Page 1of39 between this versionandtheVersionrecord. Pleasecitethis articleasdoi:10.1111/tesg.12227. through thecopyediting, typesetting, pagination andproofreading process,whichmay lead todifferences This istheauthor manuscriptaccepted forpublicationandhas undergonefullpeerreview buthasnotbeen by low densities and segregated land uses. Researc uses. land and segregated bylow densities (Chen (Chen int can shape dietary environment food neighborhood Studi outcomes. health and public environment food & Beydoun 2007; Flegal Flegal 2007; &Beydoun evi obesitywere levels highest the concludingthat focus on health outcomes associated with automobile associated with outcomes health focuson food establishments or food outlets that lack affor that outlets or food establishments food among the American population (Cao 2010; Berrigan 2010; (Cao population American among the dependen automobile resulting densitydevelopments, INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION (Scott (Scott inf in as beingimportant as poverty, factors, such neighborhood Incontrast, and obesity. inactivity the emphasized counties, as such geographicscales, objective (USDHHS 1996). 1996). (USDHHS objective as walkin activitysuch moderate activity—including obesity lifestyles, sedentary evidence linking with 2004; (Lopez disease pulmonary chronicobstructive ca health, mental including poorer outcomes, health increa were to also drawn lifestyles,relationships
Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography et al.et et al.et More recently, researchers have focused on the rela the on have focused researchers Morerecently, In the late 20th century, a key public health debat health akey public century, Inlate 20th the Within this research, scale emerged as an important emerged this research, scale Within
2009; Vojnovic Vojnovic 2009;
2010; Boone Heinonen Boone Heinonen 2010; Accepted Article
et al.et This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. et al.et 2012). 2012). 2014). This research also was consistent with exi with was consistent also research This 2014). et al.et 2011). Individuals whose access is restricted to restricted to is access whose Individuals 2011). ses in obesity and a variety of other adverse adverse avariety ofother obesity and in ses luencing health outcomes, including obesity obesity including outcomes, health luencing level studies emphasized socioeconomic socioeconomic emphasized studies level dable, nutritious and culturally relevant food food relevant and culturally dable,nutritious and increased mortality rates, physical rates, physical mortality andincreased dent among marginalized populations (Wang populations among dent marginalized h began establishing links betweenlow links establishing beganh rdiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and cancer, diabetes disease, rdiovascular importance of urban form in shaping in form urban of importance g—became a essential national health health national aessential g—became es have found that the composition of the composition the eshave that found Sturm & Cohen 2004). By the mid 1990s, By & 2004). mid 1990s, the Cohen Sturm oriented built environments characterized characterized environments oriented built ake and alleviate one’s risk for obesityrisk akeandone’s alleviate ce and reduced moderate activity levels levels activity moderate andreduced ce et alet e in the United States (U.S.) began to beganto (U.S.) States United the ein . 2014). Associated with the sedentary the with Associated 2014). . tionship between the neighborhood betweenneighborhood the tionship dimension. Studies utilizing higher utilizing Studies dimension. sting studies fast
neighborhood food environments, food neighborhood outcomes are complex and nuanced (Hutchinson and nuanced (Hutchinson complex are outcomes (Zenk re or not track to whether need outcomes andhealth relationship the examining studies that recognition URBAN FORM, PEDESTRAIN ACTIVITY, NEIGHBORHOOD FOOD FOOD NEIGHBORHOOD ACTIVITY, PEDESTRAIN FORM, URBAN obesity. (Kumar shape constraints time and networks transportation and store per neighborhood growing that Evidenceis this study adds an important contribution to the cu the to contribution study an adds important this access to full service supermarkets (Zenk supermarkets full service to access of diet risks and higher diets have staples poorer storeutilization and decline. disinvestment extreme Michigan, of Detroit, lowerneighborhoods eastside status and whether or not individuals their utilize individuals whether or not and status f controlling while mass index body the by measured neighborh between interplay the articlescrutinizes hea neighborhood influence can constraints mobility
Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography et al.et Against these growing complexities, this study this exam growingcomplexities, these Against
Yet the relationships between the neighborhood food neighborhood the between relationships Yetthe et al.et 2011
Accepted Article Walker 2010;
to test further the associations between neighborh between further associations test the to ; Matthews 2012). 2012). Matthews
This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. et al.et 2011; Chen & Yang 2013). Moreover, there is a mou is there Moreover, Yang2013). & Chen 2011;
mobility and obesity outcomes among residents from residents outcomes among obesity and mobility
