ISSN 10642293, Eurasian Soil Science, 2015, Vol. 48, No. 4, pp. 359–372. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2015. Original Russian Text © S.V. Loiko, L.I. Geras’ko, S.P. Kulizhskii, I.I. Amelin, G.I. Istigechev, 2015, published in Pochvovedenie, 2015, No. 4, pp. 410–423. GENESIS AND GEOGRAPHY OF SOILS

Soil Cover Patterns in the Northern Part of the Area of Aspen–Fir Taiga in the Southeast of Western Siberia S. V. Loikoa, L. I. Geras’koa, S. P. Kulizhskiia, I. I. Amelinb, and G. I. Istigecheva aTomsk State University, ul. Lenina 36, Tomsk, 634015 Russia bInstitute of Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Geophysics, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, pr. Akademika Lavrent’eva 6, Novosibirsk, 630090 Russia email: [email protected] Received March 19, 2014

Abstract—Soil cover patterns in the northern part of the area of aspen–fir taiga on the Tom’–Yaya interfluve at 170–270 m a.s.l. are analyzed. Landscapes of the subtaiga piedmont province are found at somewhat lower heights. The three major forms of the local mesotopography include virtually flat interfluve surfaces, slopes (that predominate in area), and the network of ravines and small river valleys. Modal soil combinations on the slopes consist of the typical soddypodzolic soils with very deep bleached eluvial horizons and dark gray (or gray) residualhumus gleyic soils with dark humus coatings. With an increase in the degree of drainage of the territory (toward the local erosional network), the portion of gleyic soil subtypes decreases from nearly 100% on the flat interfluves to 10–15% on the slopes; the portion of soils with residual humus features decreases from 80–90 to 10–15%, respectively. These two soil subtypes can be considered intergrades between typical soils of the aspen–fir taiga (soddypodzolic soils with very deep bleached horizons) and dark gray and gray residualhumus soils characteristic of the subtaiga zone in the south of Western Siberia.

Keywords: Luvisols, aspen–fir taiga, soil cover, texturedifferentiated soils, soddypodzolic soils, dark gray soils, Western Siberia DOI: 10.1134/S1064229315040067

INTRODUCTION the high degree of alteration of the parent material In 2014, we celebrated the 95th anniversary of the [47] and by the specific microclimate [54]. In compar birth of Vladimir Markovich Fridland, the founder of ison with the typical southern taiga on the Western the theory of soil cover patterns. This theory has Siberian Plain, where Abies sibirica is also one of the proved its efficiency in different natural zones. How major edificators, the total phytomass in the tallherb ever, despite the long period of special studies of soil taiga is 1.5–2.0 times higher, and the reserves of cal cover patterns, they remain poorly studied in vast cium and nitrogen in the phytomass are 1.4–1.8 and regions of Russia. One of these regions in the south of 2.0–2.5 times higher, respectively. The amount of cal Western Siberia is confined to western windward cium entering the soil with plant litter is four times slopes of the foothills of the Altay–Sayan mountain greater. The rate of litter decomposition is very high: system, where specific humid hemiboreal forests are plant litter is completely decomposed in 1.0–1.5 years developed under conditions of the increased precipita [2, 45, 47]. The soils are rich in nutrients. For exam tion because of the barrier effect of the mountains. ple, the phosphorus content in the humus horizons These are aspen–fir forests with tall herbs in the reaches 879–1042 mg/kg, which is close to the upper ground cover; this plant community includes relict limit of the phosphorus content in forest soils [56]. species [20, 27, 34, 53]. The litter horizon is virtually Soddypodzolic soils with extremely deep bleached absent. Geobotanists distinguish between typical horizons (according to [24]) predominate in the soil aspen–fir (dark, Chernevye) forests and aspen–fir cover of the tallherb aspen–fir taiga of the piedmont taiga, in which the portion of boreal species in the zone and on low mountains. Some specific features of plant cover is larger. Among various boreal and hemi these soils were noted by many researchers, which led boreal forests, tallherb forests represent the most to the appearance of numerous “regional” soil names. complicated (in terms of their structure and functions) Thus, these soils were described under the names of ecosystems [3, 44]. The largest area of these forests in deeply podzolized mountainous taiga soils, soddy Russia is confined to the foothills and mountains in pseudopodzolic mountainous taiga soils, soddy deep the south of Siberia. podzolic lessivated mountainous forest soils, light gray The aspen–fir taiga is characterized by the very strongly podzolized soils, and deeply podzolized soils high biological productivity; it is also characterized by of the Altay “Chern” (tallherb aspen–fir forests) [21,

