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UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE Division Algebras UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE Division Algebras, Supersymmetry and Higher Gauge Theory A Dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Mathematics by John Gmerek Huerta June 2011 Dissertation Committee: Professor John Baez, Chairperson Professor Vyjayanthi Chari Professor Stefano Vidussi Copyright by John Gmerek Huerta 2011 The Dissertation of John Gmerek Huerta is approved: Committee Chairperson University of California, Riverside Acknowledgements A dissertation is the capstone to a doctoral program, and the acknowledgements provide a useful place to thank the countless people who have helped out along the way, both personally and professionally. First, of course, I thank my advisor, John Baez. It is hard to imagine a better advisor, and no one deserves more credit for my mathematical and professional growth during this program. “Thanks” does not seem sufficient, but it is all I have to give. Also deserving special mention is John’s collaborator, James Dolan. I am convinced there is no subject in mathematics for which Jim does not have some deep insight, and I thank him for sharing a few of these insights with me. Together, John and Jim are an unparalleled team: there are no two better people with whom to talk about mathematics, and no two people more awake to the joy of mathematics. I would also like to thank Geoffrey Dixon, Tevian Dray, Robert Helling, Corinne Manogue, Chris Rogers, Hisham Sati, James Stasheff, and Riccardo Nicoletti for helpful conversations and correspondence. I especially thank Urs Schreiber for many discussions of higher gauge theory and L1-superalgebras, smooth 1-groups, and supergeometry. In addition, I thank Vyjayanthi Chari and Stefano Vidussi for serving on my commit- tee. I thank Mike Stay for providing some beautiful diagrams formatted in TikZ. I thank An Huang, Theo Johnson-Freyd and David Speyer for catching some errors. This work was par- tially supported by the FQXi grant RFP2-08-04, and by a 2008–2009 Research Mentorship Fellowship from UC Riverside. I owe FQXi and UC Riverside thanks for their support. Many of the people I name above are not just colleagues, but close personal friends. Be- sides those above, I would also like to thank Jack Bennett, Alex Hoffnung, Felix Marhuenda- Donate, Rob Niemeyer, Tim Ridenour and Jonathan Sarhad, among many others, for making graduate school so much fun. Finally, I would like to thank my girlfriend, Jen Crowley, for being a wonderful, loving companion. iv For my parents, Eliseo and Marion Huerta. v ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Division Algebras, Supersymmetry and Higher Gauge Theory by John Gmerek Huerta Doctor of Philosophy, Graduate Program in Mathematics University of California, Riverside, June 2011 Professor John Baez, Chairperson Starting from the four normed division algebras—the real numbers, complex numbers, quaternions and octonions, with dimensions k = 1, 2, 4 and 8, respectively—a systematic procedure gives a 3-cocycle on the Poincare´ Lie superalgebra in dimensions k + 2 = 3, 4, 6 and 10. A related procedure gives a 4-cocycle on the Poincare´ Lie superalgebra in dimensions k+3 = 4, 5, 7 and 11. The existence of these cocycles follow from certain spinor identities that hold only in these dimensions, and which are closely related to the existence of superstring and super-Yang–Mills theory in dimensions k + 2, and super-2-brane theory in dimensions k + 3. In general, an (n+1)-cocycle on a Lie superalgebra yields a ‘Lie n-superalgebra’: that is, roughly speaking, an n-term chain complex equipped with a bracket satisfying the axioms of a Lie superalgebra up to chain homotopy. We thus obtain Lie 2-superalgebras extending the Poincare´ superalgebra in dimensions 3, 4, 6, and 10, and Lie 3-superalgebras extending the Poincare´ superalgebra in dimensions 4, 5, 7 and 11. As shown in Sati, Schreiber and Stash- eff’s work on generalized connections valued in Lie n-superalgebras, Lie 2-superalgebra vi connections describe the parallel transport of strings, while Lie 3-superalgebra connections describe the parallel transport of 2-branes. Moreover, in the octonionic case, these connec- tions concisely summarize the fields appearing in 10- and 11-dimensional supergravity. Generically, integrating a Lie n-superalgebra to a Lie n-supergroup yields a ‘Lie n- supergroup’ that is hugely infinite-dimensional. However, when the Lie n-superalgebra is obtained from an (n + 1)-cocycle on a nilpotent Lie superalgebra, there is a geometric pro- cedure to integrate the cocycle to one on the corresponding nilpotent Lie supergroup. In general, a smooth (n+1)-cocycle on a supergroup yields a ‘Lie n-supergroup’: that is, a weak n-group internal to supermanifolds. Using our geometric procedure to integrate the 3-cocycle in dimensions 3, 4, 6 and 10, we obtain a Lie 2-supergroup extending the Poincare´ supergroup in those dimensions, and similarly integrating the 4-cocycle in dimensions 4, 5, 7 and 11, we obtain a Lie 3-supergroup extending the Poincare´ supergroup in those dimensions. vii Contents List of Tables x 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Overview . .1 1.2 Introduction . .4 1.3 Plan of the thesis . 