Baroque Period

 The Genesis of the idea: An art-historical term used both as an adjective and a noun to denote, principally, the style that originated in Rome at the beginning of the 17th century superseding Mannerism. The Council of Trent (1545-63) had strongly advocated pictorial clarity and narrative relevance in religious art and to a degree Italian artists such as Santi di Tito (1536-1603) had responded with a more simplified style which has been called 'Anti-Mannerism'. Yet it was not until the 17th century, with the groundswell of renewed confidence and spiritual militancy in the Counter-Reformation Catholic Church that a radical new style, the Baroque, developed. Rome was the most important centre of patronage at this period and the return to compositional clarity was facilitated by a renewed interest in the antique and the High Renaissance in the work of Annibale Carracci and his Bolognese followers, Domenichino, Guido Reni and Guercino. Their work is characterized by a monumentality, balance and harmony deriving directly from Raphael. Carracci's great rival, Caravaggio, by contrast modified his Classic style with an early naturalism, using for his strongly-felt religious subjects characters who appeared to have walked in straight from the streets, the spiritual meaning of the narrative heightened by dramatically theatrical chiaroscuro. http://www.artchive.com/ftp_site.htm

Caravaggio (1572-1610), Amor Vincit Omniac. 1601-02

Rembrandt (1606-1669) Abraham and Isaac, 1634

Bernini (1598-1680), Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, 1647-52 Changes in Europe in the 17th century:

 Scientific revolution: o Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)- planets move around the sun o Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)- description of the orbits of planets o Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)- inventor of the astronomical telescope o Francis Bacon (1561-1626) - definition of the scientific method o Rene Descartes (1596- 1650) - the deductive approach o Isaac Newton (1642-1727) - combined observation with mathematics o Determinism o Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)- first modern materialist  Political Changes: o Age of Absolutism . Monarchy . Noble Status . International character of noble status and monarchy . Absolutism as a political doctrine  New forms of warfare extensive use of gun powder  The independent power of nobles eroded  Centralized governments  Accumulation of revenues  International competition and conflict- continuous wars  Colonialism: Americas and Asia were colonized by the English, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese.  Catholicism- Lutheranism Germany and Scandinavia -rise of the middle class values Regional princes embracing Lutheranism- reduce the authority of the church  Court life of monarchs  Migration of nobles to royal courts  Monarchs became a ceremonial figure  Elaborate rules of behavior  Aristocratic themes in arts  The idea of rhetoric

The Arrival of Marie de' Medici at Marseilles 1622-26 by Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) o The Florentine Camerata (1573-1592) . Giovanni Bardi, Vincenzo Galilei, Girolamo Mei, Gulio Caccini

A group of intellectuals, musicians and musical amateurs who frequented the salon of Count Giovanni de' Bardi in Florence between approximately 1573 and 1587. The term has sometimes been extended to cover the group that experimented with music drama under the auspices of Jacopo Corsi in the 1590s leading to the production of Dafne in 1598 and Euridice in 1600. The first to use the term ‘camerata’ for Bardi's circle was Caccini in his dedication of the score of Euridice to Bardi (20 December 1600). Bardi's son Pietro also called it the ‘Camerata’ in a letter to Giovanni Battista Doni in 1634. Only three musicians can be linked securely with the Camerata: Caccini, Vincenzo Galilei and Pietro Strozzi. Caccini, however, testified that ‘a great part of the nobility and the leading musicians and men of genius and poets and philosophers of the city’ convened there, and Galilei recalled that many noblemen used to go there to pass the time in songs and discussions, which, according to Pietro Bardi, ranged over a variety of subjects, including poetry, astrology and other sciences. The earliest evidence of a meeting at Bardi's is in the Diario of the Accademia degli Alterati of 14 January 1573, where it is recorded that the Regent of the Academy, Cosimo Rucellai, ‘sent someone from his household to say that he could not come because he went to the home of Monsig. de' Bardi to make music’ (I-Fl Ashburnham 558, ii, f.3v). Bardi's leadership was undoubtedly responsible for Galilei's research into Greek music and his contacts with Girolamo Mei, who by 1573 had studied every source then known about Greek music. One can easily imagine the excitement that the letters from Mei in Rome stirred in Bardi's circle, culminating in Galilei's attempts in 1582 to imitate the ancient songs in a setting of the lament of Conte Ugolino from Dante's Inferno (xxxiii, 4–75), and in his Lamentations and responsories for Holy Week, all now lost. Caccini mentioned having first performed three songs for the Camerata, Perfidissimo volto, Vedrò il mio sol and Dovrò dunque morire, in a manner of ‘speaking in melody’ and treating dissonances passing over a held chord with ‘a certain noble carelessness (‘sprezzatura’)’. Two important manifestos issued from Bardi's Camerata, a discourse by Bardi addressed to Caccini (c1578) and Galilei's Dialogo della musica antica et della moderna (1581). They have a number of principles in common, understandably, since they both derive from Mei: the ancient tonoi should be imitated, because they allow the affections of the texts to be expressed by the appropriate range of the voice; only one melody should be sung at one time, counterpoint being useful only for assuring fullness of harmony in the accompaniment; and the rhythm and melody should follow carefully the manner and speaking voice of someone possessed of a certain affection. Galilei, in addition, propagated Mei’s theory that the ancient Greek dramas were sung continuously, a belief that is reflected in the prefaces of Rinuccini, Caccini and Peri to their editions of the poetry and music for Euridice. www.oxfordmusiconline.com

 Reaction to renaissance polyphony- Return to the classical ideals  Doctrine of Affections Affection c.1230, "an emotion of the mind, passion, lust as opposed to reason," from O.Fr. affection, from L. affectionem (nom affectio) "inclination, influence, permanent state of feeling," from affec-, stem of afficere "to do something to, act on" (see affect (n.). Sense developed from "disposition" to "good disposition toward" (1382). Affectionate in the sense of "loving" is from 1586. http://www.etymonline.com/  Both valid for instrumental and vocal music, to express wide range of feelings strongly  Composers sought compositional methods to express the affections such as rage, excitement, grandeur, heroism, mystic exaltation  Rather than expression of personal feelings, expression of objective reality- represent affections in a generic sense  The normal forms of objects were distorted for the sake of the intensity of the artists’ vision (See extacy of Saint Teresa)  Dissonance, seconda practica(NAWM 66) Monteverdi (1567-1643)-Artusi discussion  NAWM 66  Pastorale: Main dramatic poetry in Italy during the mid 16th century. * Lyric in substance, dramatic in form, intended for reading and stage action * Attraction is not in the plot but in the mood. Charm of language and voluptuous imagery is the essence of the Pastoral idea * Most important poet, Tarquato Tasso. Tasso, Torquato (1544–95) Italian poet and prose writer. He was a member of the Court at Ferrara from 1565. His masterpiece, Jerusalem Delivered (1575), an epic on the First Crusade, became a model for later writers. © World Encyclopedia 2005, originally published by Oxford University Press 2005.

* Rinuccini (librettist of very first operas) is a follower of Tasso  Seconda Practica – to reflect the bitterness of love – usage of dissonances  1600 –Of the Imperfections of Modern Music – Giovani Maria Artusi  The word painting inclines to more generalized expression (mostly through harmonic color) rather than graphic word painting

 The idea of monody  Basso continuo  The new counterpoint  Free declamatory melodic line – relation with the meaning of the word “baroque”- Doctrine of affections – The difference of the contour of musical lines, compare Palestrina, Josquin’s or even late madrigal melodic lines with :  Gulio Caccini (1550-1618), Le Nuove musiche (1590), idea of solo madrigal . Le Nouve Musiche: There 3 major types of monody in this collection –all emerged from 16th century solo singing that depend on improvisation (either partially improvised or whose true soloistic character is not presented in notation) 1-Solo Madrigals: Caccini’s principal innovation: to mold the contours and rhythms of the melodic line more close to the poem and write out the melismas that had been improvised earlier. 2- Strophic Canzonettas: All stanzas have the same rhyme scheme and pattern of line- lengths. The same music is sung for each stanza. 3- Strophic variations: Music is variated in each stanza while maintaining the same bass line and harmonies- rather than canzonettas ottava rima can be used. Romanesca pattern is also frequently used.

Monody- spezzatura (non-challenging style)- nobility The Secular Songs in the early 17th century of the Italian Nobility: The Geography of Florentine monody by Howard Mayer Brown: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3126293  The Medici Grand Duke instructed his agent: find a boy with a beautiful voice and good grace in singing with embellishments in the Neapolitan manner – John Walter Hill  Scipione de Palla from Naples – Caccini learned from him the noble style of singing – “midway between singing and reciting” – foreshadowing Peri’s recitative –accompanied by five string guitar- foreshadowing basso continuo  The differences between the written and performed music.

Canzonet: also called canzonetta , Italian canzonetta , Italian plural canzonette form of 16th- century (c. 1565 and later) Italian vocal music. It was the most popular of the lighter secular forms of the period in Italy and England and perhaps in Germany as well. The canzonet follows the canzonetta poetic form; it is strophic (stanzaic) and often in an AABCC pattern. It is considered a refinement of the villanella (a three-voice form imitating rustic music) but bears some resemblance to the more serious madrigal, one of the major forms of the century. It is light in mood, with a clear four- to six-voice texture, and is characterized by dancelike rhythms, some word painting (musical depiction of certain words like “flight” or “fire”), and much use of simple melodic imitation.

Claudio Monteverdi, Luca Marenzio, and other celebrated composers wrote excellent works in this form, but Orazio Vecchi is considered to be the most outstanding canzonet composer. The English composer Thomas Morley and the German Hans Leo Hassler were also important, as they both wrote canzonets in their native tongues.

Although the canzonet was primarily a secular genre, examples with religious texts were also composed. Instrumental accompaniment and even entirely instrumental writing were frequent in later canzonets. They were also sometimes performed as vocal solos with instrumental accompaniment. http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9020096

 NAWM 67- Idiomatic thinking and novelties in notation – Repetition in music.  Performed during the 1580’s at the camerata and received loving applause  The genre is still identified as a madrigal due to its through composed structure  Each line of text treated separately ending by a cadence.  Solo singing – opportunity for greater expression – developments in the notation.  Repeated notes of speech rhythm – denoted as senza mis. In notation  The tradition of improvisation and notated indications: Esclamazioni: decrescendo after the attacking of note. Tempo rubato

The Birth of Opera

Forerunners of Opera:

Ballet:

* Courtly entertainment derived from masquerade including singing, dancing and acting *Coherent Plot * Simple Dramatic frame work * 1581 Circe ou le Balet comique de la Royne

Intermedio:

 Every Medici family wedding – celebrated with musical pageantry almost all based on Greek Mythology supported through allegory a contemporary political myth: Medici were not recent non-noble usurpers of power (reality) But a noble clan with an ancient right to rule (the myth)  In order to foster this political mythology Grand Duke Cosimo I organized an Academy of Art (1563) – John Walter Hill

 Music (music with drama in which all the words were sung) performed in between acts of an actual (spoken) play for the occasion of a courtly entertainment such as royal weddings  There were hardly any plot – mostly concentrated on a single image  Connected to the actual drama in a very allegorical way  Includes solos, duets, choruses, madrigals and instrumental pieces  For the marriage of Medici Grand Duke Ferdinando I – intermedi between the acts of a play: La Pellegrina (“The Pilgrim Woman”) – Each six interludes depicts an ancient myth concerning the power of music – contributing to the political rhetoric of Medici Florence. Some composed by Cavalieri and Caccini  1589 Six intermedi for Girolamo Bargagli’s comedy: La Pellegrina, planned by Giovanni Bardi, text by Ottavio Rinuccini, music by Marenzio, Cavalieri, Malvezzi. Music includes five-six part madrigals, choruses and an instrumental sinfonia.

Listening: NAWM 5th edition – Emilio de Cavalieri –Madrigal (discuss the monody), embellished melody in the top part with instrumental accompaniment. Composed for the wedding of Grand Duke Ferdinand de Medici , 1589. Intermedi for Girolama Bardi’s comedy, La Pellegrina directed by Giovanni Bardi –Read the explanations in the anthology. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EaL7EhEfxMA

Pastorale:

*Main dramatic poetry in Italy during the mid 16th century. * Lyric in substance, dramatic in form, intended for reading and stage action * Attraction is not in the plot but in the mood. Charm of language and voluptuous imagery is the essence of the Pastoral idea * Most important poet, Tarquato Tasso.

Torquato Tasso

From: World Encyclopedia | Date: 2005

Tasso, Torquato (1544–95) Italian poet and prose writer. He was a member of the Court at Ferrara from 1565. His masterpiece, Jerusalem Delivered (1575), an epic on the First Crusade, became a model for later writers.

© World Encyclopedia 2005, originally published by Oxford University Press 2005.

* Rinuccini (librettist of very first operas) is a follower of Tasso

Madrigal Comedy:

* 1597 Orazio Vecchi’s L’Amfiparnaso * Proves that madrigals (thus polyphony) alone were not suitable for dramatic purposes

The Florentine Camerata and the Birth of Opera

* Count Giovanni Bardi di Vernio (1534-1612), a distinguished patron of arts and letters * Vincenzo Galilei, Girolamo Mei * Giulio Caccini, Le Nuove Musiche *Idea of monody

1- Ancient Greek vocal music was always a single melody 2- Its rhythms were based on its words 3- It was confined to a narrow range which helped to determine its expressive character 4- With this kind of music Greek tragedies were sung all through out 5- Polyphonic music of the modern world cannot achieve this effect 6- Especially Galilei ridicules madrigal’s pictorialism and dissonances – J.W.Hill

* Jacopo Peri (1561-1633), Idea of Recitative

*Stile rappresentativo (It.: ‘theatrical style’).

One of several terms applied in the early 17th century to the affective styles of the ‘new music’. According to Pietro de’ Bardi (1634), ‘il canto in istile rappresentativo’ was developed by Vincenzo Galilei in Giovanni de’ Bardi’s Camerata, and the term first appeared in print on the title-page of Giulio Caccini’s Euridice (1600: ‘composta in stile rappresentativo’). Other composers linking the term with the theatre include Girolamo Giacobbi, whose L'Aurora ingannata (1608) includes ‘canti rappresentativi’, and Monteverdi, in his Madrigali guerrieri, et amorosi (1638).