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26, 38, 45, 47]. The soils of tallherb aspen–fir taiga results of the soil cover study in the northern ecotone are devoid of the litter horizon and are not subjected to of the tallherb aspen–fir taiga. A factorgenetic winter freezing; a characteristic feature of these soils is scheme of the soil cover development, the dominant the development of active soil water flows above the sur and subdominant components of the soil cover, and face of the illuvial horizon [18, 25–27, 36, 45, 47, 51]. their spatial relationships are discussed. According to the World Reference Base for Soil Resources [58], they can be classified as Albic Stagnic Luvisols (Clayic, Cutanic). In recent years, several OBJECTS AND METHODS works devoted to the genesis, evolution, and classifi The soils and soil cover patterns were studied in the cation of these soils have been published [57, 59, 60, northern part of the Kuznetsk Alatau area of tallherb 62, 63]. In our study, we consider the genesis and com aspen–fir taiga ecosystems extending to the north of the position of the soil cover with the dominant participa Kuznetsk Alatau Ridge (up to 57° N) within the upper tion of these soils. part of the Tom’–Yaya interfluve [8, 30, 51]. In this The morphology and analytical properties of the region, the tallherb aspen–fir taiga ecosystems occupy soils of the tallherb aspen–fir taiga and some aspects the highest positions of the relief (up to 270 m a.s.l.) of their functioning have been studied sufficiently well amidst the subtaiga zone occupying lower positions. In [21, 25, 26, 28, 37–39, 42, 43, 45, 47]. However, the the north, these ecosystems are bordered by typical reasons (factors) of the specificity of these soils remain southern taiga ecosystems. Thus, we studied a latitudi insufficiently studied; a comparative genetic and geo nal ecotone between the subtaiga, southern taiga, and graphic analysis of these soils in different regions has tallherb aspen–fir taiga. Lower parts of the Tom’–Yaya yet to be performed, and data on the soil cover patterns interfluve are occupied by the zonal subtaiga herba with participation of these soils are virtually absent. ceous–grassy pine–broadleaved (birch, aspen, alder) Some ideas on the diversity of particular soils in the forests developing on gray and dark gray soils in the soil cover can be found in the works by Trofimov [47] autonomous positions. In the central part of the inter and Petrov [37, 38]. Thus, it was shown that the pedo fluve with higher elevations (>170–200 m a.s.l.), the genesis in the tallherb aspen–fir taiga may follow the subtaiga ecosystems are replaced by the tallherb podzolic and burozemic (brown forest) types. Pod aspen–fir taiga [8]. zolic soils are confined to the areas with brown silty The calcareous loesslike clayey mantle with rela clay mantle loams and clays. These substrates predom tively homogeneous properties in the studied region inate in the considered region and cover the middle serves as the parent material [35]. This substrate is and lower parts of slopes. They have an eolian genesis characterized by the dominance of the clay (30–50%) with further redeposition by various slope processes, and coarse silt (40–50%) fractions. At a depth of 3– during which the eolian sediments were enriched with 5 m, it is underlain by the lacustrine–bog lowcarbon the debris of local bedrocks [4, 13, 35, 42, 52]. ate Taiginsk clay overlying the products of weathering Burozems (brown taiga soils, Cambisols) tend to and disintegration of bedrock slates. develop from the bedrock residuum and colluvial deposits without the cover of brown loams and clays. The mean annual temperature is –1.0°C, and the mean annual precipitation reaches 700–750 mm; the Though it is generally believed that the soil cover precipitationtopotential evaporation ratio (accord under the tallherb aspen–fir forests is relatively ing to Ivanov) is 1.3. The soils virtually do not freeze in homogeneous, special studies performed in the area of the winter because of the very deep (60–80 cm; >1 m the Mountain Shoria and Kuznetsk Alatau ranges have in the snowy winters) snow cover. The vegetation dif proved the diversity of the soil components: elu fers from the typical tallherb aspen–fir taiga of the vozems, soddy eluvozems, soddypodzolic and pod low mountains in the greater phytocenotic role of zolic soils, burozems and dark burozems, darkhumus Abies sibirica, somewhat lower height and phytomass soils, and grayhumus soils have been described there. of tall herbs, and less diverse relict species. The morphology and properties of the very deep bleached horizons differ in different parts of the area The mesotopography of the studied area is repre of tallherb aspen–fir taiga. For example, the humus sented by three major landforms (Fig. 1): flat surfaces profile of light gray soils on the western part of the of the central parts of interfluves of the first and second Salair Ridge is characterized by the presence of a sec orders, very gentle and gentle slopes (in some places, ond humus horizon with a predominance of humic moderately steep slopes) from flat interfluves to the acids of the first fraction among the humic acids [28]. brows of local valleys, and ravines and river valleys On the eastern part of this ridge, humic acids of the with moderately steep to steep slopes. second fraction predominate in the composition of the Field studies were mainly performed on a key poly humus [23]. These differences point to the intrar gon in the area of typical aspen–fir forests at the late egional specificity of the genesis of the soils under the succession stages; in some places, these mature forests tallherb aspen–fir taiga. To understand this specific are disturbed by recent cuts. Key plot 09 (KP09) ity, more detailed studies of the soil cover of the eco (100 × 100 m) was studied on a virtually flat interfluve tone zones are required. In this paper, we consider the surface. The soilgeomorphological profile across this

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Fig. 1. Schematic map of the key site. Key plots: (I) KP09 and (II) KP08. Transects: AC, AB, and DE. Designations: (1) flat interfluves, (2) mesoslopes, (3) ravines and upper reaches of rivulets, (4) paleohollow, (5) railway, and (6) trench Tr12. plot and the soil map of the plot were developed with soils is similar to that in soddypodzolic soils and dif the use of the methods of digital soil mapping [49, 50]. fers from the humus content in gray soils. However, the The upper parts of gentle mesoslopes drained by properties of these soils in the southeast of Western erosional hollows were studied on KP08, for which the Siberia are somewhat different. Though the coefficient soil map was compiled using the landscape indication of textural differentiation in them is similar to that in method. A transect (DE) across the local hollow was light gray soils of European Russia [41, 55], the humus specially studied. To study lower parts of the mesoslopes content in the eluvial horizons is higher. Thus, in the between ravines, a soilgeomorphological profile (AC) light gray soils under tallherb aspen–fir taiga, the loss was examined. For the detailed analysis of the soil hori of clay from the eluvial (EL) horizon is combined with zonation on the slope of a ravine in the area of contact a relatively high humus content (up to 2%). This is between two major components of the soil cover, a soil considered indicative of the humuseluvial AEL hori trench (Tr12) was studied. The soils of local ravines zon. In turn, the latter is a diagnostic horizon of the were characterized by transect (AB) (Fig. 1). type of gray soils with lower values of the coefficient of Field studies were performed in agreement with the textural differentiation. We distinguished eluvial hori methodology of pedogenetic and soilgeographical zons with a considerable content of humus (up to 2%) studies. The names of the soil combinations were given as ELa horizons with Munsell values of 6.5–7.5. Thus, according to Goryachkin [12]. the described light gray soils have a coefficient of tex The regularities of the soil cover patterns on the key tural differentiation similar to that in soddypodzolic polygon were then tested in soil trips across the entire soils, and the humus content in the eluvial horizon is interfluve. Overall, more than 100 soil profiles were close to that in the AEL horizon of gray soils. examined. To diagnose the soils and soilforming pro (2) Symbol “HH” was used to designate the resid cesses, a set of analytical and macro and mesomor ualhumus (second humus) horizons, and symbol phological methods was applied. “hh” was used to designate the other soil horizons with The soil horizons and soils were diagnosed accord residual humus. These two kinds of horizons specify ing to the new classification system of Russian soils [9, corresponding soil subtypes. Residualhumus hori 24, 40] with the following amendments aimed to zons represent the lower part of the humus profile with enlarge the possibilities for the proper description of an enlarged Cha/Cfa ratio [7, 16]. In the case when a the real diversity of soils. continuous horizon is absent and the features of resid (1) Light gray soils were distinguished at the type ual humus are seen in mottles at the contact zone level as suggested in [17]. Earlier, Tonkonogov [46] between the eluvial and textural (with illuviated clay) analyzed the materials obtained in the noncher horizons, they are designated by the “hh” symbol [24]. nozemic zone of European Russia and placed light Residualhumus horizons in the soils of the tallherb gray soils and soddypodzolic soils into the same type aspen–fir taiga have the following characteristic fea (soddypodzolic soils) on the basis of similar values of tures: (1) their color is usually (but not always) darker the coefficient of textural differentiation in these soils. than the color of the overlying horizons; (2) their This decision was fixed in the new classification [24]. structure is angular blocky or prismatic–angular It was also noted that the humus content in light gray blocky; in some loci, it is defined as a coprolitic granu

EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 48 No. 4 2015 362 LOIKO et al. lar–fine crumb structure; (3) the HH horizon is usually the hollows and microdivides of the first generation; found between the AU (dark humus), AEL (rarely, EL) their pattern followed the pattern of the underlying (humuseluvial and eluvial, respectively), and BTth surface topography buried under the deposited sedi (textural horizon with humus–clay coatings) horizons; ments. In the hollows, soils with large calcareous nod (4) the intraped mass of the HH horizon is of a brownish ules were formed [31]. During the second stage, the (dark) gray color; ped faces are darker and are covered activation of erosional processes took place; new by humus–clay coatings (in some cases, with overlying ravines dissected the former hollows, so the remaining skeletans) that become more pronounced in the lower part of the ancient hollows on the interfluves is rela part of the horizon; (5) the intraped mass is rich in fine tively short (150–200 m). Some growth of these ocherous “punctuations” and small nodules; and ravines continues at present, though the stage of their (6) the clay content is 1.5 to 2.0 times higher than that active growth is already in the past. in the overlying horizon (so the HH horizon represents Coverdetermining and coverforming processes the upper part of the illuvial soil layer). control the particular mechanisms of the soil cover (3) The character of the parent materials and relief differentiation. Among them, a leading process speci conditions in the south of Western Siberia favors the fying the maximum number of boundaries between widespread distribution of taiga soils containing car soil combinations is to be distinguished [12]. In the bonates at a relatively shallow depth [7, 14]. Such soils studied tallherb aspen–fir taiga, this is the differenti were also described in the area of our studies under the ation of the soil moistening. The differentiation of tallherb aspen–fir taiga. Typical carbonate pedofea soils on moderately steep (>5°–6°) slopes is also tures are represented by large nodules (loess dolls) and affected by the slope aspect. The differentiation of filaments. These soils are separated into the subtype of soils near the brows of paleohollows and microdepres shalloweffervescing soils [16]; the line of efferves sions is influenced by the depth of carbonates in the cence in them is within the BT horizon or immediately soil profile. under it. Below, the soil cover of the major forms of mesoto (4) Textural (BT) horizons containing brownish pography is characterized. dark gray humus–clay coatings were designated as Flat interfluve surfaces. The soil cover of flat inter BTth horizons; they specify the separation of the cor fluves was studied in detail on KP09. Five forms of the responding subtype of darkcutan soils. local microtopography were distinguished on this plot (Fig. 2): microdivides (mounds) characterized by divergent water flows, microdivides (mounds) with flat RESULTS AND DISCUSSION tops, small intermound depressions (microlows), A factorgenetic scheme of the soil cover (table) shallow hollows with indistinct brows, and slopes was developed by us on the basis of the approaches between the mounds and the hollows. suggested by Goryachkin [12]. The groups of cover Among the soil horizons, the most continuous spa determining and coverforming processes were distin tial pattern is typical of the grayhumus AY horizon guished. The coverdetermining processes are respon (Fig. 3). Its thickness varies from 5–6 to 10–14 cm. sible for fundamental differences in the soil covers at The transitional AY/ELa,g horizon is characterized by the level of soil mesocombinations. For the upper parts larger variations in the thickness; on the slope between of the Tom’–Yaya interfluve, these were the lacus the mound and the hollow, it is transformed into the trine–bog sedimentation, which led to the develop eluvialhumus AEL horizon diagnostic of the gray soil. ment of the Taiginsk clay sediments followed by the Eluvial horizons within KP09 contain considerable regional lowering of the base of erosion and, then, by amounts of manganese–iron nodules. They are diag the formation of covering loesslike clayey deposits nosed as gleyic (stagnic) horizons with an increased that contained carbonates in their lower part and were humus content (ELa,g). Their maximum bleaching is carbonatefree in their upper part. The latter deposits observed on the flattopped mounds. With an increase serve as the major type of parent materials for the in the catchment area on the slope toward the hollow, modern soils [6, 13, 14]. the ELa,g horizon is replaced by the residualhumus After the formation of the major features of the HH horizon. The clay content in it increases by almost macro and mesotopography, the coverforming pro three times (from 11% in the lower part of the ELa,g cesses (table) specified the development of a specific horizon of the mound to 32% in the lower part of the microtopography with small mounds, intermound HH horizon). The pattern of soil water flows also troughs, and hollows. Their formation was due to the changes from the mound toward the hollow. melting of ice wedges at the beginning of the The boundaries of the areas of the EL and HH hori Holocene. It is probable that a similar microtopography zons are specified by the local microtopography. The was formed in the European territory of Russia [5, 32]. maximum thickness of the eluvial horizon is seen On the mesoslopes, the development of the modern under the apical parts of the mounds, where optimum meso and microtopography proceeded in two stages. conditions for the discharge of temporary perched After the end of active sedimentation, surface subsid water are observed. In these places, the residual forms ence, denudation, and cryogenic (?) processes shaped of humus are represented by lowcontrasting whitish

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Fig. 2. Key plot KP09: (I) microtopography; black dots m I indicate the position of the studied pits, and arrows show 100 the direction of the studied transect (Fig. 3) with the begin