With the recognition that socioeconomic variables a socioeconomic that variables recognition the With et al.et 2009; Gustafson Gustafson 2009; related diseases than individuals who have who individuals than diseases related et al. et rrent discourse by explicitly incorporating incorporating explicitly by rrentdiscourse between neighborhood food environments environments food betweenneighborhood dietary outcomes and affect obesity risks risks affectobesity and dietaryoutcomes spondents actually utilize such environments environments such utilize actually spondents a low income, minority community facing community minority alow income, neighborhood food stores. food neighborhood ceptions, nutritional knowledge, knowledge, nutritional ceptions, ood food environments, weight status as as status environments, weight food ood 2012; LeDoux & Vojnovic 2014). 2014). LeDoux& Vojnovic 2012; lth outcomes—including obesity—this obesity—this outcomes—including lth or pedestrian mobility, socioeconomic mobility, orpedestrian ines the relationships between the relationships the ines environment and public health health and public environment et al.et ood food environments and environments food ood 2013). 2013). AND OBESITY ANDOBESITY
Bydoing, so nting nting the nd nd 2 Page 2of39 Page 3of39 based on the grid) promoted walking, and thereby in andthereby walking, grid) promoted the basedon literature (LaMonte literature(LaMonte as being recognized area of inquiry urbanan form, di health the focus on to began research.Analysis minori and visible women educated, groups,less the sub g under privileged among and overweight obesity ethn of socioeconomic, role the including outcomes, recognize “the burdens of place” associated with ne with associated place” of “the recognize burdens encouraged residents living within theseneighborho within living residents encouraged st and disconnected uses land segregated densities, suburb automobile oriented In contrast, 2010). Cao inequity between older inner cities and their rapid and their cities olderinner inequity between these bu sustain to necessary requirements material Cr 2003). Otterstrom 1967; (Preston cities ofU.S. grow of the impacts and socioeconomic environmental neighborhoods (characterized by higher densities, m bydensities, higher (characterized neighborhoods outcomes. health influence moderateand vigorous) envi of built the characteristics the how examining obesity national increasing With health. public on
Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography Research also began to question issues beyondissues urban question beganto also Research Starting in the 1960s and continuing into the 1980s the into continuing and 1960s the in Starting
Accepted Articlelow den on a new attack and 2000s, 1990s Duringthe
et al.et
2002; Vojnovic 2006; Vojnovic Vojnovic 2006; Vojnovic 2002; This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. ly developing suburbs. suburbs. developing ly mensions of marginalized communities and communities of marginalized mensions ly, considerable interest was placed on was placedon interest ly,considerable ronment and associated physical activity (both (both activity physical and associated ronment itics worried about the increasing energy and energy increasing worriedthe about itics reet systems based on curvilinear streets) streets) curvilinear basedon reetsystems under represented in the planning and health andhealth planningthe in under represented ilt environments as well as the growing growing as the as well environments ilt ighborhoods characterized bysocio extreme characterized ighborhoods an developments (characterized bylow (characterized andevelopments ods to travel by car. car.travel byto ods ixed land uses and connected street networks networks and connected uses land street ixed ic and cultural variables. The prevalence of The prevalenceof variables. andic cultural ties—introduced a new dimension to this this to dimension a new ties—introduced creased physical activity (Handy (Handy activity creased physical Research revealed that pedestrian oriented pedestrian oriented that revealed Research roup populations—including low income low income populations—including roup ing low density, automobile oriented form automobile oriented inglow density, et al. et , considerable criticism focused the on criticism considerable , form in shaping local health health local shaping in form sity developments became focused focused became sitydevelopments 2006). Studies began to beganto Studies 2006). et al.et 2002; 2002; 3
period of decentralization, deindustrialization, ab deindustrialization, of decentralization, period behavior, physical activity and health do not hold hold not do activityandhealth behavior, physical have been found to be at a greater risk for obesity for arisk greater beat to found have been of conv composed disproportionately supermarketsor others have shown modest affects among different ag amongaffects different modest have others shown neighborhood food environment and BMI levels (Hatto and BMI levels environment food neighborhood Bodor al. of the city is due, in large part, to population de population part,to large in cityof the due, is o effects the many shows of a city is Detroit that ca as health goods such as private well servicesas IN DETROIT DISINVESTMENT between associations the exploring for casestudies and declin disinvestment experiencing neighborhoods economic stress, where many of the traditional rela traditional manyof the where stress, economic environments might promote better public health out health better public promote might environments Heinonen (Inagami envi higher food in shopped quality who communities had significa foods of affordablenutritious devoid reside community minority and low income that shown healt shape public can potentially that environment
Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography 2014). Despite these incongruities, there is stil is incongruities,there these Despite 2014). et al.et Neighborhood food Neighborhood et al.et
et al.et 2010). Yet some studies have found no strong asso have no found studies Yetsome 2010).
