The Middle Stone Age After 50000 Years

Home , Debitage, Late Stone Age, Pleistocene, Stone Age

The Middle Stone Age After 50,000 Years Ago: New Evidence From the Late Pleistocene Sediments of the Eastern Lake Victoria Basin, Western Kenya

NICK BLEGEN Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Kahlaische Straße 10, 07745 Jena, GERMANY; and, Department of Anthropology, Har- vard University, Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, 11 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; [email protected]; and, [email protected]

J. TYLER FAITH Natural History Museum of Utah & Department of Anthropology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA; [email protected]

ALISON MANT-MELVILLE Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; [email protected]

DANIEL J. PEPPE Terrestrial Paleoclimatology Research Group, Department of Geosciences, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76706, USA; [email protected]

CHRISTIAN A. TRYON Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; [email protected]

submitted: 14 October 2016; revised 19 August 2017; accepted 10 October 2017

ABSTRACT Here we report tephra correlations, lithic artifacts, obsidian sourcing data, and fauna from nine Late Pleistocene localities of the eastern Lake Victoria basin of western Kenya, as well as new excavations from the 49–36 ka site of Nyamita Main on Rusinga Island. The Late Pleistocene of Africa is an important period for the evolution and dispersals of Homo sapiens. A conspicuous behavioral feature of this period is the replacement of Middle Stone Age (MSA) technologies by Later Stone Age (LSA) technologies. Current research shows this process is complex with the LSA appearing and the MSA disappearing at different times in different places across Africa. Account- ing for this pattern requires a precise chronology, detailed evidence of past human behavior and environmental reconstructions of the appropriate scale. Data presented here provide this detail. Tephra correlations improve the regional chronology and expand the lateral area of Late Pleistocene eastern Lake Victoria basin exposures from ~650km2 to >2500km2. Lithic artifacts show MSA technology is present younger than 36 ka in western Kenya, 25–35 kyr younger than the first appearance of early LSA technology elsewhere in equatorial East Africa. Obsid- ian sourcing data presented here shows the use of the same raw material sources by MSA and LSA populations through long periods of time from >100 ka through <36 ka. The methods employed here provide the temporal resolution and appropriate geographic scale to address modern human behavioral evolution.

INTRODUCTION Age (LSA) technologies, defined by backed geometric mi- ate Pleistocene Africa is an important time period for croliths (Ambrose et al. 2002) and often associated with Lunderstanding the evolution and dispersal of Homo sa- the bipolar core reduction (Diez-Martín et al. 2009), some- piens. Fossil evidence of Homo sapiens is present in East Af- time between ~60–30 ka (Ambrose 1998; Tryon and Faith rica by 195 ka (McDougall et al. 2005). This region also was 2013). The longevity and adaptability of MSA technology likely significant to human dispersals across and out of Af- throughout Africa make the reasons for its replacement by rica in the Late Pleistocene between 130–50 ka (Beyin 2006; LSA technology a matter of interest and debate. Groucutt et al. 2015; Rito et al. 2013). A conspicuous aspect of hominin behavior in Late Pleistocene Africa is the disap- THE MIDDLE TO LATE STONE AGE pearance of Middle Stone Age (MSA) technologies, defined TRANSITION ACROSS AFRICA by points and characterized by prepared disc cores, and the The latest occurrences of MSA technologies and earliest oc- replacement of these stone tool industries by Later Stone currences of the LSA technologies are staggered through-

