can adapt to change. This happens frequently when large residences are subdivided and converted into retail stores, Duncan Macintosh, The Modern Courtyard House a History (London: Lund 37 39 a small hotel, or offices. Depending on the size of the courtyard, Humphries, 1973), 12. Reynolds mentions that courtyards could be divided between two owners. Courtyards could be enclosed with or without the arcade, but Reynolds argues that without the arcade, the courtyard or the adjacent structure may not achieve the same benefit.38 The arcade eliminates exposure to direct sunlight. Other added barrier could be included to protect the courtyard, such as fly screens supported on light trusses or glass roofs.
The Fulford house, designed by Irving Gill in San Diego was a single- story house that borrowed elements from the Spanish colonial style. The residential unit was minimal in decoration and more emphasis was
37 John Reynolds, Courtyards: Aesthetic, Social, and Thermal Delight (New York, NY: John Wiley, 2002), 100. 38 Ibid, 97 Figure 5.4 Schindler’s Residence......
44 45 Unlike the Fulford House, the Schindler Residence, in Los Angeles, Courtyards have many benefits: they enhance our well-being, depending featured a private, inward patio space that two households could share. on their spatial organization they can stimulate activity, they could store The different rooms were loosely grouped to create three patios enclosed water to aide regions that are prone to either flooding or droughts, and as by vegetation. The structure adopts material strategies like thin concrete microclimate modifiers courtyards offer many environmental advantages. title slabs to create the appearance of battered walls. Schindler was The reintroduction of courtyards into the built environment will alleviate influenced by the adobe architecture of the Southwest.40 the heat from modern construction techniques.
Charles and Henry Greene who relocated to Pasadena from the East Coast designed a patio house for California native Arturo Bandini. Their u-shaped house had a verandah around the patio with a pergola. While the house had elements of Spanish Colonial Architecture, the modernity of the house was evident in its lightweight timber structure and shingle roof, unlike Schindler’s Residence which utilizes a flat roof.41 The exterior of the Bindi House Plan appeared more Japanese than Spanish.
Efficiency of Courtyards in a Mat Scheme
Courtyard interventions to the mat building scheme can help respond to local and ecological concerns. Mat buildings can achieve density, account for increasing growth, reintroduce the courtyard typology, while responding to the region’s culture and climate. The mat condition operates on a pedestrian scale, while the grid fails to utilize the figure- ground relationship to create an urban fabric, so the inhabitants generate a feeling of “anonymity and disassociation from the urban fabric.” 42
40 Duncan Macintosh, The Modern Courtyard House a History (London: Lund Humphries, 1973), 12. 41 ibid,11. 42 Stefanos Polyzoides, Roger Sherwood, and James Tice, Courtyard Housing in Los Angeles: a Typological Analysis (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1992), 12.
Figure 5.5 Public Courtyard in La Jolla......
46 47 06 Mat Building Defined:
• Mat Building Case Studies:
• Mat Building Comptetition in Berlin
• Smithson’s Proposal for Mat Building in Kuwait
Mat building type consists of a low-rise, a high-density, and a homogenous layout that is repetitive as defined by Alison Smithson’s 1974 article. The Smithsons, who played a role on TEAM 10, primarily focused on altering the grid using a mat building condition. Mat building challenges the segregation of architecture and urbanism. Mat buildings were both seen as city and building, both a private entity and a public entity, both read as a structure and an infrastructure.
Figure 6.1 Le Corbusier’s Mat Skyscrapers...... Figure 6.2 Free Berlin University Competition......