Like the closely related ‘stile recitativo’, the term was not restricted to stage music. ‘Stile rappresentativo’, ‘musica rappresentativa’, ‘genere rappresentativo’ etc. are used for seconda pratica madrigals (Aquilino Coppini describing Monteverdi’s Fifth Book in 1608), solo songs or duets (in the preface to Caccini’s Le nuove musiche, 1602; the ‘lettera amorosa’ and ‘partenza amorosa’ in Monteverdi’s Concerto, 1619; Francesco Rasi’s Dialoghi rappresentativi, 1620; Monteverdi’s Lamento della ninfa, 1638) and even sacred concerti (Bernardino Borlasca in 1609). Thus the term can denote music for the theatre, music in a recitative style, or music that adopts a particularly dramatic or emotional approach to representing its text. The theorist G.B. Doni attempted to clarify the terminology. In the Trattato della musica scenica (1633–5), he distinguished between the ‘stile recitativo’, ‘stile espressivo’ and ‘stile rappresentativo’ (the last used on the stage). But the differences remain obscure: the ‘stile espressivo’ is more a heightened recitative than a separate style, and the ‘stile rappresentativo’ is ‘almost the same as today’s recitative’, although ‘some things should be added, and others taken away, to bring it to perfection’. More fruitful was Doni’s subsequent notion of three sub-species of the ‘stile detto recitativo’ (or ‘stile monodico’) in his Annotazioni sopra il Compendio de’ generi e de’ modi della musica (1640): ‘narrativo’ (e.g. Daphne’s report of Eurydice’s death in Peri’s Euridice, 1600), ‘recitativo’ or ‘recitativo speciale’ (e.g. the prologue to Euridice, with its more formal strophic organization) and ‘espressivo’ (e.g. Monteverdi’s Lamento d’Arianna, 1608). The confusion reflects the difficulties faced by composers of the ‘new music’ in giving a rational account of their essentially intuitive endeavours. Nevertheless, the term ‘stile rappresentativo’ is as good as any to suggest the vivid, emotional and dramatic qualities sought in music at the time. Tim Carter www.oxfordmusiconline.com/

Camerata after Bardi

 Bardi was sent to a diplomatic post in Rome  New patron - Jacopo Corsi (1561- 1602)  Corsi’s group included younger musicians – Peri, Rinuccini and favored stage productions to discussions on Ancient Greek Music  La Dafne- 1598  La Euridice ,1600, for the marriage of the grand duke’s daughter Maria de Medici- instead of using spoken dialogue to link its songs and choruses, as in earlier pastorals, it was entirely sung- stile recitativo

Euridice:

 The earliest opera of which the music has survived. Premiere in 1600.  Text by Rinuccini which is a pastorale on the myth of Orpheus and Eurydice  For the marriage of the grand duke’s (of Tuscany) daughter Maria de Medici and King Henry IV of France- instead of using spoken dialogue to link its songs and choruses, as in earlier pastorals, it was entirely sung- stile recitativo  The opera was only a small part of the wedding entertainment  In this first performance Peri himself sang the role of Orfeo and a boy soprano sang the role of Dafne  The divisions of the poem (Peri’s version):

Prologue: Conventional strophic aria of seven strophes sung by “Tragedy”, ritornellos in between strophes Rejoicings: Choruses, at Eurydice’s invitation all join in dance. Tirsi’s aria framed by a symphony Death of Eurydice: Recitatives Lamentations: A solo by Orpheus leads to a climax chorus Epiphany: Recitatives Descent into Hell: Dialogue between Orpheus and Venus, Solo by Orpheus, Scene closes with an antiphonal chorus Resurrection: Messenger’s announcement, solo by Orpheus, closing choruses and dances.

 Music: o Composed by Jacopo Peri (1561-1633) Peri, Jacopo (di Antonio di Francesco) (b Rome, 20 Aug. 1561; d Florence, 12 Aug. 1633). Italian composer and singer. He came from a lesser noble Florentine family and at the age of 12 was in Florence as a singer at the Servite monastery Ss. Annunziata; over the following years he worked as a singer and of organist at various churches and monasteries in Florence. He studied music with Malvezzi, who gave him a sound contrapuntal training. His main talent as a composer was for dramatic music; in 1583 he contributed some music (now lost) to a set of intermedi given at the Medici court, and in 1589 he sang in and composed an aria for the famous intermedi for La pellegrina given at the celebrations surrounding the marriage of Grand Duke Ferdinando I to Christine of Lorraine. Peri would have known Giovanni de' Bardi and may have been involved in the discussions of his camerata, but his relationship with the patron Jacopo Corsi in the 1590s was probably more significant. He collaborated with Corsi and the poet Ottavio Rinuccini to produce the first dramatic work with continuous music, La Dafne (1597–8); little of the music survives. However, it was probably similar in style to the next Peri–Rinuccini collaboration, Euridice (1600; published Florence, 1601), staged during the festivities for the wedding of Maria de' Medici and Henri IV of France. It was not a success, but today we can appreciate the dramatic effectiveness and expressiveness of his recitatives. (See also opera, 2.) Little of Peri's workater dramatic music survives. He continued to be active as a composer, however, cultivating connections with the Mantuan court and writing several dramatic works; publishing a song collection, Le varie musiche, in 1609 (reissued in 1619); directing the Easter music at S. Nicola, Pisa; and writing sacre rappresentazioni for S. Maria Novella, Florence, in the 1620s. His health was not good in these years, and although he survived the plague epidemic which attacked Florence in 1630–3 he died soon after the city was declared free of the plague, at the age of nearly 72. Denis Arnold/Tim Carter www.oxfordmusiconline.com/

o Le Musiche sopra l’Euridice – first surviving opera

Orpheus

ancient Greek legendary hero endowed with superhuman musical skills. He became the patron of a religious movement based on sacred writings said to be his own. Traditionally, Orpheus was the son of a Muse (probably Calliope, the patron of epic poetry) and Oeagrus, a king of Thrace (other versions give Apollo). According to some legends, Apollo gave Orpheus his first lyre. Orpheus's singing and playing were so beautiful that animals and even trees and rocks moved about him in dance. Orpheus joined the expedition of the Argonauts, saving them from the music of the Sirens by playing his own, more powerful music. On his return, he married Eurydice, who was soon killed by a snakebite. Overcome with grief, Orpheus ventured himself to the land of the dead to attempt to bring Eurydice back to life. With his singing and playing he charmed the ferryman Charon and the dog Cerberus, guardians of the River Styx. His music and grief so moved Hades, king of the underworld, that Orpheus was allowed to take Eurydice with him back to the world of life and light. Hades set one condition, however: upon leaving the land of death, both Orpheus and Eurydice were forbidden to look back. The couple climbed up toward the opening into the land of the living, and Orpheus, seeing the Sun again, turned back to share his delight with Eurydice. In that moment, she disappeared. A famous version of the story was related by Virgil in Georgics, Book IV. http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9057452

o Dramma Per musica or Favola Musica – drama with music. Sung all throughout. Confirms the ideals of the Greek theater. o Allegorical characters: Prologue: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WHMJgGE5Doc o Recitatives: Free declamatory melodic line, ambiguous harmonic direction, non-strophic text that are usually narrative sections or dialogues, rubato like structures with no definite pulse o Arias: Strophic text, clear harmonic direction, clear melodic lines with definite pulse. o Ritornello: instrumental sections in between strophes of an aria o Sinfonia: individual instrumental sections that are performed at the opening of the opera or between sections of the opera. Ex. Before or after an aria. o Non-idiomatic orchestration o Pastoral background o The difference between “madrigalism” and “affections”: “The melody must not depict mere graphic details in the text but must interpret the feeling of the whole passage” (Donald Grout, a short history of opera, page 42)

 Monteverdi’s Orfeo

Career: Monteverdi as a string instrumentalist in Cremona (leading center of violin making) knew improvised counterpoint. In one of his travels (as a musician) he was hired by Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga in Mantua about 1591 By the end of his 25 years in Mantua, he published 5 books of 5 voiced madrigals After the Duke’s death in 1612, he became the music director at San Marco Venice until his death in 1643. He had used independent basso continuo already in his 5th madrigal book (1605)and 6th book (1614) and used recitative style in the 7th (1619) which is entitled as concerto 8th book and rhetoric.

o Performed in 1607 in Mantua o Libretto by Alessandro Striggio. Just like Rinuccini’s Eurydice, a pastorale with monodic declamation

Favola in musica in a prologue and five acts by Claudio Monteverdi to a libretto by Alessandro Striggio based mainly on the Orpheus myth as told in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, though drawing also on the account in Virgil’s Georgics; Mantua, ducal palace, 24 February 1607. † the role of Apollo occurs in the published score but not in the librettos for the 1607 Mantua performances. ‡ this last chorus occurs in the librettos for the 1607 Mantua performances but not in the published score La Musica [Music] the prologue soprano Orfeo [Orpheus] tenor Euridice [Eurydice] soprano Silvia [Sylvia] the messenger soprano Speranza [Hope] soprano Caronte [Charon] bass Proserpina soprano Plutone [Pluto] bass Apollo† tenor Nymphs and shepherds, infernal spirits and Bacchantes‡ Setting The fields of Thrace (Prologue, Acts 1, 2, 5); the underworld (Acts 3, 4)

Unlike Peri’s Euridice (1600), on which it is modelled, Monteverdi’s Orfeo was not written for dynastic celebrations, but simply as an entertainment for the 1607 carnival season at the Mantuan court. It was prepared under the auspices of Francesco Gonzaga, elder son of the Duke of Mantua, for performance before the Accademia degli Invaghiti. It is possible that Orfeo owes its existence to nothing more than sibling rivalry between Francesco Gonzaga and his brother Ferdinando, who from 1605 had studied at the university of Pisa and had become closely involved in musical and theatrical activity at Pisa and Florence. On 5 January 1607 Francesco wrote to Ferdinando mentioning the new opera and asking him to request the loan of a castrato in the service of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. The singer whom Ferdinando selected, the young castrato Giovanni Gualberto Magli, who did not arrive at Mantua until 15 February, was at first expected to sing the prologue and one other unspecified role (possibly that of Speranza); later, he was also allotted the role of Proserpina. The other members of the cast, insofar as they can be identified, were the singer-composer Francesco Rasi (presumably in the title role) and ‘a little priest’ (possibly Girolamo Bacchini) who sang Eurydice. It seems likely, then, that most, if not all, the principal female roles of the opera were sung by castratos. The instrumentalists and chorus were probably drawn from the court musical establishment. The apparently large and diverse instrumental ensemble required (related to the rich ensembles of intermedi) can, in fact, be managed by a small group of players. John Whenham www.oxfordmusiconline.com o The overall mood is different than Peri’s. The endings are different. The prologues are different. Compare the opening arias: La tragedia – La Musica: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yxBT1pfVAKQ&feature=BFp&list=PLE2FD009779 56217D http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LwndvoeCXos&list=PLE2FD00977956217D 1- Successful combination of madrigal style and possibilities of monadic singing 2- Use of orchestration for dramatic purposes 3- Idea of unification 4- Idea of form 5- More explicit in terms of the instrument identification compared to his contemporaries o Monteverdi’s music is unified, even for the whole work: Prelude Act I Prologue: Five Strophes sung by “Music Rejoicings: Solo arias, recitatives, choruses, orchestral ritornellos Dramatic action Act II Death of Eurydice: Introductory recitatives, narration by the messenger Lamentations: Solo of Orpheus, orchestral interludes, finale, duets with choral refrain Act III Epiphany: “Hope” consoles and encourages Orpheus Dramatic Center Descent into Hell: Aria of Orpheus, recitatives, orch. Interludes, closing chorus. Act IV Resurrection: Orpheus and the infernal deities (recitatives) Second death of Eurydice: Recitatives by Orpheus, closing chorus Epilogue Act V Second Lamentation: Solo of Orpheus Ascent into Heaven: Duet of Apollo and Orpheus, short closing chorus and ballet o The opening sinfonia – Tocatta o All strophes of arias are written out with the idea of variation. For example in the fifth verse of the opening aria we don’t hear the tonic resolution at the end because of the word painting: “When I sing, the breeze stops”. o Act II, Orfeo’s aria in frottola style, ritornello in five part counterpoint o In the recitative: Messenger’s narration of Euridice’s death and shepherd’s reaction  In the same style of Peri recitatives However, melodic direction is more organized as it inclines towards the climax. Messenger’s emotional speech starting at measure 50 reaches to a climax in m. 72 which is underlined with the E-g chords in third relation: Messenger’s recitative: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nx44v8EA2BY&feature=BFa&list=PLE2FD009779 56217D&lf=BFp&index=2  Shepherd (as they understand messenger’s grief now) repeat her opening phrase – consistency in musical expression.  Orfeo’s lament (still a part of the recitative) – Each phrase builds upon what precedes and intensifies it through pitch and rhythm  Chorus reply – kommos – in the style of a recitative.  The first line of the chorus section uses the messenger’s opening line as the bass part – in the style

kommos in Attic tragedy, lyric dirge or lament sung by the chorus and one or more of the actors alternately. (From The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature in Classics)

Concertato Medium and the Grand Concerto

 Discussion on the differences between the strophic method and the through composed method  The idea of ground bass or basso ostinato o Romanesca pattern

A melodic-harmonic formula used in the 16th and 17th centuries as an aria for singing poetry and as a subject for instrumental variations. Ex.1 shows the structural notes of the romanesca pattern: a descending descant formula supported by a standard chordal progression whose bass moves by 4ths. This scheme is to be viewed as a flexible framework, rather than as a fixed tune; it provided, though often disguised by elaborate ornamentation, the melodic and harmonic foundations for countless compositions labelled ‘romanesca’.