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ning at point A; (II) relative thickness of the HH horizon; . (III) the soil cover pattern: (1) lowcontrasting microcom 9 bination of gleyic light gray shalloweffervescent soils and soils with residual humus; (2) gleyic light gray residual 1.2 humus soil; (3) microcombination of gleyic light gray and 1.05 E D gray shalloweffervescent residualhumus soils; (4) micro 1. combination of gleyic gray and dark gray residualhumus 05 soils. 50 C 0.9 5 gray mottles in the lower part of the EL horizon and in 1.0 B the underlying BEL horizon. In the soils under flat 0.9 topped mounds, the ELg horizon is often combined 0.9 D 0 0 with the HH horizon, and this is the only position at .9 .9 which both horizons are clearly distinguished in the soil profile. The presence of the residualhumus hori zon in the soils of flattopped mounds attests to the 0 50 100 m residual nature of this horizon and contradicts the hypothesis about its buried character. Note that anal ogous secondhumus horizons in the opolie regions of m II European Russia with similar topographic conditions 100 were mainly formed due to burying of humus horizons 90 in microdepressions [32]. 80 Textural (clayilluvial) horizons of the key plot are characterized by relatively even thickness; in the hol 70 lows, their thickness increases by 10–20 cm. Textural 60 horizons in the hollows are also characterized by the high amount of black coatings on the walls of large fis 50 sures; similar coatings in smaller amounts can also be 40 present in the soils of other elements of the microto 30 pography. The effervescence line is at the depth of a 100–120 cm in the soils of the mounds and 2 m and 20 more in the soils of the hollows. 10 b The soils are affected by the temporarily perched water. Even in dry years, watersaturated horizons on 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 m the microdivides appear within the upper 2 m. Water fills fine pores in the clayey material; it is recharged due to water infiltration from the upper soil horizons. Bluish zones with ocherous fringes appear around m III waterfilled pores and fissures owing to gleyzation pro 100 cesses. The longterm saturation of the pores with water does not favor the development of illuviation 80 coatings [22], so the textural horizons of the flat sur faces have a lower degree of the development of clayey coatings in comparison with the textural horizons on 60 the better drained mesoslopes dissected by the ero sional network. 40 The thickness of the HH horizon is subjected to considerable variations within the plot (Fig. 2II). It depends on the position of the soil in the relief and on 20 the former phytoturbation (due to uprooting) pro cesses. In places where the soil water flows have a divergent pattern, the HH horizon virtually disap 0 20 40 60 80 100 m pears. The position of a soil with residual humus in the form of separate mottles in the lower part of the ELa,g horizon is indicated by arrow a (Fig. 2II). This is a microsaddle with oppositely directed divergent soil 1234

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Fig. 3. Soil transect across KP09 (see Fig. 2). Horizons: (1) AY, (2) AY/ELa, (3) AEL, (4) ELg/ELa,g, (5) HH, (6) BELhh, (7)BTg,th, (8) BCg, and (9) BCca,g. Soils: (I) gleyic shalloweffervescent light gray; (II) gleyic residualhumus light gray; (III) microcombinations of gleyic shalloweffervescent light gray and gray residualhumus soils. water flows that favor the destruction of the residual mesoslopes was examined on KP08 and transect DE humus horizon. Near this place, on the slope of a across this plot (Figs. 4 and 5). Transect DE crosses a mound with slightly divergent soil water flows (arrow b), combination of a typical soddypodzolic soil and a the HH horizon has a thickness of 17–20 cm. gleyic dark gray residualhumus soil. The former soil The average depth of the lower boundary of hori occupies microdivides and their slopes, and the latter zons BEL or HH/BT (transitional to the textural BT soil is found in the hollow. A relatively narrow (10 m) horizon) is 50 ± 4 cm. Such a considerable thickness transitional zone between these two soils is occupied of the eluvial layer allows us to attribute these soils to by a gray soil with residual humus and dark coatings the species of very deeply bleached soils. in the BT horizon. The boundary between these two The obtained data on the distribution patterns of the soil units represents a transitional area of a gleyic gray soils with somewhat different horizonation allowed us soil with residual humus and with dark coatings in the to compile a schematic map of the soil cover patterns on BT horizon. The width of this transitional area is KP09. Overall, four microcombinations of soils are about 10 m. In the soddypodzolic soil of the microdi distinguished. Microdivides (mounds with an apical vide, the subeluvial horizon has a thickness of 45 to part) are occupied by the gleyic light gray soils with a 70 cm and is composed of the BELct and BTel subho relatively shallow line of effervescence and by the soils rizons. The BELct subhorizon consists of the material with the residualhumus horizon. This combination of the eluvial horizon and the remains of the textural occupies about 10–15% of the area. A flattopped horizon; the BTel subhorizon is specified by the abun mound on the plot is occupied by the gleyic light gray dant bleached skeletans over clayey coatings. On the residualhumus soil with participation of the soil dis slope to the hollow, these transitional horizons disap turbed by windfalls with mixed fragments of the HH pear; the upper boundary of the BT horizon is found at and EL horizons. The largest area on the slopes between the depth of about 65 cm; in the hollow, the BT hori the microdivides and hollows is occupied by a lowcon zon contains numerous dark coatings on ped faces trasting combination of gleyic light gray and gray soils (the BTth horizon). The depth of effervescence varies with the residualhumus horizon and a relatively shal from 170–200 cm on the microdivide to 270 cm in the low line of effervescence. In the hollows, a combination bottom of the hollow. This profile illustrates the geo of gleyic gray and dark gray soils with a residualhumus morphic “niche” of the HH horizon under conditions horizon about 25 cm in thickness is developed. of convergent runoff flows with relatively good drain At the level of soil mesocombinations, the soil age conditions (slopes and bottom of the hollow). cover of flat interfluves belongs to the class of lowcon Thus, in contrast to flat interfluves, mesoslopes are trasting mesocombinations (spottiness patterns) of characterized by microcombinations of light gray and gleyic shalloweffervescent light gray soils with resid soddypodzolic soils. They are typical of the tallherb ual humus and gleyic gray and dark gray residual aspen–fir forests of the low mountains and occupy humus soils. more than 30% of the surveyed territory on the mesos Mesoslopes drained by the network of ravines and lopes with divergent water flows. The most wide hollows. The soil cover of the upper parts of these spread soil combination (>40%) is a microcombina