Accepted Articleneighbor in living residents Consequently, 2006). 2013). The Detroit neighborhoods that are the foc are that the neighborhoods Detroit The 2013).
This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved.
environments also are an important component of the component animportant areenvironments also cline and a fiscal crisis resulting from a long afrom long resulting crisis and acline fiscal andonment and regional fragmentation (Thomas (Thomas fragmentation and regional andonment (Morland (Morland re and fresh food. The current distressed state state distressed current The refood. and fresh (Vojnovic (Vojnovic l a potential that improvements to to improvements that a potential l ntly higher BMIs than residents do of similar of similar do BMIsresidents than ntly higher the local food environment and obesity. and obesity. environment food local the tionships between urban form, travel form, betweenurban tionships h outcomes—including obesity. Research has has obesity.Research outcomes—including h comes ( comes e groups (Pruchno e e for over five decades—emerge as ideal five edecades—emerge for over enience stores and fast food establishments establishments food and fast eniencestores ronments outside their neighborhood neighborhood their outside ronments ri ri nts who rely on local food environments environments food local rely on who nts f poverty and inaccessibility to public public to andinaccessibility povertyf et al.et et al.et Swinburn and Egger 2002 Egger and Swinburn et al. et 2013; Gase 2013; ciations between the ciations 2006; Mehta & Chang 2008; & 2008; Chang Mehta 2006; hoods lacking full service full service lacking hoods 2013). 2013). us of this research— of this us et al.et et al.et 2014; Williams Williams 2014; 2014), while while 2014), built obesogenic ; Boone et
4 Page 4of39 Page 5of39 patterns of racial segregation and exclusion (Darde and exclusion segregation of racial patterns population had declined by 1.1 million people (61.4 people bymillion 1.1 had declined population brought complicated social, economic and physical c and economic physical social, broughtcomplicated thereof on the health and well being of citizens re of citizens well being and thereofhealth the on e to need the to led &2013)—has Thomas city(Dewar a call“shrinkage” some configuration—which spatial commun a varietywide of support to ability reduced of vacant large left swatches loss population Such experience of remaining students and falteringfina students remaining experienceof a neighborhoods in children of middle class numbers central cities during that period (U.S. Census 2000 Census (U.S. period that centralduring cities social services go unmet. goservices unmet. social and unemp rates of poverty high city, Americanwith the in evident is outcome The Galster 2012). 1997; to be one of the most racially segregated regions a regions racially segregated beonemost of the to a American majority African city the remained time, povert a 32.3% experiencing were families Detroit’s moremobile were leaving those citysince poverty, ma this leave. Overall, to began families American a but Whites, working class or largelymiddle class
Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography Depopulation had certain specific characteristics. specific characteristics. had certain Depopulation City population declined 25% between 2000 and 2010; 2000 between25% declined City population
Acceptedgrowing poverty with along flight Themiddle class Article
This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. maining in the distressed city. city. distressed the mainingin mong major U.S. metropolitan areas. areas. metropolitan mongU.S. major residential and commercial areas and aareas and commercial residential , 2010a). By 2010, the city of Detroit’s total total cityof Detroit’s the 2010a). By , 2010, n n nces and decreasing school quality drove even quality drove school ncesand decreasing fter 2000, increasingly, middle class African African middle class increasingly, fter 2000, emergence of a predominantly African a predominantly emergence of ssive exodus aggravated problems of central problems aggravated exodus ssive financially than those remaining. In 2010, remaining. those than financially %) since its 1950 population peak year. peak population 1950 %)sinceits y rate (U.S. Census 2010b). At the same the At 2010b). yCensus (U.S. rate ity services. This drastically altered urban urban drastically altered This ityservices. t 82.7% and metropolitan Detroit continued continued Detroit and metropolitan 82.7% t et al.et hanges to the city of Detroit. Decreasing Decreasing of Detroit. city the hangesto loyment, where basic needs for urban and needsfor urban basic loyment,where nd schools jeopardized the educational the jeopardized schools nd nd others call abandonment of the central central of the callabandonment others nd xamine the effects of accessibility or lack or lack ofaccessibility effects the xamine For generations, because of suburban ofsuburban generations, because For 1987), those leaving the city were were city the leaving those 1987), among remaining city residents residents city remaining among one of the steepest drops in U.S. U.S. in drops onesteepest of the 5