48 49 Mat Building Case Studies: study, the mat typology is successful in that the architectural and urban elements add varying densities that contribute to the building mat. Mat-Building Competition in Berlin Spatially they create moments in the urban form where perforations or The international competition, for the Free University of Berlin, in carved spaces reduce the number of buildings in the area. The Smithson’s 1963, was won by architects Candilis-Josic-Woods. Frankfurt-Romerberg supported this scheme because it showed the mat building had different in Berlin was selected as a site because the area was destroyed during patterns of use and form. 44 World War II. An urban place that responded to car traffic would Smithson’s Proposal for Mat-Building in Kuwait take precedent. The traditional European urban fabric continuously interweaves between the public and the private. The Free University of In 1972, Kuwait was presented as a case study for the mat-building Berlin would do the same by creating activities of public and private.43 concept proposed by Alison and Peter Smithson to the Prince of Kuwait, The mat scheme would advocate for low rise alternatives in lieu of high- due to the city’s increasing urban growth45. Alison and Peter Smithson rise typology that did not fit with the regional context. Mat-building was hoped to adopt principles from Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City. The a new proposal to achieve density and growth in a specific neighborhood. mat typology would provide courtyards, a layering of spaces to achieve The iteration would include three stories above the ground level and density, and a light quality that is present at various times of the day the purpose of the project was to transform the campus into a primary specifically during sunrise and sunset.46 The project’s low-rise volumes and secondary network. Within the campus these close-knit patterns are were raised on pilotis and the ground level would be free of pedestrians made up of internal streets, urban squares, terraces, ramps, courtyards, and traffic. Architectural elements like overhangs were incorporated into and multiple walkways. This source of layering would emphasize the the façade system to provide shading, regulate sunlight, and offer natural use of pedestrian and secondary pathways, introduce varying levels of ventilation. Kuwait’s mat buildings would offer air-conditioned buildings open spaces that would gradually shift to denser regions. For this case and floors that “consist of freely dividable slabs,” a strategy that is used so that the floor slabs can accommodate for future changes.47 This new 43 Max Risselada and Heuvel Dirk van den, Team 10: 1953-81: in Search of a Utopia of the Present (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2005), 132. grid would add complexity to the historic city grid where the courtyard and the souk is a condition and identity of the city’s culture. The souk
44 Max Risselada and Heuvel Dirk van den, Team 10: 1953-81: in Search of a Utopia of the Present (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2005), 311. 45 Ole Bouman, Mitra Khoubrou, and Rem Koolhaas, Al Manakh Dubai Guide, Gulf Survey, Global Agenda, vol. 12 (Amsterdam: Archis/Volume, 2007), 82. 46 Ibid, 190 47 Ibid, 190
50 51 is a market that sells various merchandise offering a unique shopping experience, where no space is underused and operates like a city. The 07 Natural and Artificial souk converges from a narrow to wide road, where the users socialize. In Interventions of the each corner, the atmosphere of the souk changes from public to private, Landscape: open to closed. To be successful the proposed mat should have replicated the old souk while creating new spatial spaces, lending to a conversation • Le Corbusier’s Venice Hospital about connectedness. The proposed mat-building project was abandoned • OMA’s Mat Matrix for the Agadir Convention Center for being too costly. • Las Terrenas Resort and the Urban Fabric • Alterations of the Dunescape • Spanish Coatal Dunes • Re-Establishing Irrigtion Systems into the Courtyards
Figure 7.1 Sand Dunes of Spain...... Figure 7.2 Sand Dunes of La Jolla......
52 53 Le Corbusier’s Venice Hospital dispersed into the water channels of Venice.49 Circulation on the ground plane, would be utilized by boat transportation. When Le Corbusier Le Corbusier’s, proposed Venice Hospital is lifted by pilotis allowing introduced patios to the Venice Hospital his intention was not limited to the building to float over water. The elevated parts of the structure the gaining of light and air, or the carving away from the solid space, but were organized by a network of streets, squares and hanging gardens, the exploration of the interior and external environment. emphasizing the hierarchical elements within the program. Though this resembles the mat typology, Le Corbusier did not subscribe to Team OMA’s Mat Matrix for the Agadir Convention Center 10’s philosophy.48 A consequential result of the mat building typology The generation of Team 10 adjusted traditional types to new modes of is becoming an environment of itself and the courtyards acting as construction and inhabitation. While their use of the courtyard type was interior sub-environments. Le Corbusier did adapt certain elements of a direct outcome of analysis of the indigenous modes of construction the mat. In Le Corbusier’s iterations of the Venice Hospital the wards and dwelling, OMA’s Agadir Convention Center, of 1990 plays a similar were centered around courtyards. The aim of these courtyards as Sarkis game but posits a new hybrid of a courtyard system raised on piloti explains were to “extend” into the residential parts of the city and then and combines that with a surreal interpretation of the dunescape for 48 Hashim Sarkis, Pablo Allard, and Timothy Hyde, Case: Le Corbusier’s Venice a new lifestyle. OMA layering strategy utilizes the building shell to Hospital and the Mat Building Revival (Munich: Prestel, 2001), 25-26. respond to the region’s culture and climate conditions. OMA had a
49 Hashim Sarkis, Pablo Allard, and Timothy Hyde, Case: Le Corbusier’s Venice Hospital and the Mat Building Revival (Munich: Prestel, 2001), 16.