Giuseppe Gerbino www.oxfordmusiconline.com o Passacaglia . Originated in Spain as a ritornello . Guitar chord patterns (2-4-8-16 bar units) in between strophes of a song . Evolved into variety of bass formulas usually in triple meter and minor mode o Chaconne . Originated in Latin America and imported into Spain . Simple pattern of guitar chords (2-4-8-16 bar units) . The Italia version reduced the chords to a bass line

 The Concertato Medium

1665, from Fr., from It. concerto "concert, harmony," from concertare "bring into agreement," in L. "to contend, contest," from com- "with" + certare "to contend, strive," freq. of certus, var. pp. of cernere "separate, decide" (see crisis). Before the word entered Eng., meaning shifted from "to strive against" to "to strive alongside." But Klein considers this too much of a stretch and suggests L. concentare "to sing together" (from con- + cantare "to sing") as the source of the It. word. Sense of "public musical performance" is 1689. Concerto was borrowed 1730 directly from It. as a musical term. http://www.etymonline.com/

o Concertato Madrigal: A musical work that has instruments and voices in equal functions. o Starting from the last sixth madrigal of the fifth book in Monteverdi’s madrigals . Instrumental participation (mainly the basso continuo usage) . Strophic variation o The seventh book is titled as “Concerto” 1619 . Example Ohime dov e il mio ben (from NAWM 5th edition): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nvmyADhtqfk  Two voices as soloists in equal importance  Basso continuo usage  Using strophe variation methods (the romanesca patterns)  Seconda practica o The eighth book: “Madrigals of War and Love” . Solos, duets, trios with basso continuo . Larger works for chorus, soloists and orchestra

o Sacred Concerto: NAWM 75

The Grand Concerto

o The cosmopolitan atmosphere of Venice . The chief port for European trade with the east . In the fifteenth century reached the summit of its power which is reduced in the 16th century o St. Mark’s chapel . Center of cultural life . Byzantine domes and golden mosaics

. Most of the civic ceremonies took place in the church or in the piazza . Willaert, Rore, Zarlino, Monteverdi, Merulo, Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli . Antiphonal tradition of double chorus . Antiphonal singing of Gregorian chant . Chorus singing in homophony (rather than solo voices singing in polyphony) . Compare Giovanni’s Grand Concerto (soloist and chorus sections) with Alleluia Pascha Nostrum (polyphonic elaborations of Leonin)

Grand Concerto

o Gabrieli, Giovanni (b Venice, c. 1554 ; d Venice, 1612 ). It. composer and organist, nephew of A. Gabrieli whose pupil he was. 2nd org., St Mark's, Venice, from 1585 . One of the great Venetian composers of motets with instr. accs. His mus. made use of the special antiphonal effects of vv. and brass obtainable in St Mark's. Comps. incl. Canzone for various combinations; 2 sets of Sacrae symphoniae ( 1597 and 1615 ), the first set containing the celebrated Sonata pian' e forte alla quarta bassa; concertos; and many motets incl. Angelus ad pastores, O magnum mysterium, Exaudi Deus, Hodie Christus natus est, Jubilate Deo, Regina coeli, Sancta et immaculata virginitas, etc. Also wrote many secular madrigals. Pupils incl. Schütz and Praetorius . www.oxfordmusiconline o Grand Concerto . NAWM 74: http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=MVCD1146 . Date- 1610’s . Solo voices, chorus, orchestra and basso continuo . A sacred genre in Latin . Solo sections are closer to the monody idea . The middle section after the sinfonia is a polyphonic section . The mixture of old and new traditions . The idea of blocks (block-built structures) . Grand Concerto in the Lutheran world – Heinrich Schütz- NAWM 78 o Monteverdi’s Vespers 1610 (While still in Mantua) –Listen to the Sonata that foresees sonata da chiesa Schütz, Heinrich (b Köstritz, 1585 ; d Dresden, 1672 ). Ger. composer and organist, one of greatest of Bach's predecessors. Studied law, but patron, impressed by his mus. ability, sent him in 1609 to study in Venice with G. Gabrieli until 1612 . Court org., Kassel, 1613 . Kapellmeister, Dresden electoral court, 1617 – 57 . Spent 3 periods as court cond. in Copenhagen 1633 – 45 . In Dresden with court orch. from 1645 . Comp. first Ger. opera, Dafne, 1627 (mus. destroyed by fire 1760 ). Revisited It. 1628 – 9 . His special importance lies in his grafting of It. choral and vocal style on to Ger. polyphonic tradition. Wrote magnificent settings of Passions, Christmas oratorio, 7 Words from Christ on the Cross, etc. Works pubd. in 16 vols. 1885 – 94 , ed. Spitta , with suppl. vol. 1927 www.oxfordmusiconline

NAWM 72 – Barbara Strozzi – Lagrime mie, Cantata (1650’s) Cantata (It.; Fr. cantate; Ger. Kantate).

A work for one or more voices with instrumental accompaniment. The cantata was the most important form of vocal music of the Baroque period outside opera and oratorio, and by far the most ubiquitous. At first, from the 1620s in Italy, it was a modest form, but at its most typical it consists (notably in Italy in the later 17th century) of a succession of contrasting sections which by the early 18th century became independent movements, normally two arias, each preceded by a recitative. Most Italian cantatas of this period are for a solo voice, but some were written for two or more voices. Up to the late 17th century the cantata was predominantly a secular form, but the church cantata, which included choral movements ranging from simple chorale harmonizations to complex, extended structures, was a major feature of Lutheran music in early 18th-century Germany. The standard form of accompaniment gradually expanded from continuo alone in the mid-17th century to an orchestra, including obbligato instruments, in the 18th. Cantatas, mainly secular, were also fairly widely cultivated elsewhere, especially in France and Spain and to a lesser extent in England. Both the secular and the sacred cantata sharply declined in importance after the middle of the 18th century. In contrast to the previous 100 years and more, the cantata has enjoyed no consistent independent existence since then, and the term has been applied, somewhat haphazardly, to a wide variety of works which generally have in common only that they are for chorus and orchestra.

I. The Italian cantata to 1800

From the early 17th century to the late 18th the cantata was the principal form of Italian vocal chamber music. During this period, when practically every composer of standing in Italy cultivated it – some, notably Marazzoli, Alessandro Scarlatti and Benedetto Marcello, extensively – it grew from a comparatively short piece, accompanied only by continuo, into an extended, orchestrally accompanied complex of movements reflecting contemporary operatic music.

The poetical texts of the Italian cantata, throughout its lifespan, are typically pastoral or amatory, but some are historical or mythological, and a few humorous or satirical, while a significant proportion deal with moral or devotional subjects; the latter may resemble contemporary motets, but motets are settings of Latin words and meant for use in church. Cantata texts are also normally lyrical monologues, i.e. the direct expression of a named or unnamed personage, articulated by a poet and composer and delivered by a singer; dialogues and other cantatas for two or more characters inevitably incline toward the dramatic, but works intended for staging fall outside the scope of the chamber cantata, as does theSerenata. The Italian cantata was cultivated in all courts and cities of the peninsula and by Italians and others north of the Alps, especially at Catholic courts such as Vienna and Munich; it was also cultivated in England and, to a lesser extent, in France.

Malcolm Boyd www.oxfordmusiconline.com

NAWM 76 – Giacomo Carissimi. Historia di Jephte, Oratorio (1648)

Oratorio

An extended musical setting of a sacred text made up of dramatic, narrative and contemplative elements. Except for a greater emphasis on the chorus throughout much of its history, the musical forms and styles of the oratorio tend to approximate to those of opera in any given period, and the normal manner of performance is that of a concert (without scenery, costumes or action). The oratorio was most extensively cultivated in the 17th and 18th centuries but has continued to be a significant genre.

In the 16th century and the first half of the 17th, the word ‘oratorio’ most commonly referred to the building (the oratory) and the spiritual exercise that took place within it. The meaning of the word was eventually broadened, however, to include the new musical genre used in the services, and the earliest documented use of it to mean a musical composition was in 1640. In that year the Roman Pietro della Valle wrote in a letter to the Florentine theorist G.B. Doni that he had composed an ‘Oratorio della Purificatione’ for the oratory of the Chiesa Nuova. The work is only about 12 minutes long, however, and is called a dialogue rather than an oratorio in its manuscript source. Della Valle's use of both terms, ‘dialogue’ and ‘oratorio’, illustrates the kind of terminological ambiguity that was prevalent in the mid-17th century.

Howard E. Smither www.oxfordmusiconline.com

Listening Examples from Carissimi Oratorio: http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=FL23053

Early Baroque Instrumental Music

Basic Procedures:

1- Fugal pieces in continuous (non-sectional) imitative counterpoint 2- Pieces in discontinuous (sectional)imitative counterpoint 3- Pieces that vary a given melody or bass 4- Stylized dances 5- Pieces in improvisatory style

 Early opera and monody composers served side by side with the instrumental music composers at the courts of the Italian nobility  Works written mainly for lute or keyboard  Composers purpose – to capture the spontaneous effect of the improvisation  Main genres for keyboard – toccata, variations, dances  Girolomo Frescobaldi (1583- 1643), organist of St. Peter’s in Rome from 1608. o Studied with Luzzaschi – keyboard virtuoso and a seconda practica madrigal composer o He was employed at the Ferrara court until 1597 where he meets Gesualdo o In 1608 he became the organist at St. Peter’s basilica at Rome

Frescobaldi, Girolamo (b Ferrara, 1583 ; d Rome, 1643 ). It. composer and organist. Held post at Antwerp, becoming org. at St Peter's, Rome, 1608 – 28 (30,000 are said to have attended his f.p. there, an indication of his reputation as a virtuoso). Org. at Florentine court 1628 – 33, returning to St Peter's thereafter. Comp. motets and madrigals, Masses and Magnificats, but prin. achievements were his toccatas, fugues, ricercari, and capriccios for org. and hpd. His mus. had strong influence on Ger. mus. through his pupil Froberger . Baroque music for the next century was influenced by Frescobaldi's development of variation‐form.

o Genres: - Toccatas - Variations - Contrapuntal works: ricercares, canzonas, fantasias, capriccios

o Toccatas:  Toccata performance in Frescobaldi’s words: “ manner of playing must not be subjected to a beat” (1616)  Different than Merulo’s organization – free structure with imitation and free development of variation – in improvisatory style  Main function of a toccata is a prelude to a the next piece – define the mode of the piece that it preceded  Written idiomatically for harpsichord except the pieces that were written for liturgy  Continuity – evaded cadences  Contrasting sections or series of contrasting moods juxtaposed in continuity o Ricercare - Fugal pieces, continuous texture, imitative counterpoint - one theme is developed in imitation, serious nature, works for organ or clavier.  If the music is specifically written for Roman Catholic Liturgy than it was always being performed by organ The high point of the organ ricercare was reached in the works of Frescobaldi. His Ricercari et canzoni was first published in 1615 and was reprinted with the capriccios in 1626. Some of the ten ricercares have several sections devoted to different subjects; others treat one or more subjects simultaneously from the beginning or nearly the beginning of the piece. In the first, three subjects are combined in this way. The ninth is based on four subjects; the fourth, sixth, seventh and tenth are based on solmization syllables; in the last case the subject is repeated throughout in the top voice only, against a multi-sectional ricercare that unfolds in the lowest three voices. The second consists in effect of three double fugues in which both subject and countersubject are treated alternately in their original form and in inversion. The eighth is subtitled ‘obbligo di non uscir in grado’: that is, no part may at any time proceed by step. These ricercares, in spite of their severity, their archaic flavour and their comparative immaturity, are interesting for their single-minded pursuit of the contrapuntal ideal. The ricercares of Frescobaldi's Fiori musicali (1635), which were intended to replace the liturgical offertory, give a rather different impression. Four are multi-sectional in form. The sections are marked off by pauses, probably to indicate possible terminations in the context of liturgical performance. The ricercare of the first mass is an example of what may be called the variation ricercare: in each of its two sections the main theme is combined with different counterpoints. This technique is seen to perfection in the magisterial ‘recercar cromaticho’ from the second mass, which is in three sections and is preceded by a short toccata. The first ricercare of the third mass is similar in scope. In the alternative piece from the second mass, on the other hand, the main subjects, presented separately in the first three sections, are combined in the last. The last of these works has an optional fifth part, an ostinato which the performer must not only fit correctly into the polyphonic texture but also sing himself. John Caldwell www.oxfordmusiconline.com

. Listening Examples: Example: Ricercar primo (1615) http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=8.553 547-48  Three different fugal subjects combined.  Recitative like directionless harmony  Idiomatic keyboard writing. Themes are not song like.

. NAWM 80 ex. Ricercar dopo il Credo (after the credo) from Fiori Musicali 1635 (a collection of organ pieces intended for liturgical use): http://petrucci.mus.auth.gr/imglnks/usimg/4/4f/IMSLP88759- PMLP181690-Frescobaldi_FioriMusicali.pdf

. chromaticism, shifting harmonies and dissonances: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vF5tOUUlLRE . followed by Toccata cromaticha: Listening Example . Difference between toccata and ricercare: Ricercare is fugal with clearly stated themes. Toccata – recitative like quality juxtaposition of moods in free declamation. http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=CDS6 87 Fiori Musicali: Toccata cromaticha per le levatione

Variations – See J. W. Hill’s “Baroque Music” pg. 59-60 – not included in the continuous genres. These pieces should be considered as a separate category  Passamezzo  Romanesca  Passacaglia (pasar –to walk, calle – street)  Ciaconna ex. Partite sopra I’aria Romanesca, Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press, Vol. II, page 17 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H7Lb9hKBBQw

o Fantasia, Fancy: More complex formal organization compared to ricercares. mainly introductions for other pieces . form: fugal exposition – successive sections with different counter subjects, development of the opening theme and toccata like figurations are used . North German School . 30 Years War:

(1618–48), in European history, a series of wars fought by various nations for various reasons, including religious, dynastic, territorial, and commercial rivalries. Its destructive campaigns and battles occurred over most of Europe, and, when it ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the map of Europe had been irrevocably changed. http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9072150

. See Amsterdam, Hamburg, Leipzig, Wittenberg (not shown on the map. Placed at the Saxony and Bohemia) on the map

. Lutheran Organ Music:  Italian Influence first emerged in the Catholic States (south) of the Holy Roman Empire  As the Lutheran states concentrated on the chorale idea, they received the Italian influence only in the 17th century  Every Lutheran church had an elaborate organ (at least two keyboards and sets of pedals) starting from the 17th century

. Jan Pieterszon Sweelinck (1587-1654), Amsterdam, Combine the style of virginalists and Italian (Venetians - Andrea Gabrieli, Merulo) keyboard music.

Rembrandt (Harmensz.) van Rijn [Rhyn] (b Leiden, 15 July 1606; d Amsterdam, 4 Oct 1669, bur 8 Oct 1669). Rembrandt: Return of the Prodigal Son, oil on canvas, 2.64×0.6…Dutch painter, draughtsman and etcher. From 1632 onwards he signed his works with only the forename Rembrandt; in documents, however, he continued to sign Rembrandt van Rijn (occasionallyvan Rhyn), initially with the addition of the patronymic ‘Harmensz.’. This was no doubt in imitation of the great Italians such as Leonardo, Michelangelo, Raphael and Titian, on whom he modelled himself, sometimes literally. He certainly equalled them in fame, and not only in his own country. His name still symbolizes a whole period of art history rightfully known as ‘Holland’s Golden Age’. In 1970–71 a great exhibition in Paris was devoted to it under the eloquent title Le Siècle de Rembrandt. A century before, a popular work of cultural history by C. Busken Huet referred to the Netherlands as ‘the land of Rembrandt. B. P. J. Broos, et al. "Rembrandt van Rijn." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. 1 Mar. 2012.