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Fig. 4. Micromesocombination of light gray/soddypodzolic and gleyic dark gray residualhumus soils: (a) location of transect DE and contour lines and (b) scheme of the DE transect (see Fig. 5). Horizons: (1) AY, (2) AU, (3) EL+ELa, (4) AELhh, (5) AU/HH, (6) HH, (7) BEL+BT, (8) BTth, (9) BC, and (10) BCca; (11) sampling points. Soils: (I) light gray/soddypodzolic, (II) gleyic gray residualhumus (or with residual humus) soils, (III) gleyic residualhumus dark gray soil. tion of light gray and gray soils with residual humus of the hollows, where it erodes the surface of the on gentle slopes of the microdepressions and hol humus horizon, so that abraded residualhumus gleyic lows. Microcombinations of gray and dark gray resid dark gray soils are formed. In these soils, the upper ualhumus soils in hollows occupy about 26% of the boundary of the BTth horizon lies at a depth of no area. The soils of these three microcombinations are more than 35–40 cm. In the hollows on slopes of linked together by the flows of temporary perched 0.5°–3°, soil water flows are discharged onto the sur water above the textural horizon. In the spring, this face to form surface runoff in places with a catchment water is discharged onto the surface in the lower parts area of about 1 ha. We estimated the volumes of tempo

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millennia) preservation of such disturbances in the soil profiles was proved by the method of radiocarbon dat ing [1, 61]. The boundaries between the disturbed ele ments of the soil profiles may occur within areas of particular soils or coincide with the boundaries 1 between them. The most contrasting boundary is the boundary between the dark gray and gray soils. 2 The changes in the properties of the textural hori zons along the trench have a more gradual character, though several distinct subvertical boundaries can 3 E also be seen in them. Thus, at the section of 5–6.5 m, the BT horizon contains an inclusion of the dark D 4 humus material admixed into the BT horizon during the deep (130 cm) ancient uprooting. At the section B of 2.5–4 m, we can see several large vertical fissures; the thickness of the BT horizon in this zone increases by two times (Fig. 6). This microcatena crosses an ancient paleohollow. The parent material has gleyic features and is rich in 50 m carbonates, including large hard nodules. In the upper part of the slope towards the hollow, the upper Fig. 5. Soil microcombinations on gentle slopes (KP08): boundary of effervescence is found at a relatively (1) lowcontrasting microcombination of light gray and shallow depth (in contrast with the analogous soils of soddypodzolic soils, (2) microcombination of light gray and gray residualhumus (or with residual humus) soils transect DE (KP08) beyond the paleohollow. Within with dark coatings in the BT horizon and with deep gleyic the section of 0–4 m, the line of effervescence features, (3) microassociations of gleyic gray and dark gray descends down to 3.5 m and more. This cannot be residualhumus soils, and (4) dark gray residualhumus related to changes in the intensity of the leaching gleyic and abraded soils with residual humus. processes. It is probable that the sharp changes in the position of the line of effervescence are indicative of rary perched water flowing through the upper soil hori the ancient washout of the calcareous material from zons in a place somewhat higher than the place of the the paleohollow; then, it was filled with the noncal soil water discharge onto the surface (point B, Fig. 5). careous clay. The flank of the paleohollow is marked The calculations were made for the upper soil layer by deep vertical fissures. The inherited character of (AU + AU/HH + HH) with a total thickness of 70 cm the analogous paleohollows was shown earlier for the on the basis of data on the water discharge per unit of soils of the East European Plain [19]. area (according to [11]) and the climatic characteris The soil cover of the lower and better drained parts tics. It was supposed that the entire flow of temporary of the mesoslopes dissected by ravines was studied on perched water from a catchment of 1 ha takes place transect AC (Fig. 7). It consisted of the micro and above the BT horizon. The water infiltration and its mesocombinations of soddypodzolic soils of the further discharge with the groundwater flow were not microdivides and gleyic residualhumus dark gray soils taken into account because of the very low infiltration of the hollows. The boundaries between these modal capacity of the underlying clay sediments. In both cal components of geomorphic positions with divergent culations (from the hydrological data and from the cli (divides) and convergent (hollows) water flows are matic data), similar values of the soil water discharge rather distinct. Thus, the minimum distance between rates were obtained: 500 L/yr per area of 10 × 10 cm. the clearly distinguished soddypodzolic and gleyic These data indicate that the differentiation of the soil residualhumus dark gray soils was only about 3–4 m; moistening is a significant factor in the genesis of soil this boundary was confined to the bend of the slope (6°) microcombinations with residualhumus soils. of the hollow in its transition to the hollow bottom (1°). Convex geomorphic positions are occupied by the To characterize the transition from the light gray to soils with a thick (35 cm) subeluvial horizon. The the dark gray soil, let us analyze data on the trench catchment area in such positions is very small, which crossing the hollow (Fig. 6). It can be seen that the prevents the formation of temporary perched water in changes in the upper soil horizons (above the BT hori the soil profile. In turn, this reduces the risk of uproot zon) are accompanied by the appearance of several ing. Note that the uprooting disturbance creates a sharp boundaries between morphological elements of more contrasting boundary between the subeluvial and the horizons. They are related to the soil disturbances textural horizons. On the long slopes to the local by uprooting. The traces of these disturbances are pre ravines and valleys, light gray and gray soils with resid served in the soil even after the leveling of the surface ual humus and with dark coatings in the BT horizon nanotopography [3, 29]. The longterm (for several are developed in the slightly concave positions. In gen

EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 48 No. 4 2015 SOIL COVER PATTERNS IN THE NORTHERN PART 367

I II III 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 m

0.5

15 1.0 BT1 BT[a]1 BTth1 BT2 BCca,g 1.5 BT[a]2 BTth2 BCg BTth,g 2.0 m 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011121314