Figure 7.4 Venice Hospital Floors Plans and Elevations...... Figure 7.5 Agadir Convention Center Model......
54 55 different approach to the grid. In his competition design for the Agadir connected to the hotel, beach, woods, etc.51 While one level, is a response Convention Center, in Morocco, the project is shown a building. Yet to the car culture, another level operates on a pedestrian scale where the the project should be treated as two parts because it offers different plaza stimulates social activities because it includes a swimming pool, networks and connections. The upper layer serves two purposes where it tennis court, and solarium. The users have many options to experience is a covered roof and a public square. Between the base and upper floor the scenery and the beach without interruption. Whereas the patio is a middle network that intersects the two parts. Like the mat building rooms in the single story and two story offer a degree of autonomy and scheme, these various levels are accommodating different needs, there privacy, they also provide a view to the beach. The building is carved into are hierarchy between the spaces. The pillars on the tertiary network are the curvilinear landscape of the dunes where parts of the program are spaced differently and “vary in weight, width, and height”. 50 These pillars hidden or revealed. are made to resist and withstand earthquakes. The U-shape structure that surrounds the building is where the multi-level parking is placed. 51 Rem Koolhaas and Jacques Lucan, Oma. Rem Koolhaas: Architecture 1970-1990 (Milano: Electa, 1991), 70. The base layer on the ground floor is where the convention center sits. Unlike the typical Agadir street grid, this large, monumental structure would have established a new urban fabric as lanes and roads would have
50 Rem Koolhaas and Jacques Lucan, Oma. Rem Koolhaas: Architecture 1970-1990 (Milano: Electa, 1991), 70.
Figure 7.6 Agadir Convention Center Model with Base...... Figure 7.7 Agadir Convention Center Aerial Plan......
56 57 Las Terrenas Resort and the urban fabric Team 10, OMA, Le Corbusier, and Zenghelis’ borrowed elements from Elia Zenghelis’ competition entry, Las Terrenas Resort of 1989, for a one another to repurpose for different use. Their approach to utilizing resort in Santo Domingo, questions boundary limits and the standard the site varied. Team 10’s emphasis on mat buildings is a response to relationship between city and nature. This unbuilt project emphasizes the city’s location, culture, and climate.53 While OMA acknowledges the role of water on the site. The ocean’s coast is a natural water system the Moroccan culture through his interpretation of light and material which Zenghelis uses to create artificial water, altering the site to produce superimposed onto the Agadir Convention Center.54 Elia Zenghelis an inner bay, a freshwater lake, and a rectangular swimming pool. The choreographs the site with artificial terrains.55 Another element that project’s excavation of the hillscape through the juxtaposition of these is seen in their projects are the use of pilotis. Alison and Smithson’s different environments: asphalt versus sand, salt water versus sweet proposal employed pilotis as an intervention to the historic city of water versus chlorinated water, and lawn versus forest create a dense Kuwait56 while OMA populates the landscape with columns and inserts urban core. 52 The landscaped terrain, glides and overlaps promoting a the columns as a secondary layer, underneath the dunes and above heterogenous urban fabric that is actively stimulating. The interventions the hotel. Le Corbusier utilizes pilotis to create a shaded region on the go beyond the altered landscape and into the private versus public spaces lagoon.57 According to Sarkis, Le Corbusier’s Venice Hospital would have with a separate program and terrain where the architecture delineates the utilized the Venetian Peninsula and adapted the mat building typology in tennis courts, terraces, forest, sand oysters, etc. a different region.58
53 Max Risselada and Heuvel Dirk van den, Team 10: 1953-81: in Search of a 52 Fosco Lucarelli, “The Pleasures of Suburban Life: Las Terrenas Resort,” SOCKS, February 9, 2018, http://socks-studio.com/2015/04/30/the-pleasures-of- Rem Koolhaas and Jacques Lucan, Oma. Rem Koolhaas: Architecture 1970-1990 suburban-life-las-terrenas-resort-elia-zenghelis-eleni-gigantes-1989/. 54 (Milano: Electa, 1991), 70. 55 Fosco Lucarelli, “The Pleasures of Suburban Life: Las Terrenas Resort,” SOCKS, February 9, 2018, http://socks-studio.com/2015/04/30/the-pleasures-of- suburban-life-las-terrenas-resort-elia-zenghelis-eleni-gigantes-1989/. 56 Max Risselada and Heuvel Dirk van den, Team 10: 1953-81: in Search of a