PaleoAnthropology 2017: 139−169. © 2017 PaleoAnthropology Society. All rights reserved. ISSN 1545-0031 doi:10.4207/PA.2017.ART108 140 • PaleoAnthropology 2017 out Africa with aspects of MSA technology occurring <30 electron spin resonance (ESR) performed on equid teeth ka regardless of broad differences in raw materials, site found in an archaeological excavation, although ESR on type, or dating technique employed. In southern Africa, another tooth from a different location within the Naisiu- MSA technology persists as late as 28–27 ka at Rose Cot- siu beds produced an age of 39±5 ka (Skinner et al. 2003). tage Cave based on charcoal 14C AMS dates (Wadley 2001), Together, these dates suggest LSA artifacts in the Naisiusiu while the MSA/LSA transition is dated between 49–45 ka beds date somewhere between 67–34 ka, and thus predate by AMS 14C methods on charcoal at Border Cave (Villa et the LGM. al. 2012). In southeastern Africa, cosmogenic nuclide dates At Enkapune Ya Muto in the central Kenyan rift, the on sediments provide an age of ~29 ka for MSA materials Endingi industry contains facetted platform triangular in Mozambique (Mercader et al. 2012). In northern Malawi, points and flakes with radial scar patterns characteristic of MSA artifacts at Mwanganda’s Village site are OSL dated MSA technologies, as well as three backed microliths char- to between 42–22 ka (Wright et al. 2014) and 47–30 ka at acteristic of the LSA (Ambrose 1998). This level has been Chaminade II (Wright et al. 2017). In western Africa, MSA dated (lab number QL-4259) to 44.9±0.64 ka cal BP (cali- technologies are found in Pleistocene sediments of the brated using IntCal13 in OxCal; (Ramsey 2009; Reimer et Senegal River Valley and OSL dated as late as 30–11.5 ka al. 2013)). The Nasampolai and Sakutiek industries, both (Chevrier et al. 2016; Scerri et al. 2015) and in the Nile Val- LSA industries containing backed microliths, overlie the ley of northern Sudan, OSL dates suggest MSA technology Endingi Industry. Radiocarbon ages of the Sakutiek indus- persists until ~15 ka (Osypiński and Osypińska 2016). In try, the younger of these two LSA industries, range from the southeastern Ethiopian cave of Goda Buticha, charac- 44.24±1.5–19.98±1.2 ka cal BP (Ambrose 1998). Based on a teristically MSA material is dated to ~34 cal BP by 14C with combination of radiocarbon, obsidian hydration, and sedi- aspects of MSA technology such as trimmed points and mentation rates, the earliest LSA of Enkapune Ya Muto is a preferential Levallois core found in a middle Holocene considered to have begun by at least ~50 ka and possibly layer dated as late as ~7 ka (Tribolo et al. 2017). earlier (Ambrose 1998). The LSA materials at several sites In equatorial East Africa, the MSA/LSA transition is of Lukenya Hill in south-central Kenya are considered to conventionally thought to occur earlier. The Kisele indus- be <20 ka based on bone collagen and apatite 14C dates try (MSA) from Bed VI of Mumba rockshelter in northern (Kusimba 1999, 2001). The Late Pleistocene cultural layers Tanzania is dated to >65 ka based on U-series dates on bone of GvJm-22 ‘Occurrence E’ and ‘Occurrence F’ were origi- from the overlying Bed V and 73.6±3.8–63.4±5.7 ka based on nally called LSA (Gramly and Rightmire 1973). However, quartz and feldspar OSL dates from Bed VI-A (Gliganic et recent work suggests the lower of these two cultural layers, al. 2012; Mehlman 1989). The Mumba industry from over- ‘Occurrence F,’ is MSA with Levallois cores and trimmed lying Bed V is variably characterized as “transitional” be- points dating between 26 ka and >46 ka (Tryon et al. 2015). tween MSA and LSA technologies, because of the presence The broad overlap of the MSA and LSA as well as of backed geometric microliths, bifacial points, and pre- geographic variation in the timing of this transition across pared disc cores (Marks and Conard 2008; Mehlman 1989), Africa does not agree with models of behavioral evolution or as an LSA industry because of the presence of backed positing a single, sudden event (Klein 2008). The complex microliths and bipolar flaking (Diez-Martín et al. 2009; Eren chronological and geographic circumstances of the MSA/ et al. 2013), with the MSA elements incorporated into the LSA transition demand a more detailed archaeological re- assemblage due to the excavation of vertically thick, arbi- cord accompanied by high resolution chronological and trary excavation spits (Prendergast et al. 2007). Bed V and paleoenvironmental records on expansive deposits of a the Mumba industry are dated to between 65–45 ka based geographic scale that reasonably approximate the size of on amino acid racemization (AAR) of ostrich eggshell frag- the ancient landscape across which Pleistocene humans ments and 56.9±4.8–49.1±4.3 ka based on quartz grain OSL would have ranged. In light of this, the Late Pleistocene dates (Gliganic et al. 2012; McBrearty and Brooks 2000). A sediments of the eastern Lake Victoria Basin (eLVB) pro- similar technological succession is found at Nasera rock- vide a valuable venue in which to address the MSA/LSA shelter in northern Tanzania with strata containing the transition. Tephrostratigraphy provides precise chrono- Kisele industry dated to a minimum age of ~56 ka by U- metric dating and lateral stratigraphic control of geo- series on bone (Mehlman 1977, 1989; Tryon and Faith 2016). graphically expansive deposits. Combined with ongoing The Naisiusiu beds of Olduvai Gorge contain LSA mi- environmental reconstructions, this provides the ability to croliths (Leakey et al. 1972). Mehlman (1977, 1989) suggests assess the character of past landscapes over 100s to 1000s an age equivalent to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) for of square kilometers. The rich history of archaeological re- these deposits based on archaeological similarities with the search combined with new data from ongoing fieldwork LSA Lemuta industry at Nasera. Conventional radiocarbon in the eLVB allows us to characterize hominin technologies dates on bone from the Naisiusiu beds suggest very late and behavior in the eLVB and across equatorial Africa. We to terminal Pleistocene ages between 17.5±1.0–10.4±0.6 ka also examine previous and ongoing obsidian raw material (Hay 1976; Leakey et al. 1972), but more recent AAR dates sourcing studies to gauge the scale of past hominin interac- on ostrich eggshell of >42 ka and 40Ar/39Ar dates of 42.0±10.0 tions. Finally, we combine new geological and archeologi- ka on tephra suggest a considerably older age (Manega cal data from the eLVB with previously published research 1993, 1995). Recent ages of 62±5 ka are reported based on from eastern Africa to provide insights into the MSA-LSA New MSA Evidence from the Eastern Lake Victoria Basin• 141 transition in equatorial Africa. CHRONOLOGY AND STRATIGRAPHY The base of the Late Pleistocene eLVB exposures known so THE EASTERN LAKE VICTORIA BASIN far is estimated to date to ~100 ka (see Figure 2; Beverly et OF EAST AFRICA al. 2015b). The phonolitic Wakondo Tuff was hypothesized by Tryon et al. (2010) to derive from Late Pleistocene erup- GEOLOGY tions of Longonot or Suswa dated to 100±10 ka (Baker et Tectonic activity in the East African Rift System (EARS) has al. 1988). This tuff is near the base of the Nyamita Valley produced a series of rift basins in which rapid sedimentation stratigraphic sequence and has been used to correlate these buried paleoanthropological materials, with extensional exposures to other deposits of the Wasiriya beds across faulting subsequently re-exposing these materials. The Vic- Rusinga Island and to Karungu on the Kenyan mainland toria basin is formed in the depression between the eastern (Blegen et al. 2015; Tryon et al. 2010; Van Plantinga 2011). and western branches of the EARS, probably within the last U-series dates of 94–111 ka on a barrage tufa in the Nyam- few million years (e.g., Danley et al. 2012). During the Late ita Valley into which glass from the Wakondo Tuff is incor- Pleistocene, the eLVB formed a repository for sediments, in- porated provide additional support for this ~100 ka age es- cluding volcaniclastic deposits of volcanic eruptions from timate (Beverly et al. 2015). The most common stratigraphic >200km east in the central Kenyan Rift (Tryon et al. 2016). marker in the Nyamita Valley and throughout the eLVB is While no formal geological formation has yet been defined, the Nyamita Tuff (see Figure 2; Beverly et al. 2015a; 2015b). the Late Pleistocene exposures of the eLVB are currently At section Nyamita 2 (see Figure 2), optically stimulated lu- known to include the Wasiriya beds of Rusinga Island, the minescence (OSL) dates on sands bracketing the Nyamita Waware beds of Mfangano Island, and the Late Pleistocene Tuff provide ages of 50±4 ka and 46±4 ka below and above exposures of Karungu on the Kenyan mainland (Figure 1c). the tuff respectively, indicating this tuff was deposited These sediments were informally named by Pickford (1984) ~49 ka (Blegen et al. 2015; Tryon et al. 2010; Van Plantinga based on previous mapping and descriptions (Kent 1942; 2011). At least two stratigraphically higher tuffs are widely Van Couvering 1972). The first measured sections and sedi- encountered throughout the Late Pleistocene exposures mentary descriptions of the Wasiriya beds were reported by of the eLVB (Blegen et al. 2015). The uppermost of these Tryon et al. (2010) and expanded in recent studies (Figure tuffs, originally referred to as the ‘Bimodal Trachyphono- 2; Beverly et al. 2015b; Blegen et al. 2015; Garrett et al. 2015; litic Tuff’ and abbreviated to ‘BTPT’ (Blegen et al. 2015) has Van Plantinga 2011). Sediments are exposed in sections up recently been correlated over an area >115,000km2 across to ~18m thick and are primarily comprised of four distinct much of Kenya and to its source Menengai Crater where it lithologies: 1) poorly sorted coarse sand and gravel chan- is 40Ar/39Ar dated to 35.62±0.26 ka (Blegen et al. 2016). The nels cemented by carbonate representing episodic channel BTPT, now properly termed the Menengai Tuff, provides erosion and deposition; 2) fine grained mudstone, siltstone, the minimum 40Ar/39Ar age for the Late Pleistocene eLVB and silty sandstone preserving evidence of incipient soil tephrostratigraphy. This minimum age is corroborated by development indicating a more stable landscape; 3) tephra >35–33 ka AMS 14C dates on gastropod shells that post-dep- preserved as both primary fall-out deposits and tuffs that ositionally burrowed into the sediments at the Nyamita 2 have undergone varying amounts of reworking and incipi- and Nyamita 3 localities (see Figure 2; Blegen et al. 2015; ent pedogenesis; and, 4) tufa deposits made primarily of Tryon et al. 2010; 2012). calcium carbonate indicating the presence of springs and small ponded areas on the landscape (Figure 3; Beverly et PALEOENVIRONMENTS al. 2015b; Tryon et al. 2010). Barrage tufa deriving from the Fauna from the Late Pleistocene beds of the eLVB consti- Nyamita Valley spring ceased continuously forming in the tute the largest and most diverse Late Pleistocene faunal as- Late Pleistocene, but small springs still exist today (see Fig- semblages in East Africa. The majority of specimens belong ure 3) and have likely existed intermittently from the Late to taxa indicating open, semi-arid grasslands (e.g., equids Pleistocene through the present, providing a source of fresh and alcelaphin antelopes) distinct from the evergreen bush- water to local fauna. lands, woodlands, and forests historically found in the re- Laterally discontinuous deposits are connected strati- gion (Lillesø et al. 2011; Robertshaw et al. 1983; White 1983). graphically and chronologically by tephrostratigraphy. Isotopic data from tooth enamel indicate that the majority Late Pleistocene tephras are correlated over a ~60km north- of the large-bodied mammalian fauna recovered from the south transect between Rusinga Island, Mfangano Island, Wasiriya and Waware beds consumed a predominantly C4 and Karungu (Blegen et al. 2015). This tephrostratigraphy, diet indicating the presence of an extensive C4 grassland as well as lithostratigraphic and chemical characterization in the eLVB (Garret et al. 2015). Exceptions to this general of the paleosols between the tephras (Beverly et al. 2015a; trend include the area of Nyamita Main. In addition to taxa 2015b; 2017), indicate the same stratigraphic sequence is with open-habitat preferences such as Rusingoryx atopocra- discontinuously preserved over an area of at least ~120km2. nion, Damaliscus hypsodon, and Grevy’s zebra (Equus grevyi) Thus, the eLVB constitutes a laterally extensive stratigraph- found throughout the Nyamita landscape (and elsewhere ic sequence of Late Pleistocene exposures preserving differ- in eLVB), Nyamita Main has produced taxa associated with ent depositional environments. dense cover or freestanding water, including reedbuck (Redunca redunca), duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), bushbuck 142 • PaleoAnthropology 2017

Figure 1. A) Map of Africa showing sites mentioned; B) map of East Africa focused on Lake Victoria and eastern (Kenyan) rift region; C) map of approximate area of the eastern Lake Victoria Basin (eLVB) around Winam Gulf referenced in this study. This includes Rusinga Island, Mfangano Island, and Karungu, the southern shore of the Winam Gulf, and the Uyoma Peninsula on the north shore of the Winam Gulf. New MSA Evidence from the Eastern Lake Victoria Basin• 143

Figure 2. A) Map of Rusinga Island showing the extent of Pleistocene outcrops of the Wasiriya beds as well as archaeological and paleontological localities discussed in the text (after Tryon et al. 2010, 2012); B) map of Nyamita valley indicating relevant archaeological and geological localities (after Beverly et al. 2015; Van Plantinga 2011); C) stratigraphic columns of measured and sampled sections, arranged west (left) to east (right). Lithologies are indicated for all units. Tuffs are color-coded to chemically correlated group (see Blegen et al. 2015). Tuffaceous units not chemically characterized and assigned are shown in grey.

(Tragelaphus scriptus), impala (Aepyceros sp. nov.), and hip- more dense woody cover than the reconstructions for other po (Hippopotamus amphibius) (Faith 2014; Faith et al. 2012; parts of the Wasiriya and Waware beds in the same time pe- 2014; 2015; Garrett et al. 2015; O’Brien et al. 2016; Tryon riod (Garrett et al. 2015). Together, the isotopic and mam- et al. 2012). The presence of Hippopotamus indicates stand- malian fossil data indicate that the Nyamita Valley prob- ing water, likely related to the spring system that probably ably represented a patch of more dense riverine woodland served as a magnet for water-dependent grazers and sup- with standing water within an otherwise dry C4 grassland ported dense vegetation cover that favors taxa rarely found ecosystem. in other parts of Nyamita Valley or the eLVB. Additionally, isotopic reconstructions from Wasiriya beds paleosols in HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY the Nyamita Valley indicate this region was characterized Archaeological exploration of Late Pleistocene sediments of by ~46–82 % leafy cover in the Late Pleistocene. This is the eLVB extends to the early twentieth century, with early 144 • PaleoAnthropology 2017