Fig. 6. Soil horizonation on the slope of the hollow, trench 12. Horizons and their elements: (1) AU, (2) AY, (3) AY/AEL, (4) AU/HH, (5) HH, (6) AELhh, (7) AEL, (8) AEL of a lighter color (in place of the former uprooted zone), (9) ELa, (10) accu mulation of elements from the BT horizon, (11) bleached silty material, (12) darkhumus fragment of the former uprooting, (13) boundaries between separate morphological blocks of the soils disturbed by uprooting and characterized by more pro nounced bleaching of the soil material in comparison with the adjacent soils, (14) large subvertical fissures with thick (>1 mm) coatings on their walls, and (15) part of the BT horizon with the highest amount of illuviation coatings. Soils and soil cover pat terns: (I) gleyic dark gray residualhumus soil with dark coatings, (II) microcombination of residualhumus gray soils and gleyic gray soils with residual humus, (III) microcombination of light gray and gleyic shalloweffervescent gray soils with residual humus. eral, in the lower parts of the mesoslopes, very deeply plates bears features attesting to sliding of the soil bleached light gray and soddypodzolic soils become material (under the impact of creep processes). Strat the modal components of the soil cover; they occupy ified soils (stratozems) are found on the slopes of 28°– more than 80–85% of the territory. 30°; they were formed due to the alternation of ero Thus, the soil cover of the mesoslopes is character sional and accumulative processes. In these soils, ized by mesocombinations of the soddypodzolic and some aggregates in the BCca horizon effervesce from light gray soils with residualhumus dark gray soils HCl at a depth of about 9 cm. with dark coatings in the BTth horizon. This type of The thickest eluvial horizons in the soils of ravines the soil cover predominates on the studied territory. are formed in the soddypodzolic soils on the north Ravines. The ravines are separated from the adja facing slopes. The EL horizon in these soils may cent slopes by a sharp bend in the brow area; their extend down to the depth of 55 cm. The transitional slopes are moderately steep to steep (the slopes of BEL–BTel horizons are also rather deep. On the lower northern aspects, 7°–12°; the slopes of southern parts of the slopes of northern aspects, the depth of the aspects, 10°–23° (up to 30°). The differentiation of soil bleaching is much shorter. Gleyic soddypodzolic the soil cover within the ravines is affected by the dif soils with shallow bleaching are developed. The thick ferentiation of the moistening, the slope aspect, and ness of their humus (AY) horizon is also short (4–6 cm). the groundwater discharge onto the surface (in the The soils developed on the northfacing slopes of the lower parts of the ravines). In the upper parts of the ravines have higher coefficients of textural differentia ravines, their southfacing slopes are occupied by the tion of their profiles in comparison with the soils shalloweffervescing soddypodzolic soils (Fig. 8). developed on the southfacing slopes. These are the warmest and the driest soils of the tall Inwashed and outwashed soils occur in the bottoms herb aspen–fir taiga; they are formed under fir stands of the ravines. In dependence on the intensity of the with sedges in the ground cover. In these soils, the zone erosional or accumulative processes, they may be repre of illuviation (the BT horizon) is superposed over the sented by stratified gleyzems, gleyed grayhumus soils, horizon containing carbonates; a specific BTca hori and darkhumus gleyic soils overlying buried gleyed zon is formed. Instead of a typical blocky prismatic darkhumus soils of microterraces. At the mesolevel, pedogenic structure of the BT horizon, it has a platy the soil cover of the ravines can be described as a meso sedimentation structure with thick coatings on the combination of soddypodzolic and light gray (with dif surface of the plates (up to 0.5–1 cm in thickness). ferent degrees of bleaching and gleying) soils of the Thick coatings are also found on the walls of vertical slopes and organoaccumulative and gleyed soils of the fissures dissecting this horizon. The surface of the bottoms.

EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 48 No. 4 2015 368 LOIKO et al.

0 AY AY AY AY AY AU AY AY AU AEL ELa ELa EL EL ELa HH EL AU/HH AEL/HH ELi 40 BEL ELa,ct, i ELa,ct I ELct HH/BT HH HH BEL ELi,ct BTel HH/BT BEL BEL BEL HH/BT BEL BTg, th BTel BTth, [au] BTth, [au] BT1 BT1 80 BT BTth1 BT BT BT2 BT2 BCg BTth BC BTg,th 120 BC BTth2 BC BCca BCg BC

160 BCca BCg BCca BCg BCg,ca BCca 200 BCg,ca cm BCg,ca

m 6 C 4 A 2 I III III I II I 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 m Fig. 7. Soil cover in the lower parts of mesoslopes dissected by ravines (transect AC): (I) microcombination of soddypodzolic and light gray soils, (II) microcombination of gleyic gray and dark gray residualhumus soils with dark coatings in the BT horizon, and (III) light gray soils with dark coatings.

Northern part of the area of tallherb aspen–fir taiga Thus, the modern boundary between the subtaiga in the system of soilgeographic division of Russia. In the and aspen–fir taiga zones within the studied interfluve scheme of soilecological zoning of Russia [48], the is controlled by the height of the territory with corre subtaiga of the southeast of the Western Siberian Plain is sponding differences in the lithological and biocli divided into two provinces differing in their geomorphic matic conditions. In the past four centuries, active conditions: the plain province of the Ob–Irtysh inter agricultural colonization of this area by Russian farm fluve and the piedmont CisAltay province to the east of ers led to some advancement of the subtaiga forb– the Ob River valley around the Tom’–Kolyvan folding grassy forests into the tallherb aspen–fir taiga. Local zone and the spurs of Kuznetsk Alatau. The studied area boundaries between these two ecosystems often fallow lies in the CisAltay province within the Tom’–Kiya the valleys of rivers and rivulets that also served as the boundaries of the agricultural development of the ter region of gray forest and soddy deeply podzolic soils ritory. The same phenomenon was noted for the sub developing from clayey and loamy loesslike deposits taiga/aspen–fir taiga boundary on the Salair Range [48] with the Tomsk district of deeply podzolized soils [21, 27]. It was found that tallherb communities are [15]. In this district, the northern part of the area of the replaced by grassy communities even upon relatively tallherb aspen–fir taiga is found at the heights from weak human loads (e.g., upon regular mowing) [33]. 170–200 to 270 m a.s.l.; it can be considered the first In the course of vegetation successions, grassdomi step of the altitudinal zonality on piedmonts in the sub nated meadows are overgrown with pine and birch taiga zone. In comparison with the Western Siberian rather than aspen and fir, and this favors the advance subtaiga, the tallherb aspen–fir taiga is characterized ment of the subtaiga ecosystems towards higher posi by the lower role of erosional processes and landslides tions previously occupied by the aspen–fir taiga. [10]; the extent of agricultural loads on the soil cover of Our data on the soil cover in the northern piedmont the tallherb aspen–fir taiga is much lower. In this zone, part of the area of the tallherb aspen–fir taiga indicate the differentiation of the soil cover is almost entirely that its differences from the typical soil cover of the dictated by the differentiation of the soil moistening. aspen–fir taiga in the low mountains are due to the dif

EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 48 No. 4 2015 SOIL COVER PATTERNS IN THE NORTHERN PART 369 in the hol ring Northern aspect SPskshe Psheglshbl Southern aspect SPshegdbl LGshegshbl of hollows Bottoms EIGGl Differences in the hy drothermic regimes and cold of warm slopes and their upper parts and lower Ravines and river val Ravines and river leys Slope aspect; creep gley, P—podzolic, E—eroded and gley, n of the newly formed drainage networks n of the newly formed drainage networks Grhtcg GrHgdc DGrHgdc DGrHgdcabr EIg Water in flow/(meso) shydr Network of hol Network lows boundaries orizon. At the species level, bleached (dbl) orizon. At the species level, pical, dc—with dark coatings, g—gleyic, gl— rphic, shydr—semihydromorphic, and hydr— rphic, shydr—semihydromorphic, depth of calcareous clays; soil washout depth of calcareous clays; soil washout hollows with indistinct and long hollows Wide Slopes toward Slopes toward ravines: SPt LGt Slopes toward hollows: LG(rh)(dc) Grhdcg Weak water in flow/meso hollows and hollows ravines Topography of the second postsedimentation stage Topography (?), surface subsidence, and denudation phenomena developed in SPshesk SPt(sk) LGt(sk) Water discharge/xe Water romeso Microdivides Slopes towards Tectonic shifts and/or humidization of the climate; lowering base ero Tectonic processes denudation and erosional sion; activation of lows the renewed substrate; spatial patter inherits the features of the paleonetwork in the bedrock inherits the features of paleonetwork ted by symbols in parentheses. as follows: xero—xeromorphic, meso—mesomo xero—xeromorphic, as follows: d Late Pleistocene with the formation of the Taiginsk clayey suite; regional lowe d Late Pleistocene with the formation of Taiginsk G—gray, DG—dark gray, ElGl—eluvialgley, MGl—mucky ElGl—eluvialgley, DG—dark gray, G—gray, ELGl (in wide with in hollows distinct slopes) MGl (in narrow with dis hollows tinct hollows) Water stagna tion/hydr Topography of the first postsedimentation stage Topography e—with shallow effervescence, sk—with skeletans in the BTel h sk—with skeletans in the BTel e—with shallow effervescence, The soil subtypes are indicated by the following symbols: t—ty igatory characteristics are indica eous clays Differentiation of moistening; of the base erosion and formation covering loesslike clay GdcgrH DGdcgrH Water inflow; Water GW/hydr guished. The types of soil moistening are LGshe(dc)grh Gshedcgrgh Microslopes Hollows Microdepressions Microdivides between Weak water in flow/mesohydr Lacustrinebog sedimentation in the Middle an ed as follows: SP—soddypodzolic, LG—light gray, SP—soddypodzolic, LG—light gray, ed as follows: (dc)grh Microdivides (mounds) Cryogenesis (?), surface subsidence, weak denudation Cryogenesis Differentiation of moistening; depth calcar Water dis charge/meso (hydr) ing processes Coverdetermin Modal soils SP/LGshe Mechanisms the soil cover differentiation Territories Coverforming processes Flat interfluvial surfaces Mesoslopes; meso and macrodivides scheme of the soil cover Factorgenetic The soil types are designat inwashed, and EIGGl—eroded and inwashed grayhumus gleyed soils. gleyed grayhumus and EIGGl—eroded inwashed inwashed, and shallowbleached (shbl) soils are distin Nonobl GW indicates the influence of groundwater. hydromorphic; gleyed, rh—with residual humus, rH—with residualhumus horizon, sh gleyed,

EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 48 No. 4 2015 370 LOIKO et al.

m 10

A B 8 NE SW 0 0 AY AY AEL

EL1 ELpal 6 40 EL2 40 BEL BTel BEL AEL 0 EL BT1 BTel AY 0 BT2 80 4 80 AEL BCca BTel 40 ELpal BT1 BTel 40 120 120 BT2 BCg BCca 2 80 0 BT BCca R 80 160 160 Cca BCg,ca 120 Gox 40 0 10 20 30 G 50 60 70 m Fig. 8. Soils of ravines: NE—southeastern slope with combinations of very deeply bleached shalloweffervescent soddypodzolic soils and gleyed shallowbleached podzolic soils; SW—southwestern slope with microcombinations of soddypodzolic palecol ored deeply bleached and shalloweffervescent soil with gleyic soddypodzolic palecolored soil with shallow effervescence. ferences in the lithological and geomorphic rather than zonality of the CisAltay piedmont soil province. The climatic conditions. Thus, in the northern piedmont soil cover of this ecotone bears the features typical of zone, there are no brown taiga soils developing from the the hemiboreal typical mountainous tallherb aspen– hard bedrock or from the earthy materials underlain by fir taiga of the low mountains with very deeply the hard bedrock at a shallow depth. Soils with a rela bleached soddypodzolic soils and the subtaiga zone tively shallow effervescence appear on the slopes toward of Western Siberia with residualhumus dark gray and the paleohollows and microdepressions under condi gray soils. tions of relatively poor drainage. In the concave posi ( ) Three major elements of the local mesotopogra tions of the microtopography, residualhumus soils are 2 phy are characterized by their own soil combinations. developed. The presence of these soils under the aspen– They are as follows: (1) the flat interfluve surface with fir taiga on the Tom’–Yaya interfluve makes this region slightly contrasting combinations of gleyic lightgray similar to plain regions in the southern taiga zone of soils with relatively shallow effervescence and with Western Siberia. However, there are no rawhumus and residual humus features and gleyic gray or dark gray peaty soils under the tallherb aspen–fir taiga even in residualhumus soils; (2) the mesoslopes drained by the the locations with impeded drainage. network of ravines with combinations of soddypod The altitudinal zonality of the soils on the Tom’– zolic, light gray, and residualhumus dark gray soils with Yaya interfluve can be considered a somewhat modi dark coatings in the BT horizon; and (3) ravine and hol fied altitudinal zonality pattern typical of the westfac low combinations of soddypodzolic and light gray soils ing slopes in the mountains of Southern Siberia, where with different degrees of bleaching and gleyzation on the lowest positions occupied by the foreststeppe and their slopes and organoaccumulative soils and gley soils subtaiga ecosystems are replaced at higher elevations (gleyzems) in the bottoms of the ravines. by the tallherb aspen–fir taiga ecosystems. (3) It is suggested that the kind of residualhumus horizon can be introduced into the new classification CONCLUSIONS and diagnostic system of Russian soils; special symbols (1) The northern ecotone of the tallherb aspen–fir are suggested for the dark coatings in the BT horizon taiga is found on the Tom’–Yaya interfluve in the and for the residualhumus mottles. A characteristic southeast of Western Siberia at the heights above 170– feature of the residualhumus horizons in the tallherb 200 m a.s.l.; it forms the first step in the altitudinal aspen–fir taiga is the presence of thin humus–clayey