57 Hashim Sarkis, Pablo Allard, and Timothy Hyde, Case: Le Corbusier’s Venice Hospital and the Mat Building Revival (Munich: Prestel, 2001), 69. 58 Hashim Sarkis, Pablo Allard, and Timothy Hyde, Case: Le Corbusier’s Venice Hospital and the Mat Building Revival (Munich: Prestel, 2001), 73.
Figure 7.8 Las Terrenas Resort Axonometric......
58 59 Alteration of the Dunescape recreational purposes, and agricultural practices worsened and accelerated natural damage. Like California’s Coastal Act, in 1988, the Spanish Shore Agadir, Morocco, Pontevedra, Spain, and La Jolla, California are Act was passed, ensuring the protection of sand dunes. Their objective one of many cities with a similar coastal landscape that share similar was to regulate the coastal activities to impede water erosion, protect the environmental problems. These regions are grappling with the loss of coastal dunes, and ban sandmining. 59 La Lanzada Isthmus is one of the sand dunes that are putting their neighborhoods at risk. The increased beaches in the province of Pontevedra, Spain. The burden on the beach attraction of these neighborhoods has made the situation more dire was caused by tourism and a vehicular traffic, and as a result the dune because they are seen as desirable places to live. system and the beach were left vulnerable. The dune restoration project Spanish Coastal Dunes would be challenging because it would remove the existing public road. The sand dunes on the Spanish coastal landscape serve an important The areas that were damaged by the road would get covered vegetation purpose. Increasing tourism, urbanization, and road construction projects and another alternative road would be placed further inland. That was a on the region’s sand dunes caused dune degradation. The road projects controversial issue, but the project proved to be successful. In La Jolla, of the 1960s and 1970s paved the path for vehicular traffic effecting this idea would be controversial. The political and social discussions the health and stability of the sand dunes. Dune mining, inadequate revolving this issue would be lengthy and another solution would need to waterfront construction, excessive use of the dune landscape for be considered. The car culture is an important factor and people want a public access to the beach.
59 Gregorio Gómez-Pina et al., “Sand Dune Management Problems and Techniques, Spain.,” Journal of Coastal Research Online Journal 36 (March 1, 2002): pp. 325- 332, https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2112/1551-5036-36.sp1.325.
60 61 Re-establishing irrigation systems into the courtyards the “architectonic symmetry.” 60 This demonstrates that water is a component that was incorporated into the architecture of the courtyard. In contrast to the courtyards in Southern California, Middle Eastern Current courtyard typology has more surface patio than needed. With courtyards, Granada courtyards, and Alhambra courtyards of Spain the addition of vegetation and a water irrigation system this can allow would include water elements like pools, fountains, or planter beds. water to flow seamlessly from the flower bed and drain into a water While these regions have similar climates, utilizing the irrigation beds of tank for people to store and reuse. The play of water on nature serves courtyard as an intervention strategy to help manage water and constant two purposes in that a canal system can benefit the local community. flooding. The second is the ability to reproduce a mirror-like quality from the This is evident in the Islamic garden tradition which required the shallowness and depth of the pool. This transparency of the water can integration of water into the courtyard design through foundations and produce shadows on the architecture and emphasizes the play on light.61 other landscape elements. Prior to Alhambra, the houses and palaces of Al-Andalus had different types of gardens within the courtyard. The Gardens and Pavilions of Madinat al-Zehra, was a plot of land that had been recently excavated, uncovering several halls such as Abd al Rahman III and the Central Pavilion. Since the Islamic religion encouraged the 60 Michel Conan, Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity (Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard Univerity Press, 2008), 61. use of water for daily activities, the courtyard is situated between both 61 Michel Conan, Middle East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity (Cambridge buildings, interrupted by a longitudinal pool of water to emphasize (Mass.): Harvard Univerity Press, 2008), 63.