17 1.4 Prior work . 19 2 Spacetime geometry from division algebras 20 2.1 Normed division algebras . 24 2.2 Spacetime geometry in k + 2 dimensions . 27 2.3 Spacetime geometry in k + 3 dimensions . 37 2.4 The spinor identities . 45 3 Supertranslation algebras and their cohomology 52 3.1 Superalgebra . 52 3.2 Cohomology of Lie superalgebras . 54 4 An application: super-Yang–Mills theory 62 5 Lie n-superalgebras from Lie superalgebra cohomology 72 5.1 Examples of slim Lie n-superalgebras . 78 viii 5.1.1 The string Lie 2-algebra . 78 5.1.2 The Heisenberg Lie 2-algebra . 79 5.1.3 The supertranslation Lie n-superalgebras . 80 5.1.4 Superstring Lie 2-superalgebras, 2-brane Lie 3-superalgebras . 81 6 Lie n-groups from group cohomology 87 6.1 Lie 2-groups . 91 6.2 Lie 3-groups . 106 7 Integrating nilpotent Lie n-algebras 118 7.1 Integrating Lie algebra cochains . 123 7.2 Examples: Explicitly integrating 0-, 1-, 2- and 3-cochains . 139 7.3 The Heisenberg Lie 2-group . 153 8 Supergeometry and supergroups 155 8.1 Supermanifolds . 158 8.2 Supergroups from nilpotent Lie superalgebras . 169 9 Lie n-supergroups from supergroup cohomology 174 10 Integrating nilpotent Lie n-superalgebras 184 11 Superstring Lie 2-supergroups, 2-brane Lie 3-supergroups 198 11.1 Outlook . 204 Bibliography 205 ix List of Tables 2.1 Division algebra notation vs. index notation . 37 x Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Overview There is a deep relationship between supersymmetry, division algebras, and higher gauge theory. In this thesis, we begin to tell this story: how division algebras give rise to higher infinitesimal symmetries of strings and membranes, modeled by a generalization of a Lie algebra called a ‘Lie n-algebra’, and how this infinitesimal picture can be integrated to global one, with higher symmetries modeled by a ‘Lie n-group’. In this overview, we want to take the opportunity to explain the big picture, postponing references until the next section. From a physical perspective, gauge theory is the geometric language which allows us to describe how point particles change as they move through spacetime. Higher gauge theory is a generalization which describes how strings and membranes change as they move through spacetime. We can view higher gauge theory as a categorification of gauge theory, which is intuitively clear from the diagrams we use to describe higher categories: as a particle moves through spacetime from point x to point y, it sweeps out a worldline γ that we can view as a morphism 1 from x to y in a certain category: γ x •• y : The job of a connection in gauge theory is to assign to γ an element hol(γ) in the gauge group which describes how the state of our particle changes as it moves along γ. Boosting up a dimension, when a string moves through spacetime, it sweeps out a world- sheet Σ, which we can view as a 2-morphism in a certain 2-category: ••Σ : D The job of a ‘2-connection’ in ‘higher gauge theory’ is to assign to Σ an element hol(Σ) in the ‘higher gauge group’ which describes how the state of our string changes as it moves along Σ. In practice, the strings and membranes of interest in physics are supersymmetric, so they are called superstrings and supermembranes. This also leads to higher gauge theory, but it goes through the normed division algebras. There is a mysterious connection between su- persymmetry and the four normed division algebras: the real numbers, complex numbers, quaternions and octonions. This can be seen in super-Yang–Mills theory, in superstring the- ory, and in theories of supermembranes and supergravity. Most simply, the connection is visible from the fact that the normed division algebras have dimensions 1, 2, 4 and 8, while classical superstring theories and minimal super-Yang–Mills theories live in spacetimes of dimension two higher: 3, 4, 6 and 10. The simplest classical super-2-brane theories make sense in spacetimes of dimensions three higher: 4, 5, 7 and 11. Classical supergravity makes sense in all of these dimensions, but the octonionic cases are the most important: in 10 di- 2 mensions supergravity is a low-energy limit of superstring theory, while in 11 dimensions it is believed to be a low-energy limit of ‘M-theory’, which incorporates the 2-brane. These numerical relationships are far from coincidental. They arise because we can use the normed division algebras to construct the spacetimes in question, as well as their asso- ciated spinors.
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