EURASIAN SOIL SCIENCE Vol. 48 No. 4 2015 SOIL COVER PATTERNS IN THE NORTHERN PART 371 coatings on ped faces. These horizons are mainly allo proposals,” Eurasian Soil Sci. 46 (5), 599–609 (2013). cated to the hollows and to the slopes with convergent doi: 10.7868/S0032180X13050031 water flows. 10. L. I. Geras’ko, “Subtaiga of Western Siberia: landscape (4) In the direction from the flat interfluve surfaces dynamic aspects,” Sib. Ekol. Zh., No. 5, 719–725 towards their slopes dissected by ravines, the portion (2007). 11. Hydrochemical Studies of the Kolyvan’–Tomsk Folding of gleyic soils in the soil cover decreases from nearly Zone (Tomsk State University, Tomsk, 1971) [in Rus 100% to 10–15%; the portion of the soils with the sian]. presence of residual humus also decreases from 80–90 12. S. V. Goryachkin, Soil Cover of the North (Geos, Mos to 10–15%. cow, 2010) [in Russian]. (5) The composition of the soil cover on the flat 13. O. P. Dobrodeev, “Composition and origin of cover interfluves is closer to that of the zonal subtaiga and loams from the Sayan and Kuznetsk Alatau moun southern taiga landscapes on the Western Siberian tains,” Vestn. Mosk. Univ., Ser. 5: Geogr., No. 4, 33–40 Plain. The soil cover of mesoslopes dissected by the (1965). network of ravines and hollows is characterized by the 14. A. G. Dyukarev, LandscapeDynamics Aspects of Soil widespread occurrence of the very deeply bleached Formation in West Siberian Taiga (NTL, Tomsk, 2005) light gray and soddypodzolic soils that are considered [in Russian]. 15. A. G. Dyukarev and N. N. Pologova, “Soilgeographic to be typical of the tallherb aspen–fir taiga of the low zoning of Tomsk oblast,” Pochvovedenie, No. 3, 282– mountains. 294 (2002). 16. A. G. Dyukarev and N. N. Pologova, “Soils with com ACKNOWLEDGMENTS plex organic profiles on the Vasyugan Plain,” Eurasian Soil Sci. 44 (5), 480–492 (2011). This work was supported by the BIOGEOCLIM 17. A. G. Dyukarev and N. N. Pologova, “Soils of the Ob’– grant No. 14.B25.31.0001 of the Russian Ministry of Tom’ interfluve,” Vestn. Tomsk. Univ., Biol., No. 3 Science and Education, by the Russian Foundation for (15), 16–37 (2011). Basic Research (project no. 140400967a), and by the 18. A. G. Dyukarev, N. N. Pologova, and E. A. Dyukarev, research program of the Ministry of Science and Edu “Temperature regime of the deep podzolic soils on the cation of the Russian Federation (no. 37.901.2014/K). Tom’–Yaya interfluve,” in Modern Problems of the Gene sis, Geography, and Cartography of Soils (Tomsk, 2011), pp. 35–38. REFERENCES 19. E. A. Eremenko and A. V. Panin, Hollowtype Mesoto 1. A. L. Aleksandrovskii, “Age and evolution of soils of pography of the East European Plain (Miros, Moscow, ancient uprootings,” in Proceedings of the VI Congress of 2010) [in Russian]. the Dokuchaev Soil Science Society (Petrozavodsk, 2012), 20. N. B. Ermakov, Diversity of Boreal Vegetation in Central pp. 27–28. Asia. Hemiboreal Forests. Classification and Ordination 2. N. I. Bazilevich and A. A. Titlyanova, Biological Turn (Izd. Sib. Otd. RAN, Novosibirsk, 2003) [in Russian]. over on the Five Continents: Nitrogen and Ash Elements in 21. A. A. Zavalishin, “Soils of Kuznetsk foreststeppe,” in Natural Terrestrial Ecosystems (Izd. Sib. Otd. RAN, The Results of Kuznetsk–Barnaul Soil Expedition of Novosibirsk, 2008) [in Russian]. 1931 (Moscow, 1936), Part 3, pp. 201–202. 3. M. V. Bobrovskii, Forest Soils of European Russia (KMK, 22. F. R. Zaidel’man, “Lessivage and its relation to the Moscow, 2010) [in Russian]. hydrological regime of soils,” Eurasian Soil Sci. 40 (2), 4. A. L. Budnikov and G. G. Rusanov, “Lacustrine sedi 115–125 (2007). ments of the Last (Sartan) Glaciation in the valleys of 23. E. V. Kallas and P. A. 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Korsunov, “Genetic specificity of deep podzolic in the Baikal Region: Problems of Evolution and Classifi soils of the dark taiga of Salir and some elements of cation of Soils (Irkutsk State University, Irkutsk, 2010), modern soil formation,” in Forest Soils of Mountainous pp. 54–60. Ring of Southeastern West Siberia (Nauka, Novosibirsk, 7. I. M. Gadzhiev, Evolution of Soils in the Southern Taiga of 1974), pp. 133–192. Western Siberia (Nauka, Novosibirsk, 1982) [in Russian]. 27. N. N. Lashchinskii, Vegetation of the Salair Ridge (Geo, 8. I. M. Gadzhiev and A. G. Dyukarev, “Specific soils of Novosibirsk, 2009) [in Russian]. the dark taiga on the Tom’–Yaya interfluve,” in Geogra 28. Forest Soils of the Altay–Sayan Region (Krasnoyarsk, phy, Fertility, and Bonitation of Soils in Western Siberia 1977), pp. 48–56. (Nauka, Novosibirsk, 1984), pp. 56–79. 29. S. V. Loiko, M. V. Bobrovskii, and T. A. Novokreshchen 9. M. I. Gerasimova, I. I. Lebedeva, and N. B. 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