Figure 7.9-7.10 Courtyards of Spain......
62 63 In the next 30 years, in 2051, 3.1 to 5.5 feet of water will reach any of 08 Landscape Strategies: the buildings on the site. Unlike the Netherlands, in lieu of a dike, they have a dam. If the dam fails for unknown reasons, the risk is that sea level increases and the potential damages to the buildings would be catastrophic. A dike was built in 1853 for the Mission Bay region by Lieutenant George Derby.64 This was their first attempt to Polders – the Dutch Systems control and mitigate the San Diego River but within two years Dikes and polders have played an important part in the Dutch the dike failed. The island of IJsselmonde, which uses a polder system Landscape, dikes have been removed and replaced with polders. As was transformed from a rural polder and became intertwined with the peat polders sunk lower, polders had to be kept dry, which resulted in city in the early 20th century. Like the mat, the polder system, created a more pumping.62 According to the authors of Sweet and Salt, half of the new network that was superimposed by the old network, supporting the Netherlands is below sea level. different activities in the port space, domestic space, gardens, and cafes.65
Mission Beach in San Diego could learn from the Netherlands; Mission March 10, 2021, https://floodfactor.com/property/3500-bayside-walk-san-diego- Beach has an extreme flood factor of 10 with ten being the highest.63 california/603496747_fsid. 64 Richard F. Pourade, “Chapter 3: Peace – The Shock of a Transformation,” in City of the Dream, 1977, https://sandiegohistory.org/archives/books/citydream/ch3/. 62 Tracy Metz and Heuvel Maartje van den, Sweet & Salt: Water and the Dutch Tracy Metz and Heuvel Maartje van den, Sweet & Salt: Water and the Dutch (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2012), 77. 65 (Rotterdam: NAi Publishers, 2012), 82. 63 “3500 Bayside Walk, San Diego, California,” Flood Factor, accessed
Figure 8.1 Peat Meadows: Polder Landscape...... Figure 8.2 ANetwork of Dikes......
64 65 09 Newer Hybrids:
• Spongier Cities • Benefits of Sponge Cities • Shenzhen, a Sponge City Case Study, with a Net City Approach • Floating Cities-A Case Study on Oceanix City • A Case Study of AT’s Floating City
Spongier Cities
Due to urban floods, there is a movement to build “spongier” cities .66 Sponge cities would absorb rainwater instead of letting the water flow through pavement. Sponge cities can use several methods such as better stormwater management systems that are man-made or use original water pathways that had once existed before urbanization. Stormwater systems would restore the rain-retention capacity that cities lost. The Chinese government enforced a sponge city initiative to address water management issues and to respond to climate change. Sponge Cities use the ancient Chinese agricultural technique deployed in rice paddies and
66 Poornima Apte, “How to Build a City That Doesn’t Flood? Turn It Into a Figure 9.1 Sponge Ecosystem and Landscape...... Sponge City,” jstor daily, December 5, 2017, https://daily.jstor.org/build-a-city-that- doesnt-flood/. 66 67 ponds.67 Like polder systems, sponge cities can use dikes to slow the flow would allow water to filter through the pavement. These types of active of water, retain it, and filter it through the urban landscape. systems would be suitable for Southern California because any excess water from rain would be retained and filtered for use during dry seasons. Sponge cities alteration of the landscape is not limited to dikes as terraces, rain gardens, and bioswales, permeable surfaces and ponds Apart from sea level risings, storm surges and erosion, another issue the have the same effect on slowing down the flow of water.68 Wet ponds coast of Southern California must confront is water scarcity. As people and dry ponds can function as a retention basin for stormwater systems. migrate to water stressed regions, desalination facilities have increased Water from the pond is collected and spilled to an output location. Plants their production converting ocean salt water to fresh water. The facility would be planted at the edge of the pond. Bioswales are green landscape delivers about 50 million gallons of fresh, desalinated water serving elements that are implemented into the street level, designed to store approximately 400,000 people in San Diego County.69 Desalination stormwater, and removes large particles of polluted water. The Chinese has contributed to greenhouse gasses. Alternatives to desalination are government also made porous pavement a requirement, a measure that conservation, stormwater capture, and wastewater recycling.70