public markets and stores within predominantly Afri predominantly within and stores markets public the supermarket industry as it globalized and subur globalized asit industry supermarket the urban which renewal in planningdecisions suburbs, These inclu broader. much were many but local that environment. food anadverse occurring restructuring major another with combined this Overtime, 2010). Data (Detroit Collaborative document aconsortium, local by 2009 in out carried neighborho coterminous serve originallyto designed strips nearby commercial and ones, of vacant number blocks residential to leading altogether, collapsed (Detroit Office of Foreclosure 2011). 2011). Foreclosure of Office (Detroit homeowners between 63,150 for foreclosedmortgages r able to city the if was and eventually, vacancies nei residential city’s as the such vulnerableareas acros foreclosures waveof a to led crisis mortgage outward into automobile centric territory (Grengs 2 (Grengs territory automobile centric outwardinto as the grew worse routes city systems, but transit no relied on automobiles afford to unable residents Inof infra terms away. families moremiddle class
Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography The decline of Detroit’s retail food environment wa environment food retail Detroit’s Thedecline of All of this had a devastating effect on the city's the on effect had a devastating of this All
Accepted Articlecondi exacerbated these of 2007 crisis The economic
This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. ghborhoods. This led to morehousing to led This ghborhoods. aze the site, vacant land. Mortgage lenders lenders Mortgage vacant land. site, the aze with few standing houses, or with a large or with houses, few standing with city depopulated and jobs spread regionally and jobs citydepopulated s metropolitan Detroit, but particularly in in particularly but Detroit, metropolitan s massive disinvestment and decentralization, and decentralization, disinvestment massive toriously inefficient city and suburban bus bus andsuburban city inefficient toriously banized. Stores predictably followed wealthy wealthy followed predictably Stores banized. structure, an increasing proportion of proportion anincreasing structure, 010). 010). ed 91,488 vacant residential lots in Detroit Detroit in lots vacant residential ed 91,488 and highways caused the demolition of demolition the caused andhighways can American neighborhoods and shifts in in and shifts neighborhoods canAmerican ded the loss of population and wealth to and to wealth of population loss dedthe ods. The Detroit Residential Parcel Survey, Residential The Detroit ods. with neighborhood food suppliers created suppliers food neighborhood with no longer had a purpose as they were were as they alonger no purpose had spatial fabric. Some neighborhoods neighborhoods fabric. Some spatial 2005 and 2011 in the city of Detroit Detroit city of the in and 2011 2005 s a product of many forces, some some forces, many a of s product tions for the city and region. The The region. for city the and tions 6 Page 6of39 Page 7of39 products from farm to fork (Guptill & Wilkins 2002; & Wilkins (Guptill fork to farm from products strategic partnerships, so that fewer corporations fewer corporations that so strategic partnerships, ve and consolidation saw significant also and1990s i replicate built out to in largerfootprint—harder greenfield in models lo big box perfected chains As o formed basis the tastes and needs whose customers the city’s only black owned Metro Foodland, operate Foodland, Metro city’s the black owned only E&L Su Market, asHoneybee such stores, independent se Detroit in chains for national Prospects 2001). but Detroit, northeast in year,opened Kroger same ch for the of closures a wasseries among but 2001, years.A only five about lasted Meyers.The store Memori Hartford with partnership in store—developed y the in down closed grocers independent older, As existed attract new to stores efforts few community dollar 2012 yearsin both forty later, billion $2.9 billio doing $11.8 morethan 1967 in establishments gr wholesaletrade in In Detroit, depended. stores wh groceryon trade decline the of wholesale to led (Po and prices higher choices fewer with faced were Left be innercities. in olderstore base smaller,
Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography
Accepted Articlechains changes, major economic broader Duringthese
This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. hind, low income and minority communities communities and minority low income hind, s (U.S. Census 1967, 2007). 2007). 1967, Census (U.S. s nner cities—soon became the norm. The 1980s The 1980s norm. the became nnercities—soon now control a greater portion of the flow of flow of the greatera portion control now emed bleak; although well regarded well regarded although bleak; emed ocery and related products dropped from 629 629 droppedfrom products related oceryand second opened at Telegraph and 8 Mile in in Mile and 8 Telegraph at second opened ich smaller independent and specialty grocery and specialty independent smaller ich ain in 2014 (Kmart 2001; Snavely 2014). The Snavely The 2014). (Kmart 2001; 2014 in ain . It was not until 1998, when the first Kmart Kmart whenfirst the 1998, Ituntil not . was it lasted only about three years (Brooks only three lasted about it cations supplied by trucks on highways, on the bytrucks supplied cations rtical integration with mergers, buyouts and mergers, buyouts with integration rtical n in sales to 101 businesses doing around doing around businesses 101 to sales in n thukuchi 2005). Shifts in the industry also industry also the in Shifts 2005). thukuchi Wrigley 2002). Wrigley 2002). f the typical inventory found in the stores. stores. the in found inventory ftypical the d successfully in Detroit. Detroit. in successfully d al Baptist Church—opened at 7 mile and mile 7 at Church—opened Baptist al permercado, Mike’s Fresh and previously and previously Fresh Mike’s permercado, ears following the civil disturbances, disturbances, civil the following ears neglected or divested from the the from divested neglected or 7