. Important teacher of his time: Translation and adaptation of the third part of Zarlino’s Le istitutioni harmoniche. Listening example: Fantasia in echo in a minor, Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press, Volume I page 209

http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=CRC2747

Students- North German School: Heinrich Scheidemann (1596- 1663), Hamburg Example: Praeludium- Organ Prelude, Organ Prelude and fugue, Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press, Vol II, pg. 23 Samuel Scheidt (1587-1654), see the example in the variation section

 Discontinuous Genres: o Canzona: Discontinuity, distinct sections, foreshadows sonata da chiesa a- Several contrasting sections, each built around different theme using fugal imitation Ex. Frescobaldi, Canzona for harpsichord or organ, Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press, Vol II, pg.22 http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=ABCD178

b- Variation canzone: transformations of a single theme (cyclical treatment) Giovanni Maria Trabaci (1575- 1647): Predecessor of Frescobaldi, school of keyboard composers flourished in Naples before and after 1600. ex. Trabaci, Canzona francese, Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Pres, Vol II, pg.16

o Sonata – The Music For Violin  Mid. 16th century violin family participated in art music in Italy  Ensemble Companies in Brescia (Northern Italy. Close to Bologna)  First two violinists from Brescia who become well-known composers: Biagio Marini (1594-1663) and Giovanni Battista Fontana (1589- 1630)  Giovanni Battista Fontana: Transition from canzone sonar to the sonata. The many-voiced canzone style is replaced by instrumental monody.  Transition from improvised traditions to written traditions using variations on chord progressions  Ex. Sonata for violin and continuo, Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press, Vol II, pg.28 http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=BIS-CD-48

 Biagio Marini (1600-1660): Instrumental monody. Basso continuo and one or two solo instruments on top. (Remember Monteverdi Concertato Madrigals) Sometimes idiomatic thinking. Contrasting sections.  Affetti: idiomatic violin style; sustained tones, trills, double stops Ex. Variations for violin and continuo, Romanesca –same theme used by Frescobaldi Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press, Vol II, pg.30  Op.2 - published while he was working in Venice at St.Mark’s chapel with Monteverdi Listening Example: Marini, Op. 1, Affetti musicali http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=CHAN0660

 Italian composers working in German Speaking lands – Marini was the music director at Neuburg court (South –in the Bavaria state) – published 5 books of violin music – col legno, sul ponticello, glissando, scordatura and multiple stops.  Op.8 1626 – written while he was serving at the Neuberg court  NAWM 81 – Sonata IV per il violin per sonar due corde –the double stops.  Monody in a canzona like structure (contrasting sections) – Different moods, tempo, meters and styles (recitative and aria)

 Variations: o Strophic vocal airs o Partite, techniques used: 1- Cantus firmus variation (basic melody remains the same) Ex. Samuel Scheidt, Chorale Prelude, Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press, vol II,pg. 13 Ex. Samuel Scheidt, Keyboard Variations (Tablatura nova), Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press, vol.II. pg.24 2- Melody receives different embellishment (the harmony remains the same) 3- Variations on a pattern (romanesca, ruggiero) Listening example: Frescobaldi, partite sopra l’aria della romanesca, Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press, vol II,pg. 24 See the pattern list on page 60, John Walter Hill, The Baroque Music, W.W.Norton and Company

 Dance Music and the Suite Idea o Johann Hermann Schein (1586-1630): Banchetto musicale (Musical Banquet, 1617): 20 Suites in five parts: paduana, gagliarda, courante, allemande with a tripla. Intrada: Opening of the suite with a march like character. Ex. Johann Hermann Schein, Intrada for ensemble, Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press, vol II,pg. 27 Listening example: Schein, Suite no. 10. http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=AM10962

 French Lute and Keyboard Music o Louis XIV, byname Louis The Great, Louis The Grand Monarch, or The Sun King, French Louis Le Grand, Louis Le Grand Monarque, or Le Roi Soleil (born Sept. 5, 1638, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France—died Sept. 1, 1715, Versailles), king of France (1643–1715) who ruled his country, principally from his great palace at Versailles, during one of its most brilliant periods and who remains the symbol of absolute monarchy of the classical age. Internationally, in a series of wars between 1667 and 1697, he extended France’s eastern borders at the expense of the Habsburgs and then, in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14), engaged a hostile European coalition in order to secure the Spanish throne for his grandson. .

Louis XIV style see:

.

o Denis Gaultier (1603- 1672) (also named as Gaultier de Jeune or Gaultier de Paris, not to confuse him with his cousin Ennemond), the development of French lute music during the early 17th cent. culminated in his work: La Rhetrique des Dieux (The Rhetoric of the Gods), 12 sets (one being in each mode) of stylized dances in binary form. Each set include: allemande, courante, sarabande and other dances. Gaultier was not a court musician but was a very famous performer in salons for wealthy patrons See NAWM 84 (no audio). Alternative Listening Example: Hopkinson Simth, Gigue from La Rhetrique des Dieux http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OGGzDtu_pqI&feature=related o Ennemond Gaultier (1575-1651)(also named as la vieux Gaultier or Gaultier de Lyon, not to confuse him with his cousin Denis Gaultier) Style Brisé: Adaptation of lute style – broken chords, delayed melody notes, constantly changing texture later adapted to keyboard. o Next Generation – Suites (stylized dances for harpsichord)- intended for the enjoyment of the amateurs. o Discussion on the definition of stylization.

First generation of French clavecin (harpsichord) composers:

o Elisabeth-Claude Jacquet de la Guerre (1665 – 1729) – favorite of Louis XIV. See NHWM, 368. Keyboard Suites o Agréments – See NAWM, 596 o Suit – allemande, courante, sarabande, gigue, chaconne, gavotte, minuet – See NAWM 597-598. o Video: The elegance of Baroque http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f9JSEXKEV9U&feature=related o Jacques Champion de Chambonnieres (1597-1672) Ex. Chambonnieres, chaconne-idea of rondeau, Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press, vol II,pg. 54 o Louis Couperin (1630-1665), student of Chambonnieres, Listening Example, Menuet de Poitou from suite in a minor, Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Pres, vol II,pg. 93 http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=GEN87090 o Johann Jakop Froberger (1616-1667) He adapted the French style in Germany. Established the allemande, courante, sarabande and gigue as standard order of suites. Ex. NAWM (earlier edition) 64, tombeau (French genre written for the death of the emperor Ferdinand III), slow allemande. Froberger toccatas- Free sections provides more systematical development than Frescobaldi. Foreshadows Buxtehude’s merging of toccata and fugue.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kkZJGtlrIH4&playnext=1&list=PLUKkHdp b8ReXwACHD2yYDdAUMQzNIgRNC&feature=results_video

Roman Opera (Besides NHWM, John Walter Hill’s Baroque Music is used as a source)

 Mainly the period between 1610-1650: A distinct Roman Opera Began to emerge  Mostly chamber operas (just like the Florentine Operas)for the entertainment and the glorification of nobles and wealthy patrons  After Maffeo Barberini elected as the Pope in 1623 (became Pope Urban VIII ruled 1623-44), his nephews became the main supporters of opera: They began producing operas in 1632 with a performance of Sant’ Alessio by Stefano Landi - In 1639 they added a 3000 seat theater to their family palace – subscription operas.  1630 – woman banned from public performances in Rome and Papal States – Castrati: http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/05146?q=castrato&sear ch=quick&pos=1&_start=1#firsthit and John Walter Hill, page 404

castrato, also called Evirato, male soprano or contralto voice of great range, flexibility, and power, produced as a result of castration before puberty. The castrato voice was introduced in the 16th century, when women were banned from church choirs and the stage. It reached its greatest prominence in 17th- and 18th-century opera. The practice of castration, illegal and inhumane, produced an adult voice of extraordinary power attributable to the greater lung capacity and physical bulk of the adult male. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/98795/castrato

 Roman opera tended to use plots with characters as real human beings  Available financial sources – Stage effects, large casts, ballets and extensive musical ensembles called as “Choruses” which were actually madrigal-like pieces for a small group of singers  Video Example: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3q2sR9Jbyiw

 Subjects of librettos are mostly on mostly mythological subjects or episodes from the epic poems of Tasso, Aristo.  Sant’ Alessio(1632), first opera written on a life of a saint. Persons and scenes are derived from serious and comic situations derived from the life of 17th cent. Rome. Music by Stefano Landi, libretto by Giulio Rospigliosi.  Stefano Landi’s operas usually include choral ensembles at the end of each act and have big finales that are usually spectacular and depending on vocal displays rather than being structurally organic.  Sant’ Alessio starts with a sinfonia (slow, homophonic), followed by a contrapuntal canzona – a model for Lully’s Overtures  The instrumentation of Sant’ Alessio: viols replaced by violins and cellos. Harps and lutes are used together with string. Harpsichords have a separate staff for most of the numbers and woodwinds are more subordinate. Used only for special effects – Outline of the modern orchestra  Vocal style is different than Florentine operas in term of usage of repeated notes (parlando, more speech like). But similar to the Florentine operas the rec. and aria distinction is not very clear. There are few arias. Mostly recitatives and ensembles

 There are comic scenes in Sant’ Alessio. Also Giulio Rospigliosi (librettist) wrote other comic operas in this period. He can be seen as the founder of the Italian Opera Buffa tradition.  These comic opera use stock characters from the commedia dell’arte tradition.  Ensemble scenes become a characteristic of these early comic operas  In the Roman Operas the recitatives become more speech like compared to the Florentine operas  The aria forms are more standardized: 1- Strophic Songs 2- Through Composed Arias – That contain number of sections each end with a full cadence in tonic or related key. Separated by orchestral ritornellos. There are two main contrasting sections. Usually the first section is repeated – This later turned into the da capo form 3- Arias over a ostinato bass  As a result the distinction between aria and recitative becomes more clear.  Luigi Rossi (1597-1653). A singer and a important composer of oratorio and cantata. In his opera Orfeo (1647). A serious opera with comic scenes. There are more arias than recitatives in this opera which is an important novelty of his time. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F_GiWMVvDxc

Venetian Opera

 Music making without payment- desire to make music – prominent in the spread of opera from Rome to the other parts of Italy and Northern Europe – Itinerant companies- 1630- 1660 – these opera companies followed the footsteps of travelling troops of actors – performers of traditional, semi-improvised commedia del arte. These kind of companies were usually called as Febiarmonici (Musicians of Apollo)  Febiarmonici: o They charged for admission to recover the expenses of performers o If the travelling company were contracted with a local association or aristocrat – academia o But the sponsors soon learned that these operas are not profitable – tight budgets: Reduced number of roles Reduced number of choruses Only 2-5 strings and continuo Less elaborate machinery o Expanded range of libretto subjects covering a large range of commedia del arte types: comic, tragic, pastoral, heroic, mythological, Spanish, historical, pseudo-historical and mixtures. Expanded number and length of arias – 3/2 meter, broader melodic contour, emotional expression o Reduced the importance of recitative o Rec., aria, arioso mixed freely

 First public opera house in Venice in 1637: o Venice: most fertile ground for febriarmonici several established commedia del arte theatres supported by aristocrats and rich visitors o Visitors for carnival celebrations for six weeks o Liberty of laws o Francesco Cavalli (1602-1676) – student of Monteverdi, composed 30 operas in 34 years: See the video example o First Cavalli and his collaborators were principal investors and organizers o By 1650 they relinquished this role to professional impresarios (often librettists) o This impresario rented a theatre for an entire carnival season o Hypothetically open to general public but o Since the admissions were high the audience were mostly nobles

 Despite the low financial budgets, but the interest in opera was amazing  Woman were allowed for public performances since Venice is not a Papal State  During the Venetian Carnival- its reputation for freedom from religious and social restrains- brought a diverse audience to the Venetian opera  Subjects of the librettos changed from the mythological, antique classical subjects to the medieval romances. Outlines of history were overlaid by the inventions and the additions of the poets. Superhuman characters, stiff, unreal air.  The chorus sections becomes less and solo sections that require virtuosity increases. The aria types that occurred in the Roman period (Strophic, short two part arias, da capo arias, arias over an ostinato bass) still continue. There is also quasi ostinato-running bass accompaniment for arias. (Example: Poppeo’s aria in NAWM 70)  First star singers appear at that time that were paid twice as more than the composers  No more chamber operas (as in Florentine and Rome) -Relatively short -Limited range of musical effects -Sophisticated in feeling and declamation -Produced according to the aristocratic taste Rather in Venetian Opera -Produced according to the taste of public audience - Tuneful melodies - Uncomplicated texture - Strong rhythms in easily grasped patterns

 Monteverdi in Venetian Opera:

o After the death of Duke of Mantua in 1612, he became the music director at San Marco Venice until his death in 1643. o Accademia degli Incogniti: Formed by libertine intellectuals – philosophical skepticism, distrust of all moral, rational and religious authority. o 1640 İl Ritorno D’ulisse in Patria (The return of Ulysses to his country) Serious and comic scenes follow each other, exaggerated emotional effects, arias filled with coloraturas. o 1642 L’incoronazione di Poppea NAWM 70. A Serious opera. o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ddZNuKR9O8s

o Monteverdi was 74 when he wrote this opera, a year before his death. o Libretto by Giovanni Francesco Busenello for the carnival season of Venice o Orfeo written for aristocratic patrons – Poppea – public opera houses – smaller orchestra o Music has dramatic insight rather than succession of spectacular scenes. o Despite the librettist’s intentions Monteverdi freely shifts between recitative and aria and uses arioso sections in between. o At the time librettists were making clear distinctions between aria and recitative. Aria: rhymed verse Recitative: blank verse ( versi sciolti) o The idea of frailty and immorality: Prologue – Fortune and Virtue (allegorical characters – “There is no human or divine heart that dares to do battle against love”

o In the 1642–3 season Monteverdi’s last opera, L’incoronazione di Poppea, often considered his supreme masterpiece, was first performed in Venice. This is a setting of a highly unusual historical libretto by Busenello: in the dénouement not only are reason and morality defeated in the final triumph of love, but this triumph is itself obviously evanescent and illusory. Busenello was a senior member of the Accademia degli Incogniti, a group with sceptical and heterodox views, who outspokenly rejected the authority of the Ancients; however, their historiography was shaped by Tacitus, on whom this libretto is based. Serious doubts have been cast on the extent of Monteverdi’s responsibility for this work in the surviving versions: Curtis (B1989), for instance, regards the role of Otho as having been rewritten and the final scene as having been added by other hands. But the compositional technique relies on the same Marinist mimetic devices that were used in Il ritorno d’Ulisse and that Monteverdi had outlined as his own for La finta pazza Licori: rapidly changing images corresponding to single words in the text, sacrificing the musical continuity in order to mirror rapidly changing psychological states in the characters. This is particularly marked in the music for Nero, underlying the unstable psychology of the character. o Geoffrey Chew. www.oxfordmusiconline G

o See the video example of the final scene and discuss the immoralities (blackmailing, persuade to murder, etc.) of the storyline http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qBhJbws1i0c

o This work is old fashioned in one perspective: . Monteverdi’s (in 1642 he was 75 years old) use of recitatives for expressive moments. . Scenes flow quickly between – recitative- aria- arioso – grey areas . Francesco Cavalli - clearer separation of recitative and aria- the tendency towards Bel Canto . http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SpUE6bHWVo8