67 Felicia Toh, “Turenscape: Creating Sponge Cities: Indesignlive Singapore,” INDESIGNLIVE SINGAPORE | Daily Connection to Architecture and Design, July 31, 2018, https://www.indesignlive.sg/people/turenscape-creating-sponge-cities. 68 Ibid
Benefits of Sponge Cities
Utilizing the sponge system, Southern California would be self-sufficient
69 “Carlsbad Desal Plant,” Carlsbad Desal Plant, https://www.carlsbaddesal. com/. Figure 9.2 Sponge Retention...... 70 “Desalination,” San Diego Coastkeeper, May 17, 2019, https://www. sdcoastkeeper.org/desalination. 68 69 in conserving water. Southern California will no longer be reliant on Shenzhen, a Sponge City Case Study, with a Net City Approach other states for water production. Instead, the population of San Diego Architectural firm NBBJ has created a masterplan for a car-free district in County will rely on water sources from within their boundaries and its Shenzhen, advocating for a net city approach using solar panels. China’s cities would not be fighting for their accessibility to water. The other Sponge City initiative for new districts would provide an environmental advantage of the sponge system is that it lowers the burden on other and sustainable approach while mitigating flood hazards through water drainage systems in place like water treatment plants or artificial channels. management. In this configuration typical city planning is restricted from The limited knowledge on planning and designing sponge cities is one of being utilized on the site. NBBJ will use local vegetation as a natural the disadvantages of sponge cities. The social and economic conditions, flood defense.72 They aim to plant mangrove trees along the coast. and urban runoff qualities are specific to the site.71 Financing sponge city Since it would be a car free zone, residents, commuters, and visitors will projects and construction would either be a public endeavor or private access Shenzhen via a subway. The only mode of transportation in the financing. To implement sponge city strategies, training is required to neighborhood, is by foot or by bicycle. Ferries will be utilized as a form gain the necessary skill sets to design storm water management, urban of transportation on the water. hydrology, and hydraulics. 72 India Block, “Giant Net City Car-Free Neighbourhood in Shenzhen Will Cover Two Million Square Metres,” Dezeen, June 14, 2020, https://www.dezeen. com/2020/06/11/wechat-car-free-city-tencent-net-city-shenzhen-nbbj/. 71 Haifeng Jia et al., “China’s Sponge City Construction: A Discussion on Technical Approaches,” Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering 11, no. 4 (2017), https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-017-0984-9.
Figure 9.3 Exterior Wetlands......
70 71 Floating Cities-A Case Study on Oceanix City A Case Study of AT’s Floating City AT Design Office was commissioned by a Chinese construction firm to Rising sea levels have increased architectural firms’ interest in buildings. design a floating island.Cities that float on water would offer an internal Architectural firm BIG designed a concept called Oceanix City, where and external traffic system like the mat building scheme. Traffic flows are islands are clustered together to form villages. This floating city aimed facilitated by underwater tunnel infrastructure, water canals constructed to alleviate threatened populations and displaced societies by rising sea above and below the water surface, and walkway networks between levels. These vibrant mini villages will include specific nodes to the city’s buildings and islands. Pollution caused by automobiles is nonexistent as infrastructure utilizing water baths, markets, spiritual and cultural hubs submarines and electric vehicles are utilized as transportation alternatives that can be adapted to any region and culture.73 Clusters would form an creating a zero-carbon, self-sufficient city.74 A cruise dock is utilized to archipelago of homes for residents with low, modular infrastructure, receive deliveries. The island would be prefabricated in a factory and of four to seven stories. Like BIG, Elia Zenghelis in his Las Terrenas floated onto the site. Resort, villas are lifted, or in certain situation placed on the ocean, this integration of the landscape creates a public archipelago of floating islands.