Figure 3: A) Late Pleistocene barrage tufa at base of Nyamita Valley; B) modern spring in Nyamita Valley; C) close-up of spring showing presence of perennial fresh water; D) photograph (looking ~southwest) at 2009 excavations at Nyamita Main. Note the Late Pleistocene fluvial sediments unconformably overlying more consolidated, variegated, and tilted early Miocene sediments. study of MSA materials by Archdeacon W.E. Owen (Owen istic of the Late Pleistocene MSA in East Africa. Levallois 1937, 1938, 1939), at times in collaboration with L.S.B. cores (recurrent and preferential) and Levallois points, as Leakey (Leakey and Owen 1945). Creighton Gabel (1969) well as bifacial and unifacial trimmed points, are found in excavated a series of rockshelters along the north of the Wi- the Wasiriya beds of Rusinga Island (Tryon et al. 2010). Col- nam Gulf, one of which, Randhore, sampled undated strata lection of artifacts (n=12) from the surface of the Waware attributed to the MSA (Tryon et al. 2016). Sally McBrearty beds on Mfangano Island lack Levallois technology in this conducted excavations of Sangoan-Lupemban and MSA small sample, but contain bifacial points and can be also materials at Muguruk (McBrearty 1986) and MSA material attributed to the MSA (Tryon et al. 2012). The archaeology in the Pleistocene sediments of Songhor (McBrearty 1981). of Karungu is indistinguishable from that of the Wasiriya Laura Basell (2007) conducted work at Rambogo rockshel- beds of Rusinga Island, including Levallois technology, as ter as part of a review of Sangoan-Lupemban industries in well as bifacial and unifacial points (Faith et al. 2015; Tryon eastern Africa (see Figure 1c). The authors’ current research et al. 2016). project began in 2008 as part of collaborative research on Four excavations have previously been conducted at the early Miocene and Late Pleistocene sediments of Rus- three localities within our study area in the Late Pleistocene inga Island (Peppe et al. 2009; Tryon et al. 2010). sediments of the eLVB. One of these, Aringo 3, is a small 1x3m2 test excavation at the locality of Aringo, Karungu RECENT FIELD ARCHAEOLOGY AND (Faith et al. 2015). At Aringo 3, artifacts were recovered EXCAVATIONS from a gravel channel underlain by a tufa-cemented con- All the fresh and unweathered stone artifacts found by our glomerate indicative of the presence of a paleo-spring and project on Rusinga Island, Mfangano Island, and Karungu overlain by a ~2m thick paleosol capped by the Nyamita since 2008 are typologically and technologically character- Tuff. Based on its stratigraphic position, the Aringo 3 site is New MSA Evidence from the Eastern Lake Victoria Basin• 145

<100 ka and >49 ka. The excavated sample includes a Leval- SUMMARY OF PRIOR RESEARCH IN THE lois point and preferential and recurrent Levallois cores. It LAKE VICTORIA BASIN also includes a ~2cm obsidian flake. Research reviewed above emphasizes that the Late Pleisto- Two excavations have been conducted at Wakondo cene exposures of the eLVB provide the chronological con- (Jenkins et al. 2017; Tryon et al. 2010). A 4m2 trench dug trol, geographically expansive deposits, and archaeological to an average depth of 0.7m recovered nine artifacts in situ materials necessary to address human behavioral evolu- (Tryon et al. 2010). At Wakondo Bovid Hill, the larger of the tion in Late Pleistocene Africa. two excavations, a series of trenches totaling 19m2 with an Original work presented here further provides: 1) re- average depth of 0.50m were excavated into small and shal- fined chronological and stratigraphic control for 50–36 low braided stream channels cutting into a paleosol over- ka deposits through identification and correlation of new lying the Wakondo Tuff (Jenkins et al. 2017; Tryon et al. tephras; 2) a greatly expanded (>2500km2) lateral area of 2010). These excavations targeted a bone-bed of the extinct known Late Pleistocene eLVB exposures through identi- alcelaphin Rusingoryx atopocranion deposited in sediments fication, survey, and tephra-correlation of new geological OSL dated to 68 ka (Blegen et al. 2015). Stone artifacts from deposits; and, 3) improved characterization of MSA tech- the Bovid Hill excavation are few (n=78 with 9 in situ), but nology and hominin behavior through systematic surface- these lithic artifacts are laminar, including those produced collection (following Tryon et al. 2012) and expanded ar- by Levallois methods, and are consistent with an MSA attri- chaeological excavations at the site of Nyamita Main. bution. Cut-marked fauna indicates an association between the bones and stone artifacts (Jenkins et al. 2017; Tryon et MATERIALS AND METHODS al. 2010). Tryon excavated 4m2 at Nyamita Main in December TUFF SAMPLING STRATEGY 2008–January 2009 with the goal of establishing the source All 24 tuff samples analyzed for this study were collected of the artifacts found on the surface. Raw material types from or can be stratigraphically linked to a series of 12 sec- and technology suggest that the surface and in situ mate- tions (>0.50m to <10m thick) measured from Late Pleis- rial sample the same assemblage. The excavation samples tocene outcrops in the eLVB between 2014 and 2016. The strata ~4–5m above the Nyamita Tuff, and thus is <49 ka. geographic locations of surveyed localities introduced here are provided in Figure 1c and GPS coordinates for tephra OBSIDIAN SOURCING: THE VICTORIA samples at each of these localities are provided in Table 1. BASIN AND EAST AFRICA Schematic stratigraphic sections with lithologies are pro- Geochemical sourcing data on Pleistocene obsidian arti- vided in Figure 4. Whenever possible, tuffs were sampled facts in the eLVB has long been known from the MSA sites from sections with multiple tephra deposits exposed in of Songhor and Muguruk (Merrick and Brown 1984), and stratigraphic succession. Field correlations were made by more recently from the sites of Kisaaka and Aringo 3 (Faith walking exposures and by using a Jacob’s staff and Abney et al. 2015). The presence of obsidian chemically sourced level to establish the stratigraphic equivalence between to Lake Naivasha at all these sites suggests persistent long exposed tuffs. Both field and laboratory methods - ofcor distance contact between Late Pleistocene populations relation are necessary as exposures are discontinuous and making MSA technologies in the eLVB and the central Ke- tephra deposits in the eLVB vary widely in their thickness, nyan Rift 140–250km to the east. Obsidian sourcing from amount of subsequent soil development, and amount and/ Mumba and Nasera rockshelters in northern Tanzania or size of natural glass. show MSA and early LSA producing hominins had continued contact with these same Naivasha obsidian sources EXCAVATION 240–305km from these sites from at least ~60 ka through Excavations at Nyamita Main were carried out over three the Holocene (Mehlman 1989; Merrick et al. 1994). Obsid- weeks in August of 2013. Spatial data was collected in three ian LSA artifacts of the Naisiusiu beds of Olduvai Gorge dimensions using a total station connected to a PC laptop also derive ~250km away from the Sonanchi and Mundui operating EDM for windows excavation software (McPher- sources of the Naivasha basin. At Lukenya Hill, propor- ron and Dibble 2002). Prior to excavation, the topography tions of obsidian appear to increase throughout MSA layers of the locality was mapped in 0.40m intervals and all ar- at GvJm-16, and at least some of the non-local obsidians of tifacts and fossils on the surface or exposed in situ were these assemblages appear to derived from Naivasha sourc- recorded and collected. A 1x1m2 grid was laid out over es (Merrick and Brown 1984). The same is true of the LSA the intended area of excavation. Excavations were aligned layer, Occurrence E, of GvJm-22 at Lukenya Hill (Gramly north-south along the western edge of Tryon’s 2009 trench 1976; Merrick and Brown 1984). Thus, not only do the Late and carried out with arbitrary 10cm levels because of the Pleistocene eLVB sites attest to the scale of hominin interac- absence of any natural vertical stratigraphy within the ar- tions through raw material transport distances, these sites tifact and fossil-bearing matrix. All in situ stone material provide important evidence that MSA hominins in western and fossil fauna with a maximum dimension >2cm were Kenya and LSA hominins in northern Tanzania were using piece-plotted. All material with a discernable long axis (a the same resources in the Naivasha basin during the same ration of length/ width approximately ≥1.5) was piece-plot- time periods. ted with a point at either end. All excavated sediment was 146 • PaleoAnthropology 2017

TABLE 1. LOCATIONAL GPS INFORMATION (decimal degrees in WGS 1984) FOR ALL LOCALITIES WITH TUFF SAMPLES NEWLY REPORTED IN THIS STUDY.

GPS locality Chemical Tuff Sample Locality Section (WGS 1984) Composition S-0.503500° LVP2014-18 Gode Ariyo Sec.2015.A E34.338417° Wakondo

LVP2014-30 Homa Peninsula Luanda not available Wakondo S-0.503500° LVP2015-48 Gode Ariyo Sec.2015.A E34.338417° Wakondo S-0.505267° LVP2015-49 Gode Ariyo Sec.2015.WPT017 E34.339600° Wakondo S-0.506300° LVP2015-51 Gode Ariyo Sec.2015.WPT018 E34.339383° Wakondo near Maguna S-0.762733° LVP2015-73 Maguna South Point Site #2 E34.081217° Wakondo S-0.503500° LVP2014-19 Gode Ariyo Sec.2015.A E34.338417° Nyamita S-0.507733° LVP2014-20 Gode Ariyo East Sec.2015.B E34.353033° Nyamita S-0.730117° LVP2014-27 God Bura Elephant Site E34.081717° Nyamita S-0.505267° LVP2015-50 Gode Ariyo Sec.2015.WPT017 E34.339600° Nyamita S-0.506300° LVP2015-52 Gode Ariyo Sec.2015.WPT018 E34.339383° Wakondo near S-0.506717° LVP2015-54 Gode Ariyo Sec.2015.WPT018 E34.339416° Nyamita near Gode Ariyo S-0.512583° LVP2015-56 Gode Ariyo East Sec2014.B E34.35425° Nyamita S-0.507733° LVP2015-57 Gode Ariyo East Sec.2015.B E34.353033° Nyamita S-0.38775° LVP2015-61 Kajiei WPT029 E34.74678° Nyamita Maguna Point S-0.74628° LVP2015-63 Maguna Site #1 E34.08945° Nyamita Maguna Point S-0.74628° LVP2015-65 Maguna Site #1 E34.08945° Nyamita Maguna Point S-0.74628° LVP2015-67 Maguna Site #1 E34.08945° Nyamita S-0.73178° LVP2015-81 God Bura Molly's Site E34.19016° Nyamita S-0.86383° LVP2015-86 Kachuku WPT055 E34.20126° Nyamita S-0.334833° LVP2014-29 Rangoye Sec.2014.WPT 312 E34.294600° Nyamsingula S-0.494167° LVP2015-55 Adam's Site WPT021 E34.412567° Nyamsingula S-0.507733° LVP2015-58 Gode Ariyo East Sec.2015.B E34.353033° Nyamsingula S-0.759716° LVP2015-72 Maguna South WPT 040 E34.08345° Other