 Antonio Cesti (1623-1669)  Orontea 1656 – An important breaking point in opera

o Act I starts with an aria straight away o All of the emotional expression is in the arias not in the recitatives o New function of recitative: conveys the storyline through dialogue o Aria forms: . Older tendency: recitatives – versi sciolti (freely alternating lines of seven- and eleven-syllable verse no rhyme) Arias: conzonetta style verses . New tendency: ABB' – B starts as a musical tag. But later on elaborate repetition (B’) Later B becomes a separate strophe In Allessandro Stradella’s (1639-1682) arias: ABA becomes a common form besides ABB'- 1678- ABA is the most common o Both in Cesti and Stradella: 2 violins + B.C. – Arias were accompanied by violins. o All arias are in clearly major or minor mode  Bel Canto style: stepwise, smooth lines with lively rhythms designed in order to display the singer’s tone and expression-Homophony - Marc Antonio Cesti (1623- 1669) NAWM 71  The power of prima donna – Read about Anna Renzi – NHWM 324-325

Important Differences Between Monteverdi And Cesti Examples  Usage and importance of violins in the Cesti aria (more definite baroque sound)  Usage of tonality in Cesti  Usage of homophonic texture – different from both Monteverdi monophony and Steffani polyphony  Vocal expression (bel canto) becomes central

Venetian Opera Exported

 Since the Italian Opera became an extremely popular genre, the North German courts started to import Italian composers.  One of the leading Italian composers in Germany is Agostino Steffani (1654-1728) o Despite the tendency of his Italian contemporaries towards simple homophonic like textures, he started to use polyphonic textures especially the bass part is moving independently. o Almost all arias in da capo form o He is the contemporary of Corelli. Just like him he uses more balanced musical themes that are looking forward to Bach and Handel. o He uses vocal embellishments that are more functional. o His overtures models Lully. o Motto beginnings are characteristic of Steffani’s style Listening example (video): Niobe, regina di Tebe 1688 – Listen to the form of the overture

Opera in France in the 17th Century

Preparation of French Opera

 Political Issues and the Music at the Royal Court Italy and Germany: local and regional courts, civic basilicas, churches, academies, commercial theatres. But France: Musical activity concentrated in Paris and at the royal court  Louis XIV (1638-1715) Succeeded his father’s throne at the age of 5 1661 took the reins of government Central direction of the national economy Trade to promote self sufficiency Advantage over competing nations: France remained continuously at war during his reign His power was truly absolute – He always directed arts to promote absolutism National focus – Palace of Versailles (built in 1631-34) http://www.chateauversailles.fr/homepage He was passionate about theater, dancing and landscape gardening

 Music at the Royal Court o Music of the Great Stable (Musique la Grandé Ecure): Wind (trumpets, bagpipes, oboes, horns and bassoons) and percussion ensembles played at the weddings, receptions, fireworks, etc. Creation of oboe: credited to Jean Hotteterre (1610-1690). Also 3 keyed bassoon in 4 detachable sections was developed to take place of the older dulcian. o Music of the royal chamber (Musique de la chamber) Two superintendents: 24 violins of the king: dinner of the king, ballets and comedies. Petits violons: for supper, for balls, and recreation (enjoyment) of his majesty o Both ensembles: 5 part orchestration: 6 violins, 4 vla I., 4 vla II., 4 vla.III, 6 basses (large size violoncellos)

 Spectacle as Propaganda at the Court of Louis XIV - Ballet de cour – Main spectacle at the French royal court at the 17th cent. Louis XIV – an excerpt dancer often portrayed himself as Apollo, Hercules, etc. (…)reached a high level of sophistication in the later 16th century, stimulated by the presence of Italian dancing masters invited to the French court by Catherine de Médicis. A product of this collaboration was the ballet comique, a courtly dance entertainment with words. Another Italian import was changeable- perspective scenery, which was brought to Paris in 1645 by the designer Giacomo Torelli, who completely refurbished the Petit-Bourbon. The staging of court ballets was accordingly adapted to show off the possibilities of the new machinery. Louis XIV often took part in these and earned the title Le Roi Soleil (The Sun King) when he performed as the Sun in Le Ballet de la nuit in 1653. Molière was called upon to provide texts for elaborate court festivities at Versailles involving ballets, plays, fireworks displays, and theatrical banquets. http://search.eb.com/eb/article-274698

Video Example: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BMvpvDjFvHA  Italian Opera at the French Royal Court – Louis XIV wanted the French to assert themselves against Italians in all cultural matters about 1661 sent the Italian musicians away

 The System of Royal Academies 1664- Louis XIV’s minister of finances Jean Baptiste Colbert created a system of Royal Academies in keeping with the policy of centralization, regulation, self-sufficiency. 1669- Académie Royal de Musique was a court opera with a national monopoly on the creation and production of musical dramas. The content was controlled by Académie des Inscriptions et Belles.

 Problems o Rationalistic view (Rene Descartes (1569-1650) o Quick awareness of absurdities o Recitative not being suitable for French language  The ballet tradition which was steadily popular since 1581 the production of Circe ou Balet comique de la Royne  French audience’s love for the stage spectacles: Italian Operas that toured French in 1645-62 did not have any success  French Classical tragedy: Jean Racine, Pierre Corneille

Tragedy, form of drama that depicts the suffering of a heroic individual who is often overcome by the very obstacles he is struggling to remove. The protagonist may be brought low by a character flaw or, as Hegel stated, caught in a “collision of equally justified ethical aims.”

Corneille, Pierre 1606–84, French dramatist, ranking with Racine as a master of French classical tragedy. Educated by Jesuits, he practiced law briefly in his native Rouen and moved to Paris after the favorable reception of his first play, Mélite (1629), a comedy. His first trágedy, Médée (1635), was followed by Le Cid (1637). This masterpiece, based on a Spanish play about the Cid, took Paris by storm; “beautiful as the Cid” became a French proverb. However, Jean Chapelain composed a paper for the newly founded French Academy that attacked the play as plagiaristic and faulty in construction, and thereafter Corneille adhered to classical rules. Among the finest of his score of tragedies that followed are Horace (1640), Cinna (1640), and Polyeucte (1643). The comedy Le Menteur (1643) had great success. Corneille's tragedies exalt the will at the expense of the emotions; his tragic heroes and heroines display almost superhuman strength in subordinating passion to duty. At his best, Corneille was a master of the grand style, powerful and majestic. His last plays are marred by monotonous declamation. Corneille's old age was embittered by the rise of Racine, who replaced him in popular favor.,The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2007, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/ent/A0849230.html

Jean Baptiste Lully (1632-1687)

 Italian by birth (Florence). He came to Paris at the age of 14 as a page boy to a noble woman. He was trained as a ballet and a violin player.  In 1653 he met the 14 year old Louis XIV – they both danced in the ballet de la nuit.  This friendship led him to become Composer of Instrumental Music to the King later that year.  In 1656 he became the leader of the Petits Violons. He taught the musicians to strike the opening notes of a piece exactly together and to use uniform bowing. Coup d’archet (bowstroke) A term used in 18th- and 19th-century French treatises for a bowstroke in general. It is occasionally found in such qualified forms as coup d’archet articulé (see BOW, §II, 2(IV)). The special term le premier coup d’archet was used in the late 18th century to refer to the loud tutti passage (often in unison) with which so many symphonies began. The device was thought to have been invented by Lully. Mozart made use of it several times, notably at the beginning of his ‘Paris’ Symphony about which he joked in a letter to his father (12 June 1778): ‘I have been careful not to neglect the premier coup d’archet – and that is quite enough. What a fuss the oxen here make of this trick! The devil take me if I can see any difference! They all begin together, just as they do in other places’. For further information, see N. Zaslaw: Mozart’s Symphonies: Contexts, Performance Practice, Reception (Oxford, 1989). David D. Boyden/Peter Walls www.oxfordonline.com

 1662 - He was named Music Master to the Royal Family.  At this period he mostly composed ballet de cour: o Non-dramatic or dramatic: serious, allegorical, comic, satirical, mixture o In both cases dances are employed: those that mime action and those that develop geometrical patterns o In both cases the music and the chorography are extensions of the standard courtly dances - Elaborate technique of etiquette studied by noble man and woman. o 2 Part Overture – grew out of ballet de cour – musical emblem of monarchy ad nobility. o Entrée- the entrance of the dancers- an allemande in binary form o Récits- in the style of air de cour Recits: solo vocal numbers in ballet de cour – In earlier works: recits were in Italian – spoken dialogue remained in French. Mostly ABB’- modeled the airs of his father in law. As spoken dialogue was gradually displaced from ballet de cour. 3 types of theatre arose: 1- Comedie ballet 2- Tragedie ballet 3-Trageide a machines

o All three types included: divertissements- in many of the tragedies musique they are decorative but integral part of the drama

 He matured his style while he was working on the revival of the ballets and the comedy ballets. But these dramatic works were lacking recitatives  1668-1671 A series of comedy ballets which Lully wrote mostly in collaboration with Moliére using the stock characters of the comedie dell’arte Molière, Jean Baptiste Poquelin 1622–73, French playwright and actor, b. Paris; son of a merchant who was upholsterer to the king. His name was originally Jean Baptiste Poquelin. Molière was the creator of French high comedy; his genius lay in exposing the hypocrisies and follies of his society through satire.

 Video Example: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wlZfoHTZy2U&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YlMSnj6OEGY&feature=PlayList&p=D3D9DC4FBEBEFB59 &playnext_from=PL&playnext=1&index=4

 In 1669 Academie Royale de Musique was founded  In 1673 Louis enabled Lully to control the academy and established a monopoly of operatic performances in France.  From 1673 to his death Lully produced an opera almost every year  He mostly collaborated with Philippe Quinault (1635-1688) o Frame works of his operas similar to French tragedies of his time o Subjects are restricted to mythology or legend

 Tragédie en musique (later named as tragédie lyrique) o Classical French drama with ballet + French song tradition + New form of recitative o Tragedy is first and foremost o Operas consist of 5 acts o Always had a prologue devoted to the glorification of Louis XIV with allusions to important recent events. o Seriousness of personages – discoursing: la amore, la glorie o No comic figures except in Cadmus, Aleste, Perseé o Detached from ordinary life o The aim is to achieve the approval of one single person (Louis XIV not even the aristocracy)  Recitatives o Strictly syllabic but contains a melodious and expressive character – Reading: Joseph Kerman, Opera as Drama, Chapter 3 o Changes of time signatures in order to reflect the rhythmic structure’s imitation of speech – recitative simple o Recitatives give way to melodic phrase (arioso)-recitative mesure

 Arias o They are not set as separate numbers interspersed in a scene along with recitatives, duets, choruses and ballet scenes o The idea of long scenes are the main idea of the opera o Little use of coloratura, only used to picture some words like “lancer” (to shine) o Agrements- seldom indicated in the score left open to the interpretation of the singer o Use the influence of popular chansons at the time, some use the style of the air de cour.  Outline of the scenes: Drama is very important but to pleasure the eye and ear interludes called as divertissement – ballet scenes accompanied by orchestra or upstaged dances. The form is Baroque dances (allemande, minuet, etc.)  Video Example: Divertissement from Persée: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e1V4OnDUPqs&list=PL376D08271450114E

 At the end of the scenes after recitatives, duets, arias comes choruses where all characters sing together.  Orchestra: o Strings organized in 5 parts o Woodwinds are used in pastoral scenes o Trumpets and drums used in martial scenes  Overtures o Slow and majestic first section- notes inégales o Fast and fugal second section  NAWM 82 – Armide (1686) o One of the last operas o Libretto by Quinault o Tragédie lyrique o Overture – 2 parts – notes inégales o Recitative – alternating freely between different measures – unsettled mood o Air – resembling a minuet – settled mood

Opera in England in the 17th century

 Thomas Hobbes

Hobbes, Thomas (hobz) , 1588–1679, English philosopher, grad. Magdalen College, Oxford, 1608. For many years a tutor in the Cavendish family, Hobbes took great interest in mathematics, physics, and the contemporary rationalism. On journeys to the Continent he established friendly relations with many learned men, including Galileo and Gassendi. In 1640, after his political writings had brought him into disfavor with the parliamentarians, he went to France (where he was tutor to the exiled Prince Charles). His work, however, aroused the antagonism of the English group in France, and his thorough materialism offended the churchmen, so that in 1651 he felt impelled to return to England, where he was able to live peacefully. Among his important works, which appeared in several revisions under different titles (see Sir W. Molesworth's edition of the complete works, 11 vol., 1839– 45), are De Cive (1642), Leviathan (1651), De Corpore Politico (1650), De Homine (1658), and Behemoth (1680). In the Leviathan, Hobbes developed his political philosophy. He argued from a mechanistic view that life is simply the motions of the organism and that man is by nature a selfishly individualistic animal at constant war with all other men. In a state of nature, men are equal in their self-seeking and live out lives which are “nasty, brutish, and short.” Fear of violent death is the principal motive which causes men to create a state by contracting to surrender their natural rights and to submit to the absolute authority of a sovereign. Although the power of the sovereign derived originally from the people—a challenge to the doctrine of the divine right of kings—the sovereign's power is absolute and not subject to the law. Temporal power is also always superior to ecclesiastical power. Though Hobbes favored a monarchy as the most efficient form of sovereignty, his theory could apply equally well to king or parliament. His political philosophy led to investigations by other political theorists, e.g., Locke, Spinoza, and Rousseau, who formulated their own radically different theories of the social contract. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2007, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

 As in French opera grew out of the ballet, in England it was rooted in the masques  The Italian mascherata developed into French mascarade, English masque – courtly entertainments including acting, dancing and singing  English masques that were very popular in the early 17th century o Allegorical in character o The main interests in costumes and spectacle o Including spoken dialogue, songs and instrumental music

commonwealth, form of administration signifying government by the common consent of the people. To Locke and Hobbes and other 17th-century writers the term meant an organized political community similar to what is meant in the 20th cent. by the word state. Certain states of the United States are known as commonwealths (Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Kentucky), and the federated states of Australia are known collectively as the Commonwealth of Australia. In the same collective sense, the now independent components of the former British Empire and Britain's remaining dependencies are described as the Commonwealth of Nations. The Commonwealth. in English history was the government set up by the victorious army power following the English civil war and the execution (1649) of King Charles I. The Commonwealth was dominated from the outset by Oliver Cromwell, who by the Instrument of Government (1653) was made lord protector of the Commonwealth. The subsequent government is usually known as the Protectorate, though the Commonwealth formally continued until Restoration in 1660. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2007, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

Restoration, in English history, the reestablishment of the monarchy on the accession (1660) of Charles II after the collapse of the Commonwealth (see under commonwealth) and the Protectorate. The term is often used to refer to the entire period from 1660 to the fall of James II in 1688, and in English literature the Restoration period (often called the age of Dryden) is commonly viewed as extending from 1660 to the death of John Dryden in 1700. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2007, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

Glorious Revolution: in English history, the events of 1688–89 that resulted in the deposition of James II and the accession of his daughter Mary II and her husband, William III, prince of Orange and stadholder of the Netherlands.