74 Amy Frearson, “Floating City Concept by AT Design Office Features 73 Eleanor Gibson, “BIG Unveils Floating Oceanix City That Can Withstand Underwater Roads,” Dezeen, May 13, 2014, https://www.dezeen.com/2014/05/13/ Hurricanes,” Dezeen, April 4, 2019, https://www.dezeen.com/2019/04/04/oceanix- floating-city-at-design-office/. city-floating-big-mit-united-nations/.
Figure 9.4 Oceanix Aerial of Hexagonal Modules...... Figure 9.5 Floating City Prefabricated Blocks......
72 73 10 Micro Scale Interventions: Forma Atelier and the Modular Treehouse Forma Atelier, a Mexico-based architecture firm, introduced residential units that utilize a modular treehouse concept based on a grid system where the Alleviating high tides with tidal power treehouses evokes feelings of adventure in Loudun, France.76 The fabrication Unlike previous architectural precedents this project does not utilize an urban and reproduction of the treehouse prototypes would be easily constructed using approach but focuses on the macro scale of one building that is designed to steel, glass, and wood materials. Steel would provide durability and stability to respond to local tides. The Tidal Powered School incorporates large turbines the treehouse, while the wood would create a comfortable environment, and the positioned below the structure to harness tidal power. By using tidal turbines use of glass creates a boundary between the interior and the exterior. Instead as the primary supply, the building can utilize its carbon neutral power. Like of altering the landscape, as in other precedents, the architects are blurring the Mission Bay, the coastal tides along the Thames River rises to seven meters relationship between man and nature. of water which is approximately 22 feet.75 Water is a great source of power and the movement of water from tides can be used and harnessed. The 76 Myrto Katsikopoulou, “Forma Atelier Immerses Modular Treehouse Proposal in French Forest Landscape,” designboom, March 1, 2021, https://www. building’s carbon monitoring systems would encourage the use of sustainable designboom.com/architecture/forma-atelier-modular-treehouse-proposal-french-forest- architecture, cleaner air, and cooler temperature while minimizing the occupants landscape-03-01-2021/. carbon footprint.
75 Amy Frearson, “Vision Unveiled for London School Powered by Thames Tide,” Dezeen, June 14, 2017, https://www.dezeen.com/2017/06/14/thames-tidal- powered-school-vision-london-curl-la-tourelle-head-architecture/.
Figure 10.1 Turbine Powered Section...... Figure 10.2 Tree House Prototype......
74 75 11 Conclusion:
Erosion, beach loss, and rising sea levels are a major concern for the two sites examined earlier, Beach-Barber Tract in La Jolla and Fiesta Island Park in Mission Bay San Diego. The three concepts of climate change response are retreat, resist, and adapt; and these three methods can aide threatened communities. Since retreating is not an option for many communities, seawall construction is utilized as a resistance technique and are indicators of the community’s wealth. The use of pilotis and modular framework clears the ground plane for pedestrian access and responds to flooding. The integration of courtyards in the mat building typology to create primary and secondary networks stimulates activity within the site. Altering the site with courtyards and irrigation beds can mitigate the effects of flooding on the property while storing the water. OMA and Elia Zenghelis’ show that by sculpting the landscape, a series of networks are introduced to the urban fabric, some are natural while others are manmade. OMA utilizes the dunescape as a component of the site, responding to the existing local context while Zenghelis excavates the site to create artificial nature. Similarly, new urban developments are becoming popular in Chinese cities and elsewhere. Sponge Cities alter the landscape through a series of constructed interventions such as canals, dikes, ponds, bioswales, and polder systems while Floating Cities utilize docks, canals, and underground tunnel systems to achieve the same result. These manmade strategies introduce undulating hillscapes that are sustainable and include adaptive measures that improve environmental and social conditions while responding to water management and rising sea levels.
Figure 11.1 Fiesta Island Park Concept Sketches......
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