New MSA Evidence from the Eastern Lake Victoria Basin• 147

Figure 4. Schematic stratigraphic sections of tephra correlations between localities of the eastern Lake Victoria Basin. Tephra samples with the ID number (example: ‘72’) are those samples newly presented in this study. Samples with an ‘*’ after the ID number (example: 76*) are those recently published in a study of the Menengai Tuff (Blegen et al. 2016). screened through 1/8” mesh and sieved material collected and methodologies outlined in Blegen et al. (2015) for teph- in bags specific to date, square and level. All materials are ra analysis and Brown et al. (2013) for obsidian analysis. permanently housed in the collections of the Archaeology EPMA of major element oxides on volcanic glass is the fa- Department of the National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi. vored method of obsidian sourcing because this methodology has been tested and proven valid for obsidians from LITHIC ANALYSIS Stone Age assemblages in East Africa. A large comparative No single, standardized framework of lithic analysis exists dataset of geological obsidian sources characterized by in the study of MSA archaeology in Africa. Lithic analysis EPMA is available (Brown et al. 2013; Merrick and Brown and terminology follow Tryon et al. (2005). For data report- 1984). ing, we use tables similar in format to Shea (2008), but de- part slightly from his scheme in classifying ‘debris’ as flake TEPHRA CORRELATION fragments and angular waste (flaked material that cannot Correlations rely on glass composition and are based on be oriented). overlap of major element oxides following Brown and Nash (2014). Samples in this study include both fresh vitric GEOCHEMICAL CHARARTERIZATION OF tephra deposits, as well as tuffs subsequently reworked by VOLCANIC GLASS fluvial processes or variably overprinted by pedogenesis. The geochemical analysis of tephras and obsidians focuses Lithic and crystal phases from an eruption cannot always on electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) of eleven major el- be reliably distinguished from those found in detritral ement oxide proportions in volcanic glass from tuffaceous sediments, and thus our correlations rely on chemical com- deposits, sediments, and obsidian artifacts. Preparation position of the glass component for all samples following protocols for microprobe analysis of tephra and obsidian Brown and Nash (2014). All correlations are supported by follow University of Utah Microprobe facilities equipment similarity coefficients (SCs) to quantify similarity between 148 • PaleoAnthropology 2017 means of glass analyses from samples after which a tephra Site, Luanda Homa Peninsula, and Kajiei on the south shore is named the ‘type sample’ and the mean value of all other of the Winam Gulf, and Rangoye on the Uyoma Peninsula modes in our dataset following the methodology of Blegen north of the Winam Gulf (see Figures 1c, 4). These tephra et al. (2015). We use ten elements and/or element oxides: correlations roughly quadruple the area over which Late 2 SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, FeO, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, and Pleistocene eLVB exposures are known, from ~650km to Cl in computation of SCs. In this methodology, for any >2500km2, and show that they occur both north and south two-tephra comparison, SCs are the ratios obtained by di- of the Winam Gulf (see Figure 1c). viding pairs of sample means (with the larger value of the two samples always the denominator such that the ratio is Geology of Pleistocene Localities always ≤1.0) element by element as defined by Borchardt In the three new Karungu localities, the sedimentary pack- et al. (1972). Resulting SCs range between 0 (complete dis- ages and depositional environment above, below, and be- similarity) to 1 (perfect similarity). Previous studies have tween the tephras appear similar in thickness and charac- proposed arbitrary cutoffs for interpreting SCs in terms of ter to the paleosols described for nearby stratigraphically potential correlation. Kuehn and Foit (2006) proposed a equivalent sites of Karungu (Beverly et al. 2015a). The sedi- value of ≥0.95 for definitive correlation, and Froggatt (1992) mentary sequences Gode Ariyo and Gode Ariyo East on the recognizes that values ≥0.92 are typically accepted for cor- south shore of the Winam Gulf (see Figure 1c) also preserve relations. As in Blegen et al (2015), this study employs ran- a sequence of paleosols between known tephra. The expo- domization procedures to develop empirically informed sures at Gode Ariyo are unique in the Late Pleistocene beds SC cutoffs for accepting or rejecting potential correlations. of the eLVB in preserving a >2m thick and well-developed In this methodology, for each of the tephra type samples paleo-Vertisol below the Wakondo Tuff (see Figure 4; Figure published in Blegen et al. (2015), the means and standard 5a). This lower stratigraphic interval is very poorly exposed deviations of each element oxide are used to generate 5000 in the Late Pleistocene beds of the eLVB, and indicates the random, normally–distributed samples using Microsoft Ex- presence of lower stratigraphic intervals within the same cel statistical package (Rochowicz, Jr. 2010); this effectively Late Pleistocene eLVB tephra sequence further northeast represents 5000 replicates of the type tephra. We then cal- up the Winam Gulf and Nyanza Rift. The sedimentary se- culate SCs between each of the 5000 replicates and the type quence at Kajiei near the southeast corner of the Winam sample that are used to generate a frequency distribution Gulf is distinctive. The character of the Nyamita Tuff here is of expected SC values when comparing two samples of the typical, but there are no paleosols. Instead the strata found same tuff. From this distribution, we determine the lower above and below the Nyamita Tuff at Kajiei are comprised SC limit that encompasses the upper 95% of observations. of coarse sands locally derived from fluvially redeposited We use this value as the lower limit cutoff for rejecting po- weathered granitic basement rock. tential correlations. For example, an SC value between an unknown tuff and a type sample that falls below the 95% ARCHAEOLOGY OF LATE PLEISTOCENE cutoff is excluded for consideration as a potential correlate. SITES To increase the stringency of our protocol, we also require Much of the archaeological material collected at the new that the ten element oxides of the unknown tuff considered eLVB localities is typologically and technologically attrib- in our analysis overlap within two standard deviations of utable to the MSA, characterized by Levallois points as well the mean of the type sample. This is because an unknown as uni- and bifacially trimmed pointed pieces (Figure 6). sample that is very similar in composition for most element Prepared cores spanning a wide range of sizes, raw mate- oxides (e.g., 9 of 10) to a type sample will record a rela- rials, and styles of preparation have also been recovered tively high SC value, even if one oxide is distinct and out- (Table 4; Figures 6–9) similar to what has been observed side the range of expected values. The SCs included in this on Rusinga Island, Mfangano Island, and Karungu in the analysis were used as a data exploration and confirmation eLVB (Tryon et al. 2016). technique. All correlations were investigated in more detail A few localities offer archaeological materials typo- utilizing the known stratigraphy of a site and visual inspec- logically or stratigraphically different from what has been tion of the tephra datasets. previously observed. At Maguna Point Site #2 at the locality of Maguna South in the Karungu area, MSA bifacial RESULTS trimmed points (see Figure 6d, e) and Levallois cores (see Figure 8a, c) are found associated with and directly above TEPHROSTRATIGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF primary air-fall exposures of the 35.62±0.26 ka Menengai LATE PLEISTOCENE SITES Tuff (see Figures 4, 5b). The MSA material collected above the Menengai Tuff at Maguna South makes this material Tephra Correlations demonstrably the youngest MSA material in the eLVB. Chemical characterizations of 328 individual shards from The exposures at God Bura also provide an assemblage of 24 tuff samples (Tables 2 and 3) incorporate nine new lo- lithic artifacts from a controlled surface collection conduct- calities into the Late Pleistocene tephrostratigraphic frame- ed above the Nyamita Tuff at the God Bura Elephant Site. work of the eLVB: God Bura, Maguna, and Kachuku in the MSA material collected in association with bones and a tufa region of Karungu, Gode Ariyo, Gode Ariyo East, Adam’s deposit consists of three Levallois points (see Figures 6j and New MSA Evidence from the Eastern Lake Victoria Basin• 149

81 TOTAL 100.52 1.76 99.89 2.24 100.96 1.18 101.02 0.37 101.29 0.41 100.70 1.28 100.97 1.31 100.86 0. 97.37 4.41 100.89 0.66 101. 0.71 101.62 0.70

O 2 H 1.68 1.00 2.41 1.76 1.46 1.13 1.57 1.14 1.56 1.23 2.30 0.73 3.54 2.33 2.91 1.10 2.78 1.10 2.72 1.34 2.96 1.24 3.07 1.41

.92 Sum less O 99.72 2.21 98.35 3.33 100.39 1 100.33 1.01 100.60 1.22 99.24 1.43 98.15 2.55 98.68 1.64 95.33 4.08 98.90 1.53 99.59 1.17 99.29 1.54

O 0.28 0.02 0.30 0.07 0.19 0.02 0.22 0.02 0.21 0.02 0.18 0.05 0.19 0.07 0.20 0.02 0.21 0.04 0.09 0.03 0.12 0.02 0.13 0.02

00.00 1 2.21 98.65 3.34 100.58 1.91 100.54 1.01 100.82 1.22 99.43 1.47 98.34 2.55 98.89 1.63 95.54 4.08 98.99 1.53 99.72 1.19 99.42 1.54 Sum

Cl 0.30 0.02 0.31 0.02 0.30 0.02 0.29 0.02 0.30 0.02 0.27 0.06 0.16 0.05 0.17 0.01 0.18 0.03 0.16 0.01 0.16 0.02 0.16 0.01

F 0.51 0.04 0.55 0.15 0.30 0.04 0.36 0.04 0.35 0.05 0.29 0.08 0.37 0.15 0.39 0.04 0.40 0.09 0.13 0.08 0.20 0.05 0.22 0.04