After the accession of James II in 1685, his overt Roman Catholicism alienated the majority of the population. In

1687 he issued a Declaration of Indulgence, suspending the penal laws against dissenters and recusants, and in

April 1688 ordered that a second Declaration of Indulgence be read from every pulpit on two successive

Sundays. William Sancroft, the archbishop of Canterbury, and six other bishops petitioned him against this and were prosecuted for seditious libel. Their acquittal almost coincided with the birth of a son to James’s Roman

Catholic queen, Mary of Modena (June). This event promised an indefinite continuance of his policy and brought discontent to a head. Seven eminent Englishmen, including one bishop and six prominent politicians of both Whig and Tory persuasions, wrote inviting William of Orange to come over with an army to redress the nation’s grievances.

William was both James’s nephew and his son-in-law, and, until the birth of James’s son, his wife, Mary, was heir apparent. William’s chief concern was to check the overgrowth of French power in Europe, and he welcomed England’s aid. Thus, having been in close touch with the leading English malcontents for more than a year, he accepted their invitation. Landing at Brixham on Tor Bay (November 5), he advanced slowly on London, as support fell away from James II. James’s daughter Anne and his best general, John

Churchill, were among the deserters to William’s camp; thereupon James fled to France.

William was now asked to carry on the government and summon a Parliament. When this Convention Parliament met (January 22, 1689), it agreed, after some debate, to treat James’s flight as an abdication and to offer the

Crown, with an accompanying Declaration of Right, to William and Mary jointly. Both gift and conditions were accepted. Thereupon the convention turned itself into a proper Parliament and large parts of the Declaration into a Bill of Rights. This bill gave the succession to Mary’s sister, Anne, in default of issue to Mary; barred

Roman Catholics from the throne; abolished the Crown’s power to suspend laws; condemned the power of dispensing with laws “as it hath been exercised and used of late”; and declared a standing army illegal in time of peace.

The settlement marked a considerable triumph for Whig views. If no Roman Catholic could be king, then no kingship could be unconditional. The adoption of the exclusionist solution lent support to John

Locke’s contention that government was in the nature of a social contract between the king and his people represented in parliament. The revolution permanently established Parliament as the ruling power of England. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/547105/Glorious-Revolution

 After the English Civil War- Charles II gained the support of France– 1660 Monarchy is restored in England- 1661, by the time of his coronation – reconstructed the Chapel Royal- imitation of the musical institutions at the court of Louis XIV.  1688 The Glorious Revolution – End of Restoration (by the deposition of James II) and the establishment of the Parliament  Captain Henry Cooke (1615-1672) – in 1660 become the Master of Children of the Chapel Royal-he recruited some very talented boys including John Blow, Henry Purcell  Purcell – became the composer of the 24 violins in 1677 on his 18th birthday. 24 violins: played dances singly or in suites –Charles II demanded “French music for entertainment”  Henry Purcell (1658-1695) o Anthems o Odes and Welcome Songs: The forces of chapel royal (The section of the English court musical establishment devoted to the performance of sacred music) and 24 violins were combined also for the performance of odes and welcome songs. . Odes for Royal Birthdays, New years day, festive occasions, funerals . Welcome song is a special type of ode- on return of the king from an abroad trips or tour of his dominions. . Restoration odes and welcome songs incorporate some elements of French Musical style in the Lully style – and movements dominated by dance rhythms- Dance suites with words. . 1680’s – ground bass arias and contrapuntal writing for odes. . Listening Excerpt: 1687 Sound the trumpet (a movement from “Sound the trumpet, beat the drum”) - Written for King James’ return from a tour of his realm. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ggrsAo_vk7o o Sacred and Secular Songs: Listening Excerpt: Music for a While. Part of his incidental mus. to Dryden's play Oedipus, 1692. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hnHF8-FVQ5I

o Music for strings and winds: Fantasies, suites, sonatas (2 violins, bass (bass violin, violoncello or viola da gamba) and basso continuo), marches and solo keyboard works

 Under the Commonwealth period (1649-1660), there were public masques which can be seen as the start of English Opera. At that time the stage plays were prohibited, these early operas were used to avoid the ban as they were called as a concert.  During the Restoration (1660-1685) of the Stuart Monarchy opened a way to enthusiasm for drama- semi-operas –actually theatre plays with solos, ensembles, choruses and instrumental music, continued to live  Incidental Music: Theatre plays with music. However, in Purcell’s examples (like the Fairy Queen) there are extensive musical portions that they can be called as operas: Dramas in spoken language, overtures, long ballets and other musical scenes.  All Sung Operas: John Blow’s (1649- 1708) Venus and Adonis (1684) and Henry Purcell’s (1659-1695) Dido and Aeneas (1689) o John Blow’s (1649- 1708) Venus and Adonis (1684): . In the earliest sources it is called “A Masque for ye entertainment of the king”. Performed before the king, afterwards at the Boarding School at Chelsea by Young Gentlewomen . Like an opera because of the coherent plot. On the other hand: Dance entries, Cupid’s spelling lesson resembles a masque episode that might be found in a musical play or dramatic opera. o Henry Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas . Produced in 1689 after the Glorious (Bloodless) Revolution in 1688 . Libretto by Nahum Tate (1652-1715) on the fourth book of Vergil’s (a Roman poet 70 B.C. – 19 B.C.) Aeneid . Overture: http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=LEMS8057

Aeneas (inē'us) [key], in Greek mythology, a Trojan, son of Anchises and Aphrodite. After the fall of Troy he escaped, bearing his aged father on his back. He stayed at Carthage with Queen Dido, then went to Italy, where his descendants founded Rome. The deeds of Aeneas are the substance of the great Roman epic, the Aeneid of Vergil.

Dido (dī'dō) [key], in Roman mythology, queen of Carthage, also called Elissa. She was the daughter of a king of Tyre. After her brother Pygmalion murdered her husband, she fled to Libya, where she founded and ruled Carthage. According to one legend, Dido threw herself on a burning pyre to escape marriage to the king of Libya. In the Aeneid, Vergil tells how she fell in love with Aeneas, who had been shipwrecked at Carthage, and destroyed herself on the pyre when, at Jupiter's command, he left to continue his journey to Italy. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2007, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.

. Political allegory – Dido (English people), Aeneas ( James II who seeks “Italian ground” by embracing Rome- Catholicism) . The recitatives depend on English language so they sound less Italian . In NAWM 86, the recitative before the lament uses a chromatic descend that symbolizes Dido’s death by the chromatic descending line. . Emma Kirkby: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iTV6F3lTU7o&feature=related . Other Italian features – Passacaglia bass ostinato, ABA form of the arias . French influences: Dance and chorus scenes. French courtly dances in choruses and some airs . The lament- aria uses the Italian Opera tradition of lament over an ostinato bass (or ground bass) . Purcell’s operas include French elements: orchestral passages, dance scenes and choruses just like the closing chorus (at the very end of the opera) in this example.

North German Tradition

 1648 –End of the Thirty Years War: Holy Roman Empire divided into about 300 independent units.  Different situation than the centralized industry of France or the developing capitalism of England and Netherlands – Most inhabitants are farmers  However music is developing – Rulers imitated Louis XIV’s approach. Also towns and churches supported music  Stadtpfeier – had the exclusive right to provide music in the city – related with the idea that the medieval guilds are still continuing in the German speaking lands. . Performed at public ceremonies, weddings . Family connections are important – training young members is an important tradition – ex. Bach family was an important family . The idea of being jacks of all trades rather than specializing in one subject. . Also amateur music making was an important part of social life – Collegium Musicum . Blend of cosmopolitan styles – North German courts importing Italian (especially Venetian) Opera - Agostino Steffani (1654-1728) worked in Munich (southern city) and Hannover (northern city)

 Catholic Church Music modeling Italian tradition and trends in southern parts of the Empire Munich, Salzburg and Vienna – Heinrich Biber – Missa salisburgen  Idiomatic thinking: Keyboard and ensemble  Keyboard Music: organ music, harpsichord and clavichord music o Organ: The Golden Age of the North German tradition 1650-1750:

Johann Jacop Froberger 1616-1667

 German composer, organist, and harpsichordist whose keyboard compositions are generally acknowledged to be among the richest and most attractive of the early Baroque era.  Froberger became a court organist in Vienna in 1637, but the same year he went to Rome to study under Girolamo Frescobaldi. After further employment at the Viennese court (1641– 45 and 1653–57), he toured widely.  Froberger was the earliest important German composer for the harpsichord. His style represents an integration of French, Italian, and other styles with the more austere style of German keyboard music. He was the first German master of the keyboard suite. His suites in manuscript consisted of three movements, often with an interpolated gigue; but in the posthumous publication of 1693 they were arranged in the order that became standard for the suite: allemande, courante, sarabande, and gigue. Although the suites are clearly for harpsichord or clavichord, in other works, such as the partitas, it is difficult to say whether the music was intended for harpsichord or organ. His canzoni for harpsichord and organ are composed in several sections bound together by a single theme. His powerful and imaginative toccatas and fantasias, composed for the organ, show the influence of Frescobaldi and were highly regarded by J.S. Bach. http://search.eb.com/eb/article- 9035474

 Listening Example: Froberger (1616-1667) toccata no. 2: Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Pres, vol.2 pg. 64 http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=E8716, Explanations http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/work.asp?wid=87602&cid=E8716

 Discuss the French music and Frescobaldi influences in this work

Continuing the Sweelinck – Scheidt tradition

 Buxtehude at Lübeck  Georg Böhm at Lüneburg  Johann Christoph Bach (first cousin of J.S.Bach’s father) in Thuringia  Johann Pachelbel in Nuremberg

o The separation of sacred and secular instrumental music – Organ/harpsichord Toccata: . Well defined sections: Succession of fugal and non-fugal sections . Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1707) . Organ and Buxtehude: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gjHkzqSOxnw . Ex. NAWM 92, also look at NHWM page408/409 for the variations of the fugal subject – Influence of Frescobaldi’s variation canzonas (through Froberger) . Praeludium in E major – All Lutheran church services (and also the later portions of the service) began with a prelude for organ. . This prelude is really a toccata with fugal and free sections succeeding each other

o The Fugue: By the end of 17th cent. ricercares are replaced by fugues discuss the changes in Italian music scene . Livelier rhythms . Subject (fux) stated in tonic . Answer (comes) in the dominant . Episodes . Final Statement- stretto or augmentation . Preludes and fugues important function in the church service, also training students for composition and performance . J.K.F. Fischer (1665-1746), Actually a late baroque composer - published a collection of Preludes and fugues in 19 different major- minor keys. Ex. J.K.F Fischer, Prelude and Fugue, Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press

o Genres based on chorale: o Organ Chorale: Alternating strophes with the congregation. The chorale is used as the subject of imitation o Chorale Variation or chorale partita: Chorale melody is used as a subject of sets of variation. Tradition comes from Sweelinck and Scheidt. Listening Example: Buxtehude, Bux WV 181 Danket dem Herrn http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=CC72243

Chorale melody is used in a different voice in each variation. o Chorale Fantasia: Fragment of chorale melody used in thematic development in contrapuntal texture. o Chorale Prelude: (This term often applied to any chorale based organ work) Short piece in which the chorale melody is represented just once in its recognizable form. Ex. Scheidt-Buxtehude-Pachelbel-Bach, Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press.vol II, page 13.

Ensemble Sonata after 1660

o Po river, the longest river in Italy – center for violin making – Brescia, Mantua, Bologna, Ferrara, Milan, Venice, Cremona, Bergamo, etc. – during the first half of the 17th century continued to produce important composers of violin music – See J.W. Hill, Baroque Music page 322. o These composers had no longer ties to the guilds or companies – their career followed the pattern of the church music director – maestro di capella. – sonata da chiesa

o Sonata da chiesa-After 1670 mostly trio sonata, solo sonatas- Violin, flute or viola da gamba with continuo, are popular after 1700. A Baroque instrumental work, often in four movements. In many churches during the 17th century, ensemble canzonas and sonatas replaced the organ solos that had regularly been substituted for elements of the Proper at Mass and Vespers. Despite the strong evidence for this practice (e.g. in organ tutors), the label ‘da chiesa’ appears in only about 20% of the volumes containing abstract instrumental works printed between 1650 and 1689; even Corelli's opp.1 and 3 are called simply Sonate. It is in this light that Brossard's statement (Dictionaire de musique, 1703) that church (as opposed to chamber) sonatas ‘are what they [the Italians] properly call Sonatas’ may be understood. Sandra Mangsen. www.oxfordmusiconline.com o Sonata da camera or chamber sonata- stylized dances, many different names are used for this genre: da camera, trattenimento, divertimento, concertino, concerto, ballo, balletto Ex. Giovanni Legrenzi (1626-1690), Trio Sonata, NAWM 74 (fourth edition) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GoN0y9bFuME The movements get longer but there is less number of movements. There are two movements in this work: Allegro and Adagio. The number of movements is not standardized until the end of the century. The idea of variation still exists but each movement is independent rather than a whole cyclical work. Fugal and non-fugal sections remain side by side. The idea of variation is usually associated with the fugal textures.