O 2 K 4.85 0.19 4.76 0.26 4.93 0.17 5.07 0.19 5.02 0.13 4.92 0.15 4.67 1.21 4.99 0.26 4.86 0.44 5.13 0.26 5.34 0.29 5.16 0.30

O 2 Na 8.71 0.33 8.46 0.82 8.75 0.56 8.59 0.38 8.68 0.48 8.05 0.84 7.33 1.81 7.47 0.25 7.06 0.57 7.34 0.39 7.36 0.32 7.55 0.47

CaO 1.02 0.04 0.99 0.07 0.99 0.03 1.01 0.02 0.99 0.02 1.10 0.20 1.04 0.29 1.11 0.03 1.11 0.08 1.12 0.07 1.11 0.05 1.12 0.04

41 0.33 0.01 0.32 0.01 0.26 0.02 0.32 0.02 0.40 0.02 0.29 0.05 0.32 0.09 0.34 0.01 0.41 0.11 0. 0.03 0.31 0.03 0.38 0.01 MgO

7 0.35 0.03 0.35 0.03 0.36 0.03 0.35 0.02 0.35 0.03 0.34 0.04 0.28 0.0 0.30 0.02 0.29 0.03 0.28 0.04 0.28 0.02 0.28 0.01 MnO

FeO 7.91 0.18 7.79 0.25 7.91 0.17 7.90 0.12 7.85 0.10 7.55 0.62 6.55 1.66 6.63 0.13 6.65 0.41 6.64 0.16 6.66 0.12 6.65 0.17

3 8

O 2 Al 15.42 0.30 15.25 0.49 15.27 0.25 15.20 0.12 15.2 0.14 15.53 0.26 15.56 1.61 15.55 0.23 15.10 0.60 15.25 0.29 15.53 0.18 15.31 0.17

ZrO 0.12 0.04 0.11 0.05 0.12 0.06 0.12 0.03 0.11 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.09 0.05 0.10 0.03 0.11 0.04 0.10 0.04 0.10 0.04 0.09 0.05

0.53 0.03 0.54 0.04 0.59 0.03 0.58 0.01 0.59 0.02 0.61 0.06 0.57 0.15 0.58 0.04 0.56 0.05 0.64 0.04 0.64 0.02 0.64 0.04 TiO

59.96 1.47 59.23 1.77 60.80 0.98 60.75 0.56 60.89 0.57 60.37 0.42 61.12 1.42 61.26 0.97 58.81 2.42 61.78 0.85 62.02 0.63 61.85 0.89 SiO

20 25 14 6 15 15 20 18 8 15 15 8 No.

TABLE 2.TABLE MEANMAJOR ANDMINOR ELEMENT OXIDES AND ELEMENTSWEIGHT BY PERCENT.*

1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,2 M,N

18 30 48 49 51 73 19 20 27 50 52 54 ------

LVP2014 LVP2014 LVP2015 LVP2015 LVP2015 LVP2015 LVP2014 LVP2014 LVP2014 LVP2015 LVP2015 LVP2015 Sample

150 • PaleoAnthropology 2017

0keV,

1 TOTAL 98.90 0.73 101.00 0.41 101.02 0.76 99.68 0.58 100.21 0.63 99.72 0.49 99.66 0.37 100.59 1.04 100.81 1.79 99.33 2.06 101.55 0.86 101.11 0.91 99.76 1.00

2 .* H 2.77 0.48 1.20 0.74 1.79 1.21 0.19 0.28 1.59 0.97 1.66 1.21 0.02 1.01 2.33 1.32 2.70 1.38 3.97 1.76 2.30 1.24 1.79 1.45 2.64 0.99

Sum less O 97.14 0.24 100.55 0.67 99.98 1.18 100.25 0.33 99.35 1.49 98.79 1.40 100.43 0.65 98.96 1.82 98.84 1.89 96.16 3.20 99.97 1.86 100.13 1.94 97.96 1.54

(continued)

O 0.30 0.01 0.12 0.01 0.12 0.03 0.12 0.03 0.10 0.01 0.12 0.02 0.13 0.01 0.12 0.03 0.12 0.02 0.35 0.06 0.27 0.05 0.34 0.05 0.16 0.04

97.44 0.26 100.67 0.67 100.10 1.18 100.36 0.33 99.45 1.48 98.92 1.39 100.57 0.66 99.08 1.83 98.97 1.89 96.51 3.16 100.24 1.89 100.46 1.93 98.12 1.54 Sum below each element oxide mean. Voltage= mean. oxide element each below

Cl 0.32 0.00 0.16 0.01 0.16 0.01 0.16 0.01 0.17 0.01 0.17 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.16 0.03 0.17 0.01 0.41 0.09 0.35 0.05 0.41 0.06 0.23 0.05

F 0.54 0.03 0.19 0.04 0.19 0.06 0.19 0.06 0.15 0.04 0.21 0.04 0.23 0.02 0.21 0.07 0.20 0.04 0.61 0.10 0.46 0.10 0.58 0.09 0.25 0.07

O 2 K 4.49 0.18 5.32 0.19 5.34 0.26 5.11 0.04 5.07 0.32 5.03 0.23 5.15 0.19 5.18 0.27 5.10 0.21 4.63 0.27 5.32 0.18 4.96 0.22 4.75 0.23

O 2 Na 5.86 1.57 7.76 0.17 7.54 0.27 7.70 0.15 7.57 0.23 7.34 0.40 7.65 0.02 7.43 0.31 7.35 0.31 7.83 1.10 8.28 0.55 8.77 0.70 7.33 0.42

CaO 0.64 0.01 1.10 0.03 1.09 0.06 1.12 0.01 1.11 0.03 1.10 0.03 1.11 0.02 1.07 0.11 1.12 0.03 0.77 0.12 1.03 0.06 0.98 0.07 1.06 0.13

0.17 0.01 0.35 0.03 0.34 0.02 0.33 0.02 0.33 0.02 0.33 0.02 0.33 0.03 0.35 0.06 0.40 0.03 0.22 0.07 0.37 0.03 0.19 0.02 0.15 0.10 MgO

0.43 0.01 0.30 0.02 0.31 0.04 0.29 0.02 0.31 0.03 0.32 0.02 0.29 0.02 0.27 0.05 0.30 0.02 0.33 0.06 0.29 0.02 0.33 0.02 0.31 0.03 MnO

FeO 9.06 0.09 6.77 0.08 6.76 0.16 6.73 0.08 6.67 0.10 6.61 0.07 6.77 0.10 6.29 0.91 6.59 0.15 7.20 0.77 6.54 0.30 7.27 0.12 7.55 0.13

O 2 Al 10.22 0.16 15.39 0.18 15.36 0.18 15.67 0.06 15.74 0.30 15.69 0.18 15.84 0.16 15.86 0.49 15.63 0.26 15.48 0.69 16.10 0.23 15.52 0.28 14.35 0.43

ZrO 0.18 0.01 0.08 0.03 0.08 0.04 0.08 0.03 0.11 0.04 0.07 0.02 0.10 0.07 0.08 0.03 0.11 0.05 0.19 0.05 0.22 0.05 0.23 0.05 0.11 0.04

0.59 0.03 0.65 0.03 0.66 0.05 0.67 0.04 0.67 0.05 0.66 0.04 0.68 0.01 0.64 0.10 0.67 0.03 0.41 0.11 0.52 0.05 0.44 0.04 0.58 0.05 TiO

64.95 0.94 62.58 0.42 62.28 0.69 62.03 0.40 61.57 1.01 61.31 0.68 62.26 0.48 61.55 1.17 61.33 1.12 58.44 1.71 60.77 0.92 60.78 0.99 61.44 1.04 SiO

2 15 14 14 5 14 2 15 15 14 13 15 11 No.

2,2 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 M,N TABLE 2.TABLE MEANMAJOR ANDMINOR ELEMENT OXIDES AND ELEMENTSWEIGHT BY PERCENT

54 56 57 61 63 65 67 81 86 29 55 58 72 ------

LVP2015 LVP2015 LVP2015 LVP2015 LVP2015 LVP2015 LVP2015 LVP2015 LVP2015 LVP2014 LVP2015 LVP2015 LVP2015 Sample Sample listed on left (M,N=mode number, number of modes; No.=number of analyses). One standard deviation from the mean listed the mean from deviation standard analyses). One of No.=number modes; of number number, left (M,N=mode on listed Sample beam current=25nA, spot size=10mm. spot current=25nA, beam *

New MSA Evidence from the Eastern Lake Victoria Basin• 151

TABLE 3. SIMILARITY COEFFICIENTS (SCs) FOR ALL DISTINCT MODES OF SAMPLES BASED ON TEN MAJOR-ELEMENT LIST (samples reported here listed vertically [left] and compared with the type samples [top])*.

Wakondo Tuff Nyamita Tuff Nyamsingula Tuff Sample CAT09-05 CAT09-21 CAT10-03 (0.92) (0.93) (0.91) LVP2014-18 0.98 0.87 0.89 LVP2014-30 0.98 0.87 0.90 LVP2015-48 0.95 0.86 0.90 LVP2015-49 0.96 0.88 0.88 LVP2015-51 0.95 0.88 0.87 LVP2015-73 0.93 0.90 0.88 LVP2014-19 0.88 0.95 0.85 LVP2014-20 0.88 0.98 0.86 LVP2014-27 0.86 0.95 0.84 LVP2015-50 0.84 0.96 0.82 LVP2015-52 0.86 0.95 0.84 LVP2015-54 0.85 0.96 0.83 LVP2015-54 0.79 0.73 0.73 LVP2015-56 0.86 0.97 0.84 LVP2015-57 0.86 0.96 0.84 LVP2015-61 0.86 0.97 0.85 LVP2015-63 0.87 0.96 0.85 LVP2015-65 0.87 0.96 0.84 LVP2015-67 0.86 0.96 0.84 LVP2015-81 0.85 0.95 0.83 LVP2015-86 0.85 0.96 0.83 LVP2014-29 0.86 0.80 0.91 LVP2015-55 0.91 0.90 0.92 LVP2015-58 0.89 0.82 0.94 LVP2015-72 0.86 0.87 0.82 *Type samples from Blegen et al. (2015) and Lower 95% confidence limit for 10 element SCs (in parentheses) for each type sample/mode in top row.

6n for examples) as well as a large bifacial pointed tool (see implying that it is not likely derived from the Pleistocene Figure 9c). Previously, the only large bifacial artifacts (n=2) sediments at the site. collected by our team from the Pleistocene exposures of the eLVB are heavily weathered, rolled, and clearly redeposited OBSIDIAN (Faith et al. 2015; Tryon et al. 2012). The large bifacial tool A ~3cm obsidian medial blade fragment from the 68 ka site at God Bura Elephant Site could also have been reworked of Wakondo Bovid Hill (Jenkins et al. 2017) was recovered from (currently unknown) sediments much older than the in 2011 and analyzed for this study (see Figure 6i). It is Nyamita Tuff (49 ka), but the artifact is not heavily rolled or chemically indistinguishable from the source of Sonanchi weathered. The locality of Kajiei on the southeast extremity crater in the Naivasha basin of the central Kenyan rift val- of the Winam Gulf preserves Levallois points (see Figure ley, ~250km east of the Wakondo Bovid Hill site. Another 6k, l) and a very small (1.9cm) Levallois core (see Figure obsidian core fragment (~3cm) collected from above a unit 6c) collected above the Nyamita Tuff. Exposures above the attributed to the Nyamita Tuff at Onge, Karungu and ana- Nyamita Tuff at Kajiei included a backed piece (see Figure lyzed for this study is from this same Sonanchi source. A 6h), the only LSA artifact recovered in our surveys of Late single piece of obsidian angular waste (~1cm) surface col- Pleistocene eLVB exposures. The artifact in question was lected from above the Nyamita Tuff at Kajiei is sourced to found on a deflation surface in association with pottery, south Naivasha basin (Table 5). 152 • PaleoAnthropology 2017

Figure 5. Photographs of Gode Ariyo and Maguna South sites sampled for tephra analysis in July 2015: A) photograph of Gode Ariyo near measured section ‘Sec.2015WPT 017’ showing the large paleo-Vertisol exposed beneath the Wakondo Tuff at this locality. This lower stratigraphic interval is very poorly exposed at other known localities in the Late Pleistocene beds of the eLVB; B) photograph of Maguna Point Site #2 collection at Maguna South. Note MSA artifacts are coming from above the Menengai Tuff at Maguna Point Site #2; this upper stratigraphic interval is not exposed at other known localities in the Late Pleistocene beds of the eLVB. Artifacts collected from Maguna South: Maguna Point Site #2 are pictured in Figures 6 and 7. New MSA Evidence from the Eastern Lake Victoria Basin• 153

Figure 6. Selection of pointed pieces and technologically diagnostic flakes from new localities in the eLVB: A) bifacial point, chert Maguna Point Site #1; B) tip (broken) of a thick biface, chert, Aringo; C) bifacial point (tip broken), chert, Aringo; D) bifacial point, fine-grained lava, Magana South WPT 040; E) bifacial point, chert Maguna Point Site #2; F) Levallois flake, retouched distally and ventrally fine-grained lava, Kisaaka; G) bifacial point (tip broken) black chert, Maguna Point Site #1; H) backed microlith, chert, Kajiei above Nyamita Tuff; I) medial blade fragment, obsidian, Wakondo Bovid Hill; J) Levallois point, coarse-grained lava, God Bura Elephant Site above Nyamita Tuff; K) Levallois point, lava, Kajiei above the Nyamita Tuff; L) Levallois point, red lava, Kajiei above the Nyamita Tuff; M) Levallois point (tip broken), lava, Maguna Point Site #1; N) Levallois point, red lava, God Bura Elephant Site above Nyamita Tuff; O) Levallois point, lava, Gode Ariyo, above Nyamita Tuff; P) Levallois point, lava, Maguna South; Q) bifacial worked piece, (point?), obsidian with matte patina, Kisaaka. 154 • PaleoAnthropology 2017

1 6 7 4 3 6 1 1 2 3 1 14 70 29 12 11 41 72 Total

0 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 Onge

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 Obware

South

Maguna Maguna 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 0

Point Point Site 2 Site Maguna Maguna

1 3 0 0 0 4 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 27 17 24 50

Point Point Site 1 Site

0 0 0 1 9 2 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 8 Maguna Maguna 18

0 1 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Maguna

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Kisaaka

0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 West Gode Ariyo

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 East Gode Ariyo

0 0 1 2 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 1 Gode Ariyo

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Site God Bura Molly Molly

0 1 2 3 3 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 site God Bura Elephant

0 0 2 3 3 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 God Bura

0 0 1 0 4 1 1 1 0 0 6 0 1 4 1 0 0 1 Aringo

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Wakondo Bovid Hill Bovid

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Kachuku

0 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 Kajiei

0 1 0 1 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 Rangoye TABLE 4.TABLE SURFACE COLLECTED ARTIFACTS FROMEASTERN LAKE VICTORIA BASINSITES 2015 IN

0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Nyamita

cortical flake Levallois flake Levallois blade - - -

Artifact Type Artifact Complete flakes Initial cortical flake Residual cortical flake Levallois Levallois point Non Blade Proximal flake fragments Levallois flake Non Non other Flake fragment wasteAngular Tools Biface Bifacial point Point scraper End or flake flake Retouched frag Retouched blade or frag blade Microlith

New MSA Evidence from the Eastern Lake Victoria Basin• 155

4 8 1 5 1 6 5 2 3 2 3 17 13 13 27 12 15 331 331 241 Total

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 2 1 1 1 9 0 1 1 3 Onge

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 6 0 0 1 3 Obware

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 9 13 13 South Maguna Maguna

(continued) 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 3 8 4 3 0 0 0 0 7

130 130 105 Point Point Site 2 Site Maguna Maguna

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 3 46 46 39 Point Point Site 1 Site Maguna Maguna

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 7 0 0 0 3 Maguna

0 0 2 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 5 1 0 0 4 Kisaaka

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 2 West Gode Ariyo

1 2 2 0 0 0 0 6 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 4 East Gode Ariyo

0 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 16 16 11 Gode Ariyo

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 Site God Bura Molly Molly

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 13 12 site God Bura Elephant Elephant

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 12 12 10 God Bura

0 2 4 0 1 0 4 1 5 2 5 3 0 1 0 0 1 32 32 14 Aringo -

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 Hill Bovid Wakondo

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 Kachuku

1 0 1 0 0 0 0 9 1 0 2 2 0 1 0 9 3 0 0 0 Kajiei

0 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 17 15 Rangoye

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 Nyamita TABLE 4.TABLE SURFACE COLLECTED ARTIFACTS FROMEASTERN LAKE VICTORIA BASINSITES 2015 IN

(all (all

aterial Black other

type not specified) Brown/Tan

White/Red - - - -

aw Artifact Type Artifact Cores, fragments core Casual Multiplatform preferential Levallois recurrent Levallois Blade Discoidal on flake Core Core frag Indeterminate Total R artifacts) Lava Chert Chert Chert Chert ( Chert Obsidian Quartz Quartzite Total

156 • PaleoAnthropology 2017

Figure 7. Selection of small cores from new localities in the eLVB: A) Levallois core, green chert, above Nyamita, Kisaaka; B) Levallois preferential flake core, white chert, Gode Ariyo; C) Levallois core, chert, Kajiei, above Nyamita Tuff; D) Levallois core, lava, Kisaaka; E) discoid core, red quartzite, Onge, above Nyamita tuff. New MSA Evidence from the Eastern Lake Victoria Basin• 157

Figure 8: Selection of medium sized cores from new localities in the eLVB: A) Levallois core, lava Maguna Point Site #2, Maguna South above Menengai Tuff; B) Levallois core, coarse-grained two-toned brown lava, Rangoye, near Nyamsingula Tuff; C) Levallois core, lava, God Bura above Nyamita Tuff. 158 • PaleoAnthropology 2017

Figure 9. Selection of large sized cores from new localities in the eLVB: A) Levallois core, coarse-grained green lava, Gode Ariyo above Nyamita Tuff; B) Levallois core, coarse-grained two-toned brown lava, Aringo; C) large bifacial pointed tool, lava, God Bura Elephant Site, above Nyamita Tuff. New MSA Evidence from the Eastern Lake Victoria Basin• 159

TABLE 5. INDIVIDUAL OBSIDIAN ARTIFACTS ANALYZED FOR SOURCING.*

Sample No. SiO2 TiO2 ZrO2 Al2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O F Cl Sum

LVP2015-89 7 75.68 0.12 0.05 12.18 1.89 0.05 0.08 0.39 4.70 5.03 0.43 0.15 100.53 Wakondo Bovid Hill 0.28 0.03 0.04 0.15 0.07 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.21 0.09 0.10 0.01 0.39 LVP2015-90 7 70.44 0.31 0.24 8.49 7.83 0.26 0.06 0.39 7.08 4.63 0.54 0.39 99.78

Kajiei 0.30 0.04 0.05 0.08 0.10 0.04 0.01 0.06 0.26 0.12 0.22 0.01 0.74 LVP2015-91 7 75.96 0.11 0.04 12.10 1.79 0.03 0.06 0.35 4.70 5.18 0.51 0.17 100.53

Onge 0.20 0.04 0.06 0.09 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.22 0.07 0.21 0.01 0.75 *Mean major and minor element oxides by weight percent. Sample listed on left (No.=number of analyses). One standard deviation from the mean listed below each element oxide mean.