 The Bologna School: An important compositional movement that emphasize refined formalism rather than the virtuosity (remember affetti) of the early violinists like Fontana, Marini. Main composers are Maurizio Cazzatti (1620-1677) G.B. Vitali (1644-1692), Giuseppe Torelli (See concerto)(1658-1709.)  Maurizio Cazzati (1616-1678) – Professional career – head of church ensembles for Mass and Vespers in Mantua, Ferrara, Bergamo.  Rather than old Marini/Fontana sonata (contrasting sections with different meter and tempos) – 3 tempo plan – trio sonata  Listening example: op.18 (Bologna) Sonata settima, La Rosella (1656): http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=ABCD112 Ex. Maurizio Cazzatti, Sonata Prima La Pellicana. Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press, Vol II, page 67: http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=NI6134 An example for a sonata for violin and continuo that was played at the church service. Four Movements: Allegro, Grave, Presto, Prestissimo The imitative structure is used in almost all movements.  Giovanni Battista Vitali (1632-1692) – a cellist, leader of the leadership in the musical chapel in a ducal court near Modena.  Besides sonata da chiesa, inclined towards combinations of dances with French influences – sonata da camera.

 Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713) (b Fusignano, 17 Feb 1653; d Rome, 8 Jan 1713). Italian composer and violinist. Despite the modest size of his output, comprising six collections of instrumental music and a handful of other authentic works, and its virtual restriction to three genres – solo sonata, trio sonata and concerto – Corelli exercised an unparalleled influence during his lifetime and for a long time afterwards. This influence, which affected form, style and instrumental technique in equal measure, was most closely felt in Italy, and in particular in Rome, where he settled in early manhood, but soon spread beyond local and national confines to become a European phenomenon. As a violinist, teacher of the violin and director of instrumental ensembles Corelli imposed standards of discipline that were unusually strict for their period and helped to lay the groundwork for further progress along the same lines during the 18th century. To Corelli belong equally the distinctions of being the first composer to derive his fame exclusively from instrumental composition, the first to owe his reputation in large part to the activity of music publishers, and the first to produce ‘classic’ instrumental works which were admired and studied long after their idiom became outmoded. Michael Talbot. "Corelli, Arcangelo." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. 12 Apr. 2012.

Born in a small town close to Bologna. Studied in Bologna assimilated the Bologna style. Violin player. After 1671 he worked in Rome as a violinist. He continued and consummated the Bologna Style. In 1687 he was employed by Cardinal Pamphili in Rome as a music master, composer of instrumental music and orchestral director, in 1690 he was transferred by an even more powerful cardinal. At these positions he mainly composed trio sonata and concerto gross for an ensemble of about 12 musicians however, at times this number could go up to 150. He became rich and famous during his lifetime. His sonatas and concertos served as a model for the next half century. He published his works in six volumes. None of them are designated as da chiesa. No.2 “da camera a tre” and 4 is written for an academia. It is possible that all of his sonatas were composed for social gatherings at accademias.

Works Editions:

Arcangelo Corelli: Historisch-kritische Gesamtausgabe der musikalischen Werke, ed. H.J. Marx, i–v (Cologne. 1976–) [M] Les oeuvres de Arcangelo Corelli, ed. J. Joachim and F. Chrysander, Denkmäler der Tonkunst, iii (1871) [JC]

Published collections [12] Sonate a tre (F, e, A, a, B , b, C, c, G, g, d, D), 2 vn, vle/archlute, org, op.1 (Rome, 1681), JC, M i

[12] Sonate da camera a tre (D, d, C, e, B , g, F, b, f , E, E , G), 2 vn, vle/hpd, op.2 (Rome, 1685), JC, M ii

[12] Sonate a tre (F, D, B , b, d, G, e, C, f, a, g, a), 2 vn, vle/archlute, org, op.3 (Rome, 1689), JC, M i

[12] Sonate a tre (C, g, A, D, a, E, F, d, B , G, c, b), 2 vn, vle, op.4 (Rome, 1694), JC, M ii

[12] Sonate (D, B , C, F, g, A, d, e, A, F, E, d), vn, vle/hpd, op.5 (Rome, 1700), JC, M iii

[12] Concerti grossi (D, F, c, D, B , F, D, g, F, C, B , F), 2 vn, vc (concertino), 2 vn, va, b (conc. grosso), op.6 (Amsterdam, 1714), JC, M iv; score of 2 movts, reputed autograph, D-Bsb

Other works Sinfonia (d) to S Beatrice d'Este (oratorio, G.C. Graziani or B. Pamphili), music by G.L. Lulier, 1689, F- Pc, M v

Sonata a 4 (g), 2 vn, va, b (Amsterdam, 1699), M v

Sonata a 4 (e), 2 vn, va, b (Amsterdam, 1699), M v

Sonata a 4 (D), tpt, 2 vn, b, A-Wn, GB-Lbl, Ob, I-Nc (London, 1704) M v

[6] Sonate a 3 (A, D, D, D, g, g), 2 vn, vc, org, ‘op. post.’ (Amsterdam, 1714), M v

For doubtful and spurious works see Marx, 1980. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article_works/grove/music/06478?q=corelli&search=quick&pos=2&_start= 1

 Corelli is known today for his normalized harmonic practice – The understanding of dissonance change from 16th century counterpoint rules to non chords tones of the normalized harmonic style.  Non dance sonata structure (even for da camerata) slow- fast-slow-fast  Second movement based on one or two subjects in imitative counterpoint by all the parts.  Trio Sonata: NAWM 91, op.3, No.2 o The idea of two violins as soloist reflects the Bologna influence that refuses the virtuosic violin writing such as using higher positions, fast runs, difficult double stops. o Clear tonal organization. Employs mostly diatonic harmony. Chromaticsm is limited to the rare usage of diminished seventh or Neapolitan chord. o Corelli’s slow-fast-slow-fast order Slow: Contrapuntal texture, majestic character Fast: Fugal. Usually carries on the canzone tradition in its rhythmic character and modification of the subject after exposition. No subordinate theme. Slow: Triple time operatic aria or duet Fast: Looser structure, dance like character, binary form. o Unity of key.

 Chamber Sonatas of Corelli: Preludio: Slow introduction, majestic character with dotted rhythms (like Lully’s overtures), followed by a fast, fugal section. Preludio is followed by series of dance movements in binary form. Op.5 – 12 Sonatas – Some of them are camerata sonatas: Read the explanations: http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/work.asp?wid=49274&cid=ARTS47724-8 Op.5, No.10 (solo sonata – sonata camerata): http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=ARTS47724-8  Solo Sonatas After Corelli: The Continuation of experiments in violin techniques: Special bowings, multiple stops and all kinds of difficult passages.

o Johann Jacop Walter (1650-1717), Scherzi, collection of 12 sonatas published in 1676. o Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber (1644-1704). Virtuosity and program music. Mystery (Rosary) Sonatas for Violin (1675). Represents episodes from the life of Christ. Use of Scordatura. Ex. Biber, Mystery Sonatas: http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=ZZT040801

No.5 “The 12 year old Jesus in the Temple”: Praeludium, Allamande, Gigue, Sarabande. No. 10 “The Crucifixion”: Praeludium, Aria Varatio, Aria Variatio, Aria Variatio. Ex. Biber, Sonata Representativa for violin and basso continuo. Sonata Representativa: http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=825646203161

o Corelli’s pupils and Italian Violin Style: Francesco Geminiani (1687-1762), The Art of Playing on the Violin (1751) Guiseppe Tartini (1692-1770). Solo sonatas and concertos in the mid 18th century classical style. o Corelli and main discussions in Western Classical Music  Absolute Music – Program Music . Absolute Music – Sacred based sonata chiesa and dance based camerata . Program Music – Sonatas depicting something – Biber’s examples  Structure based Music (trio sonata) and Virtuosic Music (solo sonata)

Ensemble Music and Concerto Grosso until the 18th century

 Emergence of the Orchestra Early 17th Century Mid – 17th Century Late 17th Century

Concerto – A kind of a Developments in violin Emergence of Concerto sonata (idiomatic writing making. Grosso (see NHWM pp.397- and clear sectional Trio Sonata 400) separations) Corelli – Established Trio Sonata –Chamber Music Combination of vocal and movement order. instrumental features Active B.C. Concerto Grosso – Orchestral Solo Sonatas Genre

Schein – Ensemble Suites Orchestral Suites French Suites – Stylized Dances, Binary Form

Sinfonia and ritornello for Lully’s overtures and Sinfonia (interlude to and operas orchestral innovations opera) as an orchestral genre

 Larger ensembles o German orchestral tradition: Collegia musica (associations of performers,playing wind instruments as much as strings), Town bands (Stadtpfeifer), Turnsonaten (tower sonatas, sonatas played daily on wind instruments from the tower of the town hall or church). o Suites: Continuation of Schein influence o Johann Rosenmüller (1620-1684), 11 chamber sonatas and five strings published in 1670. The sonatas start with a sinfonia followed by an allemande, courante, a ballo and a sarabande. o Orchestral suites flourished in Germany from 1690-1740, as the Lully’s disciples introduced them to Germany.

George Muffat (1653-1704), (b Mégève, Savoy, bap. 1 June 1653; d Passau, 23 Feb 1704). German composer and organist of French birth, father of Gottlieb Muffat. He considered himself a German, although his ancestors were Scottish and his family had settled in Savoy in the early 17th century. He was a prominent composer of instrumental music who was particularly important for the part he played in introducing the French and Italian styles into Germany. Muffat went as a boy to Alsace, then to Paris to study with Lully and others from 1663 to 1669. He returned to Alsace to become a student, first at the Jesuit college at Séléstat in 1669, then in 1671 at a similar institution at Molsheim, where he was appointed organist to the exiled Strasbourg Cathedral chapter. By 1674 he was in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, and matriculated as a law student. He had left Alsace when war was imminent, and in the autobiographical foreword to his Florilegium primum (1695) he referred to his subsequent flight ‘to Vienna in Austria, Prague and then finally to Salzburg and Passau’. At the Viennese court he found a patron in the Emperor Leopold I but received no official appointment. In 1677 he was in Prague and the following year took up a post at Salzburg as organist and chamber musician to Archbishop Max Gandolf, Count of Kuenburg. His employer granted him leave to visit Italy in the 1680s: he studied in Rome with Pasquini, heard Corelli's concerti grossi and composed works which were performed at Corelli's house, and later published in his own Armonico tributo. It has been suggested that he may have influenced Corelli (Daverio, 1985). The visit ended in September 1682. After the archbishop's death in 1687 he continued to work under his successor, J.E. von Thun, but eventually left Salzburg, disappointed with the unfavorable atmosphere there. Early in 1690 he was in Augsburg for the coronation of the Emperor Leopold's eldest son Joseph as Roman king, and he made a personal presentation of his Apparatus musico-organisticus to Leopold, its dedicatee. From later that year until his death he was Kapellmeister at the court of Johann Philipp of Lamberg, Bishop of Passau, and tutor to the pages there. Three of Muffat's sons worked at the Hofkapelle in Vienna: Franz Georg Gottfried (1681– 1710), Johann Ernst (1686–1746) and Gottlieb. o Listening Example: George Muffat (1653-1704), Sonata No.1 for strings in D major (1682) http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=RAM0502 I- Grave-Allegro II- Allemande III- Grave IV- Gavotte V- Grave VI- Minuet o Concerto: A new kind of orchestral composition appeared in 1680’s. Around 1700 certain categorizations exist. Functions as a overture to a Mass or instrumental Offertories o Influence of Solo Sonatas:  While German, French and English composers continued to write trio sonatas, Italian composers inclined towards – solo sonata after 1700.  Mainly because of the success of Corelli’s Op.5 – Concentration on melody  The important representative of this generation – travelling violin virtuoso Francesco Maria Veracini (1690- 1768) . Neutral sonatas: neither church nor chamber . Slow-fast-slow-fast . Idea of recapitulation despite the Corelli sonatas . Veracini’s influence – Giuseppe Tartini – shortened the neutral sonata pattern to slow-fast – fast o Early Concerto Grosso by Corelli in Rome:  Corelli’s Op.6 (1712) – “Large ensemble works with 2 violins and violoncello required in the small ensemble and 2 other violins, viola and bass, optional, in the large ensemble, which can be doubled”.  Listening Example: Corelli Concerto op.6 No I: (Anthology of Baroque Music, J.Walter Hill page 336) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WVCJ97Tav18&feature=results_main&p laynext=1&list=PLCF2836159197BD61  Muffat states that he had heard concertos ( written for 5 string parts with the indications S –concertino trio and T for the full 5 part concerto grosso can be deployed at the performer’s option) by him and Corelli at Corelli’s house in Rome (1682). See NHWM page 399.  Video Example op.6 No.4: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GRTNfuO6ses

 Listening example and score analyses: Concerto Grosso op.6 no.6. The solo- tutti distinction is not clear. : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AgcJM2W6e14  Rather than the separation of concertino and ripieno, Corelli seeks for an integration of both, therefore the ritornello principle does not exist.  New violin techniques – bariolage  And the spun out of motives and perpetuum mobile – a new form of distorted pearl– towards late baroque.

o Concerto in Bologna and Venice:  Through Lully’s influence, composers started to distinguish between the idea of chamber group and orchestra (where each part is performed by a group of instruments)  Arousing idea of the concerto for 1 or 2 instruments accompanied by a string ensemble using the ritornello idea.  The first examples of these kind are for 1,2 or two solo trumpets and strings during 1690’s by Giuseppe Torelli (1658-1709) . A viola and violin player in the orchestra of the Basilica of San Petronio in Bologna. These works could be called as sonata, concerto or sinfonia. . Even the works are called as a sinfonia they function as a overture to a Mass or instrumental Offertories

 Listening Example: Sinfonia con tromba e violini unissoni. 1693 (Anthology of Baroque Music, J.Walter Hill page 347) . http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vu6Dxc1wdpk . Ritornello idea made up of different thematic materials connected to each other by idea of variation (Bolognese school) . Trumpet concerto is different from solo violin concerto as the timber of the solo instrument distinctive from the ripieno . His fast-slow-fast model is adapted by later composers. The fast (allegro) movements use ritornello form.