EXCAVATIONS OF NYAMITA MAIN cavations (n=388) are made of the mottled chert (n=204) or In August 2013, an excavation area of 52m2 was opened on lava (n=184) and whole flake measurements by raw mate- the crest and eastern slope of a small hill forming the lo- rial group are provided in Table 7. The mottled chert source cality of Nyamita Main. The excavations uncovered sand- is found on the eastern side of Rusinga Island and the apha- to-gravel-bearing channels cross-cutting a silt-to-clay-rich nitic lava likely is derived from the Lunene Lavas, or simi- paleosol unit (Figures 10 and 11). larly aged lavas from Kisingiri, which are found in place at The main trench of the 2013 excavation was oriented the top of the ridges on Rusinga Island and as cobbles in approximately east–west and covered an area of 26m2 to drainages off of the ridges (Tryon et al. 2014). The quartz an average depth of 0.70m below surface. It extended to and quartzite have been observed in Pleistocene gravels at Tryon’s 2009 4m2 trench to recover a larger sample of lithic Nyamita, and as large clasts within granodiorite volcanic artifact material in situ (see Figure 10). The north trench bombs in the early Miocene Kiahera Formation. All of these was oriented north–south along the crest of the hill and an raw materials are local. The source of the green and black area of 26m2 was excavated to an average depth of 0.85m cherts has not been observed on Rusinga Island and these to recover faunal material in situ and establish its context. materials are likely non-local. Sediments encountered in the Nyamita Main excavations are variants of the first two general lithological cate- Taphonomic Context of Lithic Materials from Nyamita gories found in the Wasiriya beds. These are: 1) dark brown Main clay paleosols with varying amounts of silt and sand; and, Lithic artifacts excavated from the site represent the prod- 2) moderately well-sorted medium to coarse sand with ucts of on-site knapping in a minimally winnowed context. sub-round to angular lava and carbonate grains (see Figure Both the mottled chert and the lava raw materials, the only 11a-c). raw materials represented by sufficiently large numbers to assess their taphonomic integrity, conform to experimental Lithic Assemblage of Nyamita Main models for stone tools produced on-site and preserved in a A total of 449 surface and in situ artifacts were recovered primary context (Schick 1986). Size class analysis of piece- in 2008/2009 and 2013 at Nyamita Main (Table 6). Tryon’s plotted and sieve-recovered mottled chert artifacts shows excavations recovered 26 of the in situ pieces and 95 of the that 80.0% of all artifacts are ≤ 2cm in maximum dimension surface collected pieces. The 2013 excavations recovered an (Figure 12). The lava raw material is in a slightly winnowed additional 295 artifacts in situ (133 were piece-plotted and context, as lava pieces recovered from the excavation show 162 were recovered from the sieve) and 33 from the surface, slightly lower proportions of size class 1 flakes (< 1cm in for a total of 321 in situ pieces and 128 from controlled sur- maximum dimension). Accordingly, higher proportions of face collections. Most of the in situ artifacts were recovered the flakes are from larger size classes 3–5, indicating some from a small sand-gravel-filled channel in the main trench fluvial action sorted and removed smaller pieces. However, of the excavation. the presence of both lava cores and flakes in the same part of the site, suggests the material was knapped on-site and Lithic Raw Materials at Nyamita Main has been subject to minimal winnowing removing some of Eight raw materials are recognized from the Nyamita Main the smaller pieces. excavations: 1) a red and white mottled chert; 2) a fine- grained (aphanitic) lava; 3) a coarse-grained lava; 4) quartz; Technology of Lithic Materials 5) quartzite; 6) a green chert; 7) a black chert; and, 8) ‘other’ Like all lithic artifacts known from the eLVB, lithic artifacts small pieces of angular debris that cannot be confidently from Nyamita Main are typologically and technologically attributed to any of the above categories (see Table 6). The characteristic of the MSA (Figure 13). Flaked pieces include vast majority of all artifacts from the 2008/2009 and 2013 ex- bifacial points (n=2) and unifacial points (n=1) collected 160 • PaleoAnthropology 2017

Figure 10. A) Plan map of Nyamita Main 2013 excavation with piece-plotted lithic artifacts sorted by raw materials, fossil bones/teeth, and natural rock color-coded by category. B) Side cross-section of Nyamita Main 2013 excavation (looking west) with piece-plotted lithic artifacts sorted as before. C) Front cross-section (looking north) of Nyamita Main 2013 excavation with piece-plotted lithic artifacts sorted as before. New MSA Evidence from the Eastern Lake Victoria Basin• 161

Figure 11. Photographs of Nyamita Main excavations in August of 2013: A) wide-angle photograph (looking east) of excavations showing North trench on left and Main Trench to the right with total station set up to far right; B) photograph of north wall profile of North trench showing the stream channel in cross section; C) main trench under excavation viewed looking north. from the surface in 2008/2009 (Tryon et al. 2010; 2014) as individuals and all but one of these, a carnassial attribut- well as Levallois points (n=2) made in the red and white ed to Canis, are bovids (Table 8). The bovids represent at mottled chert and lava raw materials that dominate the least seven taxa from four tribes. Alcelaphin antelopes are lithic assemblage from the 2013 excavations (see Figure 13). most common (62.5% of all large mammal specimens by Cores exhibit both the preferential and recurrent Levallois NISP) and include the extinct medium alcelaphin related methods of flake production (see Figure 13). to wildebeest (Rusingoryx atopocranion), the extinct small alcelaphin similar to modern blesbok (Damaliscus hypsodon), Fauna of Nyamita Main extant hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), and at least two Fossil fauna at Nyamita Main derives from and immedi- individuals that could not be diagnosed to a more specific ately adjacent to a single ~2m wide by ~1m deep channel taxonomic level. The presence of bushbuck in the excavat- feature encountered along the north–south long axis of the ed sample is consistent with the same taxon and other taxa north trench (see Figure 10). The general shape of this chan- indicative of closed vegetation (common duiker) recovered nel can be observed in the north facing cross-sectional pro- from the surface collections. file of piece-plotted material in the north trench (red dots in Although sample sizes are small, the relative abun- Figure 10c). The channels appear to drain south and west, dance of alcelaphin specimens among the bovids from the similar to the trend of the modern Nyamita Valley. Faunal Nyamita excavation is similar to large samples of faunal material comprised the majority of plotted material in this material from the eLVB (Tryon et al. 2010, 2012, 2014), and trench and was relatively complete with many specimens is matched in contemporary arid to semi-arid grassland en- comprising entire elements such as hemi-mandibles. No vironments (Alemseged 2003; Vrba 1980). The extinct bo- cutmarks or percussion marks were observed, but surface vids at Nyamita Main, R. atopocranion and D. hypsodon, are preservation is poor. Very little faunal material was recov- characterized by exceptional hypsodonty (Faith et al. 2011; ered in the Main Trench and what was recovered consisted 2012). This adaptation is interpreted as suited to consum- mostly of isolated tooth or bone fragments. ing grasses in dry and gritty environments (Damuth and All of the vertebrate remains identifiable below -fam Janis 2011; Faith et al. 2012; Marean 1992). However, the ily level are cranio-dental specimens. The taxonomically presence of bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) and reedbuck identifiable sample based on teeth consisted of 16- speci (Redunca redunca and Redunca cf. arundinum), as well as hip- mens identifiable to the level of tribe or lower (Table 8, popotamus fossils surface collected from the site (Tryon et NISP=16, MNI=11). There are a minimum number of eleven al. 2010; 2012; 2014) suggest a local component of closed 162 • PaleoAnthropology 2017

TABLE 6. SUMMARY OF ASSEMBLAGE COMPOSITION FOR NYAMITA MAIN LITHIC ARTIFACTS.

% Red/ n Coarse Black Without White Lava Quartz Quartzite Other (subtotal) Lava Chert debris Chert

Core

Casual 5 1.85 1 2 1 - 1 - - Multiplatform 1 0.37 - 1 - - - - - Levallois 2 0.74 - 2 - - - - - preferential Levallois point 0 0.00 ------Levallois recurrent 2 0.74 1 1 - - - - - Blade 0 0.00 ------Core on flake 0 0.00 ------Core fragment 1 0.37 1 ------Core subtotal 11 4.07

Debitage Initial coritcal flake 0 0.00 ------Residual cortical 0 0.00 ------flake Levallois flake 2 0.74 - 2 - - - - - Levallois point 3 1.11 - 2 - - - 1 - non- cortical flake 71 26.30 32 32 - - 4 3 - Flake fragment 81 30.00 38 40 - 1 1 1 - proximal Flake fragment 98 36.30 47 46 - 1 4 - - other Flake subtotal 255 94.44

Debris Debris and 179 83 55 1 6 4 1 29 subtotal Tool point 2 0.74 1 1 - - - - - side scraper 1 0.37 1 ------bifacial point 1 0.37 - 1 - - - - - Tool subtotal 4 1.48

TOTAL 449 205 185 2 8 14 6 29 n, % without debris 270 100.00

habitats and standing water respectively. This agrees with clay paleosols. The fauna cannot be directly related to the evidence from tufa and isotopic analyses of paleosol car- artifacts at Nyamita Main. The majority of artifacts occur in bonates and organic material from the Nyamita Valley the main trench while almost all fauna was encountered in (Beverly et al. 2015a; 2015b; Garrett et al. 2015). the small channel feature in the north trench (see Figures The sand-to-gravel-filled channel from which fossil 10a, c; 11b). Further, the fauna on the site cannot be confi- fauna was recovered is variably cemented by carbonate dently shown to be archaeological as no obvious cutmarks and is more resistant to erosion then the surrounding silt- or percussion marks were observed. New MSA Evidence from the Eastern Lake Victoria Basin• 163

TABLE 7. SUMMARY STATISTICS OF DIMENSIONS (mm) OF WHOLE FLAKES FOR THE TWO MOST COMMON RAW MATERIAL TYPES FROM NYAMITA MAIN.

Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Flake Flake Flake Flake Flake Platform Platform Flake Total Total Whole Length Width Thickness Width Thickness Frags + Number Weight Flakes (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) AW of Pieces (g)

Lava 27 37.30 27.69 9.11 18.46 7.38 101 128 746.89 22.33 12.36 4.95 9.48 4.99 ±1 sd Red/White Mottled Chert 27 18.01 17.10 4.68 10.65 3.79 134 161 306.67

±1 sd 9.98 8.50 3.96 5.44 2.17

Figure 12. Size class distributions of artifacts by raw material category. Experiment totals from Schick (1986). 164 • PaleoAnthropology 2017

Figure 13. Artifacts: A) elongated Levallois point (lava) retouched on both dorsal margins; B) proximal convergent flake or blade (Levallois point?) made on red/white mottled chert; C) Levallois core with overshot preferential flake made on lava (found on surface on main trench 2013; D) recurrent Levallois or discoid core from Tryon’s 2009 excavation (also see illustration in Tryon et al. 2010); E) red/ white mottled chert Levallois core with recurrent unidirectional removals on debitage surface from Tryon’s 2009 excavations on surface of main trench. New MSA Evidence from the Eastern Lake Victoria Basin• 165

TABLE 8. NYAMITA MAIN FAUNAL LIST INCLUDING NISP AND MNI COUNTS.

Taxon NISP MNI Canis sp. 1 1 Tragelaphus scriptus 1 1 Redunca cf. redunca 1 1 Redunca cf. arundinum 2 1 Alcelaphus buselaphus 2 2 Damaliscus hypsodon 1 1 Rusingoryx atopocranion 1 1 Alcelaphini indet. 6 2 Ourebia ourebi 1 1 TOTAL 16 11

DISCUSSION ing raw materials from the same sources at the same times. This does not preclude the possibility that different hom- THE LATE PLEISTOCENE ELVB AND THE inin populations maintained different technological tradi- MSA/ LSA TRANSISTION tions in spite of knowledge of alternatives. Such behavior Data presented here showing MSA technology persisted is ethnographically attested (Wiessner 1983), though on a over a wide area in the Victoria basin as late as <36 ka much smaller geographical and temporal scale. The data agrees with all prior evidence from these Late Pleistocene presented here does suggest that, whatever the reason for exposures. In seven continuous seasons of survey and ex- the persistence of the MSA in the eLVB, it was a choice cavation, only a single diagnostic LSA artifact (see Figure hominin populations made with likely knowledge of alter- 6h) has been recovered and this surface find is probably natives, and not because of ignorance due to geographic younger than the associated Pleistocene deposits. In con- isolation. trast, hundreds of characteristically MSA tools have been Our sample size of archaeological materials in the Late recovered on the surface and in situ from all chronostrati- Pleistocene eLVB remains small. However, it is noteworthy graphically defined intervals between ~100 and 36 ka (Try- that all lithic artifacts from excavated contexts in several on et al. 2016). time intervals throughout the eLVB are characteristically While temporal variation in the end of the MSA and MSA. Also, while the sample of sourced obsidians pre- appearance of the LSA is a phenomenon increasingly rec- sented in this and recent studies remains small, all sourc- ognized across Africa, East Africa provides a unique venue ing studies of Pleistocene obsidians from the eLVB over in which to study this phenomenon. The late persistence of the past 30 years including the sites of Muguruk, Songhor, the MSA in western Kenya after 50 ka contrasts markedly Aringo 3, Kisaaka, Wakondo Bovid Hill, Onge, and Kajiei with the earliest appearances of LSA or MSA/LSA transi- unilaterally show the source of archaeological obsidians in tional materials at Mumba and Nasera rock shelters and the eLVB was the Naivasha basin (Brown et al. 2013; Faith the Naisiusiu beds of northern Tanzania as well as Enka- et al. 2015; Merrick and Brown 1984; Merrick et al. 1994). pune Ya Muto in the central Kenyan rift (Ambrose 1998; At the very least, our assertion that MSA technologies Leakey et al. 1972; Mehlman 1977, 1979, 1989). Additional- in the eLVB persist very late despite consistent contact with ly, the obsidian sourcing evidence presented here from af- early LSA-making populations, constitutes a reasonable ter 50 ka suggests MSA-making hominins of the eLVB and hypothesis, and one that can be tested by building on work the early LSA-making hominins of northern Tanzania and presented here. Enkapune Ya Muto all shared access to at least one com- Our research also shows the Late Pleistocene eLVB mon area between 100 ka and 36 ka—the Naivasha basin stratigraphic sequence can be expanded laterally across an of the central Kenyan Rift. This is despite the presence of area >2500km2 and extended chronologically to deposits high-quality obsidian sources closer to sites of the Victoria older than 100 ka and younger than 36 ka. The geographic basin and northern Tanzania (Brown et al. 2013). area incorporated by this expanded tephrostratigraphic Obsidians could have been transported by trade or framework, encompassing most of the Winam Gulf, also through direct procurement of highly mobile hunter-gath- suggests that this framework will eventually subsume erer populations (Ambrose 2012). Regardless, the humans some or all of the known nearby stratified Late Pleistocene making MSA or LSA assemblages from different parts of MSA sites including Rambogo, Randhore, and Muguruk equatorial East Africa would likely have had knowledge north of the Winam Gulf, as well as Late Pleistocene and of, or contact with, one another because they were procur- possibly Middle Pleistocene exposures of Simbi and Song- 166 • PaleoAnthropology 2017 hor in the Nyanza Rift for which tephras are reported (see geochronology and volcano-tectonic evolution of the Figure 1; McBrearty 1981, 1986, 1991, 1992; Pickford 1982, Kedong–Naivasha–Kinangop region, Gregory Rift Val- 1986a, 1986b; Pickford and Thomas 1984). Establishing ley, Kenya. Journal of the Geological Society 145, 107-116. chronostratigraphic context and ages for these sites will Basell, L.S. 2007. Exploration of the Middle Stone Age of east- provide a larger lateral area, longer timeframe, and larger ern Africa and excavations at Rambogo Rock Shelter, Kenya. sample sizes of archaeological, paleontological, and geo- Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge. logical material. Both the lateral and chronological expan- Beverly, E.J., Driese, S.G., Peppe, D.J., Arellano, L.N., Ble- sion of the Late Pleistocene eLVB provide improved control gen, N., Faith, J.T., and Tryon, C.A., 2015a. Reconstruc- and increased potential for investigating human behavior tion of a semi-arid Late Pleistocene paleocatena from though time and across space. the Lake Victoria region, Kenya. Quaternary Research. Tephrostratigraphy combined with archaeology has 84, 368–381. been used to investigate the Acheulean to MSA transition Beverly, E.J., Driese, S.G., Peppe, D.J., Johnson, C.R., Mi- in the Middle Pleistocene of equatorial East Africa (Tryon chel, L.A., Faith, J.T., Tryon, C.A., and Sharp, W.D. and McBrearty 2002, 2006), but similar programs either 2015b. Recurrent spring‐fed rivers in a Middle to Late within or between depositional basins have yet to be insti- Pleistocene semi‐arid grassland: Implications for envi- tuted for the MSA/LSA transition in the Late Pleistocene of ronments of early humans in the Lake Victoria Basin, the same region. The combination of excavations of open- Kenya. Sedimentology 62, 1611–1635. air, low-density sites situated in a well-resolved tephro and Beverly, E.J., Peppe, D.J., Driese, S.G., Blegen, N., Faith, J.T., chronostratigraphic framework, presented here, suggests a Tryon, C.A., and Stinchcomb, G.E. 2017. Reconstruc- methodology to further improve our understanding of this tion of Late Pleistocene paleoenvironments using bulk transition. geochemistry of paleosols from the Lake Victoria Re- gion. Frontiers in Earth Science 5, 1–12. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Beyin, A. 2006. The Bab al Mandab vs the Nile-Levant: an Fieldwork was conducted under research permits NCST/ appraisal of the two dispersal routes for early modern RCD/12B/012/2 issued to NB, NCST/5/002/R/576 issued to humans out of Africa. African Archaeological Review 23, CAT, NCST/RCD/ 12B/012/31 issued to JTF, and an explo- 5–30. ration and excavation license issued by the National Mu- Blegen, N., Brown, F.H., Jicha, B.R., Binetti, K.M., Faith, J.T., seums of Kenya (NMK). Our fieldwork is made possible Ferraro, J.V., Gathogo, P.N., Richardson, J.L., and Try- through the support from the National Geographic Soci- on, C.A. 2016. The Menengai Tuff: a 36 ka widespread ety Committee for Research and Exploration (9284-13 and tephra and its chronological relevance to Late Pleisto- 8762-10), the National Science Foundation (BCS-1013199, cene human evolution in East Africa. Quaternary Sci- BCS-1013108, and BCS-0841530), the Leakey Foundation, ence Reviews 152, 152–168. Harvard University, the University of Queensland, Bay- Blegen, N., Tryon, C.A., Faith, J.T., Peppe, D.J., Beverly, lor University, and the American School for Prehistoric E.J., Li, B., and Jacobs, Z., 2015. Distal tephras of the Research. We would also like to thank Tom Plummer and eastern Lake Victoria basin, equatorial East Africa: cor- the Homa Peninsula Project for donating a tuff sample. We relations, chronology and a context for early modern thank Julio Mercader (reviewer) and an anonymous re- humans. 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