 Main Concerto Types:

. Concerto-Sinfonia, Concerto-Ripieno: Orchestral Concerto. Work in several movements First violin and bass parts are more emphasized The complex polyphonic texture that is characteristic to sonata and sinfonia is avoided. . Concerto Grosso Systematically designed contrast between a solo group-concertino (usually two violins, woodwinds can be used or sometimes substitute one of the solo violins) or and a large ensemble (almost always a string orchestra) - concerto grosso or ripieno. . Solo Concerto Listening Example: Torelli, Solo Concerto, Op.8, No.8. Last movement, Archibalt T.Davison, Historical Anthology of Music, Harvard University Press, pg. 126 http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=CHAN0716

Music in the Eighteenth Century

Music of Antonio Vivaldi

 Around 1740 o La musique baroque (Vivaldi, Rameau) o La musique cantante (Pergolesi) - Jean Jacques Rousseau o Paris – intersection point for different cultures, public could enjoy latest Italian operas. o Venice - Source reading : Vivaldi, Michael Talbot, 1978 . In middle ages and Renaissance – a wealthy republic – trading and manufacturing (textile center) . Decline in the 17th century – rise of the northern countries due to the 15th century discoveries of the New World and the Cape route (cape of good hope)

Until then the Western countries had lain on the fringe of civilization, with nothing apparently beyond them but Iceland and small islands. With the discovery of the Cape route and America, nations formerly peripheral found themselves central, with geographical forces impelling them to leadership.

The Mediterranean did not become a backwater, and the Venetian republic remained a major commercial power in the 16th century. Venice's decline came in the 17th, though the Venetians were still formidable against the Turks. As the more powerful Dutch, French, and English replaced the Eastern pioneers of Portugal, however, the burden of competition became more than the venerable republic could bear. http://search.eb.com/eb/article-25874

. As a result Venice became an cultural center rather than a trade or manufacture center - An important center for entertainment and culture, good number of opera companies . The state was being administrated by the ranks of nobility . The head of the state was the Doge . Next to the office of the Doge came the Procurators of the St.Mark’s chapel – focal point of ceremonial sacred music served by Italy’s foremost musicians - The St.Mark’s tradition: Adrian Willaert, Rore, Zarlino, Vincentino, Gabrielis . Ospedali: institutions for orphaned or abandoned, etc. girls Pio Ospedale della Pietà, one of four Venetian institutions devoted to the care of orphaned, abandoned and indigent children and specializing in the musical training of those among the girls who showed aptitude. Services with music – one might almost call them concerts – at the Pietà were a focal point in the social calendar of the Venetian nobility and foreign visitors, and it was essential to ensure both the competent instruction and rehearsal of the young musicians and the regular supply of new works for them. Michael Talbot www.oxfordmusiconline

. “Pieta seems to have regarded its small staff of male teachers as a necessary evil. They were required when new instruments were introduced and the girls had not yet acquired the necessary expertise”. (Talbot, Vivaldi, 1978). . Opera was the main tourist attraction. The activity was far beyond other opera centers like Naples, Bologna, Rome and Milan. . The principal operatic season was the carnival that all members of the society participated with masks including the clergy. . Besides these public opera seasons, dramatic works were performed in the palaces and gardens of the nobility. . Serenata: A dramatic cantata, normally celebratory or eulogistic, for two or more singers with orchestra. The name alludes to the fact that performance often took place by artificial light outdoors at night. ‘Serenata’ has become associated incorrectly with ‘sera’ (evening); this etymology has long influenced the interpretation of the word, which has been used also to denote a lover’s serenade or an instrumental composition (e.g. Mozart’s Serenata notturna K239). The first serenatas appear to have been written in Italy and in Vienna, shortly after the emergence of the solo cantata. Two early examples are Antonio Bertali’s Gli amori d’Apollo con Clizia (1661, Vienna) and Antonio (or possibly Remigio) Cesti’s Io son la primavera (1662, Florence). In the 17th and 18th centuries the serenata was viewed as a dramatic genre in the Aristotelian sense (the singers representing characters who communicate directly, without external narration) rather than in the senses of being acted on stage or having an identifiable plot. Its apparently contradictory nature has led to its being seen variously as a species of overblown cantata and a miniature opera. In reality, the serenata is a distinct genre, although its literary texts go by a multiplicity of descriptions that suggest greater diversity than actually exists. Michael Talbot, www.oxfordmusiconline.com

. Music publishing companies – usually composers paid for the first edition (if not supported by a patron). Serves for prestigious purposes for the composer. . How did a composer make a living in the 18th century ? The upmost choices (it was common to do different possibilities concurrently)  Opera commissions  Working as composer/music director for aristocracy  Working for a chapel  Publishing sales  As a teacher and composer for charity intuitions and schools (like the ospedali)  Concert – Difference between England and rest of Europe until 1750. A perf. of mus. in public by a fairly substantial no. of performers (but not a stage performance or as part of a religious service). A perf. by 1 or 2 performers is usually called a recital. A prerequisite of concerts, except on certain special occasions, is that people should pay to attend them, and this seems to have begun in England in the middle of the 17th cent. Historians point to the Whitefriars concerts arr. by John BANISTER in 1672 as the ‘first’ in Eng., but perhaps that is only because we have a printed record of them. Thomas BRITTON also financed concerts in Clerkenwell 1678 – 1714 . More important were the Bach‐Abel concerts which began in Spring Gardens, London, in 1764 . With the opening of the Hanover Square Rooms in 1775 the way was open for such major events as Haydn's concerts on his 2 visits to London. Thereafter concerts became an accepted way of life. The Phil. Soc. was founded 1813 , and in several provincial cities concert socs. were formed. Other developments incl. the Promenade Concerts, so called because people could stand or walk about at them, which originated in the 18th‐cent. pleasure gardens, but found their most abiding form in 1895 when Henry Wood began his famous series at Queen's Hall and which, under BBC sponsorship, are still held from mid‐July to mid‐September in the Royal Albert Hall, London. Public concerts for an audience of subscribers began in Frankfurt, Ger., in 1712 and in Hamburg in 1721 . What were to become the Leipzig Gewandhaus concerts were founded by 16 businessmen meeting in an inn in 1743 (much as Manchester's concerts began in the 1770s when a group of flautists met regularly in a tavern, hence the ‘Gentlemen's Concerts’). The Concert Spirituel was founded in Paris, 1725 , but ‘progressive’ works were given at the Concert des Amateurs, cond. GOSSEC , which in 1780 became the Concert de la Loge Olympique (because the venue was also a Masonic Lodge). In 1786 this organization commissioned 6 syms.—the ‘Paris’ syms.—from Haydn. In Vienna there was so much mus. in private houses or in the ths. that no regular concerts were given until 1782 (in the open air: Mozart played at them). Oxford dictionary of Music, www.oxfordmusiconline.com

Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)

 Father- Giovanni Battista – barber/professional violinist – He had his music training (mainly violin playing) from his father  Composition lessons from Legrenzi, but Legranzi died when Vivaldi was 12.

Canzona- Sonata: Continuation of the cyclical variation-canzona. Ex. Giovanni Legrenzi (1626-1690), Trio Sonata, NAWM 74 The movements get longer but there is less number of movements. There are two movements in this work: Allegro and Adagio. The number of movements is not standardized until the end of the century. The idea of variation still exists but each movement is independent rather than a whole cyclical work. Fugal and non-fugal sections remain side by side. The idea of variation is usually associated with the fugal textures.

 Rossi (red hair) – a family characteristic  Red haired priest – Vivaldi was trained for the priesthood, few years after his ordination he ceased for good around 1705  In 1703 he had obtained his position at the Pieata, he hold this position until 1740 with long and short breaks in between.  He was also looking for possibilities as a composer. His first publication – a set of 12 chamber sonatas in the trio medium dedicated to Count Annibale Gambara  During his first absence from Pieta (1709-11) he had established his first links with the operatic world.  Engagement with the S.Angelo theater: “ S. Angelo theater enjoyed little support from the local nobility and for its survival had to cultivate a popular ear catching style” (Talbot, Vivaldi, 1978). (we will do further discussions on opera when we study opera seria as a general subject)  Around 1714 his op.3 (L’estro Armonico) a collection of concertos dedicated to Grand Prince Ferdinand of Tuscany brought him international recognition.  As a result of this, from 1718 to 1730’s (in 1735 he started to work again at Pieta) he travelled throughout the important musical centers of Europe (such as Mantua, Rome, Dresden, Prague) – In these travels opera was the main concern, the editions were the point of prestige.  Around 1728 –the new style of Metastasian verse – new Neapolitan composers Leo, Vİnic, Porpora, or Naples influenced Hasse whereas Vivaldi and Albinoni were considered as the Old Venetian Style – Vivaldi had attempts to adapt his works to the new style – some settings of Metastasio libretto.

In the 1730s Vivaldi's career gradually declined. The French traveler Charles de Brosses reported in 1739 with regret that his music was no longer fashionable. Vivaldi's impresarial forays became increasingly marked by failure. In 1740 he traveled to Vienna, but he fell ill and did not live to attend the production there of his opera L'oracolo in Messenia in 1742. The simplicity of his funeral on July 28, 1741, suggests that he died in considerable poverty http://search.eb.com/eb/article-7735

Genres and Style:  The concerts at this Pieta attracted large audiences: o They demanded constantly new music o There were no “classics” o Vivaldi was expected to write new concertos and oratorios for every new festival in Pieta. o Oratorio . Usually in two parts divided by a sermon . Besides churches they were also performed at private entertainments at the palaces of a princes or cardinal . Whether a biblical subject or not, had a verse libretto . Followed the conventions of the opera . After Carisimi’s (1605-1674) oratorio volgare started o As an opera composer he was a contemporary of Alessandro Scarlatti. A successful opera composer. Composed 49 operas that most of them were staged in Venice. o Aria Example: Pianoti Sospiri (Philippe Jaroussky): http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7PTeoDDZNA o Seranatas: The serenatas are more extended works, intermediate in style between cantata and opera and commissioned to celebrate an event or eulogize some person. Lacking the length and bombast of the operas, while furnishing more interesting sonorities than the cantatas, they fully deserve revival. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/40120pg6?q=vivaldi +opera&search=quick&pos=8&_start=1#firsthit

o He also composed solo and trio sonatas, cantatas o He composed many concertos that were used at church festival services.

Concertos:

 Many of his concertos scored for one solo instrument (mostly violin and also for cello, flute, bassoon)  There are also concertos for two soloists (mostly 2 violins) – duet for high voices  Orchestra: o Main group: 20-25 Strings and harpsichord for the continuo o But also flutes, oboes, bassoons, horns are included o He achieved variety of colors in different combinations as in “Seasons”: o Corelli (1653-1713) Trio Sonatas: Typical sonata de chiesa order: slow-fast- slow-fast (the last fast movement is in the manner of a dance movement, like a gigue) o By 1700 A. Scarlatti (1660-1725)established: Fast – Slow – Fast (in the manner of a dance movement) o Around the same time Torelli’s 3 movement: Fast (in ritornello form)-Slow- Fast (in ritornello form) order was also established: See the scheme in NHWM page 369 o Vivaldi is following this order but in many different variations: . L’estro Armonico op.3 - international recognition – the Vivaldian method of concerto embraced especially by German composers – Bach transcribed some parts of collection in Weimar and Leipzig. . NAWM 93 solo concerto using ritornello principle . Concerto Grosso – Op. 3, No.2, 1711 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XpakdPEcyZ8 . Concertino: 2 solo violin and cello. . Includes a slow introduction – 4 movements – Adagio, Allegro, Larghetto, Allegro - The Vivaldian revolution. . The earliest concertos of Albinoni’s fellow citizen Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741), written in the years leading up to the publication of his epoch-making collection L’estro armonico op.3 (1711) mark the first regular use, in the outer fast movements, of ritornello form. This form, adumbrated by Torelli but never clinched, is an adaptation of a scheme already in use for a few decades in the ‘A’ sections of da capo arias. The ritornello – one or more ideas constituting a refrain played by the full ensemble – is used to establish the opening tonality and subsequently to affirm the various other tonalities reached in the course of the movement; the alternate sections (episodes), scored for the solo instrument with a generally light accompaniment, accomplish the structurally important modulations and supply contrasting themes or figurations. Since the number of ritornello statements is not prescribed (in slow movements, the number of its statements may even be reduced to two, framing a central solo portion), the form is extensible almost without limit. Normally, however, the ritornello statements number between four and six, of which a central group visits, in succession, a series of related keys (beginning with the dominant or relative major and nearly always including keys offering modal contrast). Ritornello form was in fact the first musical form routinely to present the same material in the major and the minor mode at different points in the movement. Leaving aside their structure, Vivaldi’s concertos introduced an exciting new musical language full of simple, strong effects such as the orchestral unison, hitherto little employed outside opera. His solo parts in the fast movements set new standards of virtuosity and, to a limited but growing extent, started to offset the mandatory rapid passage-work with lyrical moments that prefigure the ‘singing allegro’ style of the later 18th century. All these features speedily became part of the universal language of the concerto – and, through stylistic osmosis, also of other genres. Vivaldi’s nine published collections of concertos, supported by hundreds of other concertos circulating only in manuscript, were suited to performance in many different locales, including churches, theatres, banqueting rooms, concert halls and music societies. Their appropriateness for so many functional contexts – sacred or secular, ceremonial or recreational, public or private – lay behind their immense popularity. Not by chance, the rise of the concerto coincided exactly with that of music publishing in north-western Europe; each proved greatly beneficial to the other. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/40737?q =vivaldi+ritornello+principle&search=quick&pos=17&_start=1#firsthit

o Abandoned old fugal style or fugal sections are succeeded by homophonic sections (in this sense he is close to Giovanni Albinoni (1671-1750)) o Rather than the emphasis on the virtuosity, there are thematic links between phrases.

 Op.8 1725 – 4 seasons  Dedicated to Bohemian Court Wenzel von Morzin (cousin of Haydn’s patron)  Explanatory sonnets (sonnette dimonstrativo)  Special interest in the programmatic nature of the work in France. Subject to many arrangements and one by J.J Rousseau in 1775.  Program Music: The overall form resembles Biber Sonatas: Il cimento dell’armonia e dell’inventione (2 bks) (the contest between harmony and invention), op.8 (1725) http://bilkent.naxosmusiclibrary.com/catalogue/item.asp?cid=HLCD9102

Concerto No. 1 in E major, Op. 8, RV 269, "La primavera" (Spring)

o Allegro o Largo o Allegro Pastorale

Concerto No. 2 in G minor, Op. 8, RV 315, "L'estate" (Summer)

o Allegro non molto o Adagio e piano - Presto e forte o Presto

Concerto No. 3 in F major, Op. 8, RV 293, "L'autunno" (Autumn)

o Allegro o Adagio molto o Allegro

Concerto No. 4 in F minor, Op. 8, RV 297, "L'inverno" (Winter)

o Allegro non molto o Largo o Allegro

 Change in style: NAWM 77- Op.9, No.2 – 1728 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=emy-vhR2Mbo o Resembles an adagio operatic aria o Balanced phrases, frequent half cadences looking forward the classical style influenced by the Venetian and Neapolitan Comic opera at the time o Wrote 23 sinfonias in that manner: Homophonic textures, minuet finale.