700 occupied residences identified samplethe we in identified residences occupied 700 mortgage subprime the by drastically impacted were respons The unforeseen. was economicdeterioration & Cou (Groves communities marginalized economically ra such percent. While 10.3 rate response of final (Figure Overall, 1). Detroit, Michigan of eastside in low-income, African households to 2,514 sent was ha latter the over mailimplemented survey Arandom heal the and between built-environment relationship travel behavior, mobility and physical activity lev activity and physical mobility travel behavior, (walking, public transit transit orpublic automobile). (walking, s of stores food frequency visited, weekly included DATA AND RESEARCH AREA AREA AND RESEARCH DATA ob and stores food neighborhood between connections foo retail andthe city the in severedisinvestment and fast food stores dollar and liquor convenience, createda loca Detroit and decline in disinvestment dec first the As stores. Farmer Jack Detroit metro S as such formats urban as lower price as Mart well retail major last the Jack, Farmer Byearly 2000s, sub andlarger newer the competewith to struggling
Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography
Accepted partic on information ascertained survey The8 page p on-going larger a are presented from analyses The Article
This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. With the surveys coded, all respondent addresses addresses respondent all the coded, surveys With d environments that we examine the the we examine that environments d els. ade of the 21st century ended, the severe severe the ended, century ade21st of the l food environment dominated by dominated environment food l restaurants. It is against this backdropof Itthis against restaurants. is ave A Lot. In 2007, A&P shuttered all all shuttered A&P Inave A Lot. 2007, urban formats of Meijer, Kroger and Wal ofKroger Meijer, urbanformats 258 households returned the survey, for a a for survey, the returned households 258 tes are within expectations in socially and and socially in expectations within tesare
tore trips, trip distances and travel modetravel and distances toretrip trips, Information collected on travel- on collected Information esity. esity. re vacated within three months. three months. revacatedwithin American neighborhoods on the lower lower the on neighborhoods American th outcomes in Metropolitan Detroit. Detroit. outcomes Metropolitan th in e rates in the Detroit neighborhoods neighborhoods Detroit thee rates in crisis in the city of Detroit. Roughly Detroit. Roughly citythe of in crisis supermarket chain in the city, was city,was the chainin supermarket lf of 2008 and the beginning of 2009 of 2009 the beginning and 2008 of lf per 1998; Siegel 2002), the level of of level the 2002), Siegel per1998; ipants’ sociodemographics, diet, diet, sociodemographics, ipants’ roject examining the the rojectexamining 8 Page 8of39 Page 9of39 reported within the study area and particularly amo particularly area and study the reportedwithin of levels high surveys, the From city. broader the o surveyed process a are experiencing neighborhoods cla extreme by characterized is that kilometerarea (U.S. Census 2010c). 2010c). Census (U.S. wi of residents the 17.7% mothers.single Only and high a of consists area also research degree.The of t 6.4% only with and $20,822 incomeof household is that mor population a of area consists study the Sur American Community Census to U.S. the According populati tract census broader the of representative deg college a possess older years or 25 respondents p a lack respondents of one-third roughly addition, househo annual report respondents an of (50% income surveys when necessary, all end point destinations destinations end point all when surveys necessary, destination store with Inaddition, geocoded.were
Census, the neighborhoods making up the study area making up study the neighborhoods the Census, Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography The lower eastside Detroit neighborhoods constitu neighborhoods Detroit eastside lower The
The loss of residential density in the study arear study the density ofin residential Theloss Accepted ArticleAfri overwhelming to be tend respondents survey The
This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. 9 experiencing extreme decline. decline. extreme experiencing cond the into for ideal making a them study exodus, th despite function to continued have neighborhoods hav neighborhoods, which Detroit otherlower income theseneighborhoods reason for selecting important spi in theseneighborhoods, of function Theongoing lowest the particularly and shop, residents of the l other and a of number supermarket discount Aldi’s neighborho the litter stores and liquor convenience r contains area still study the half a centurynow, schools (Figures 2 and 3). and3). (Figures 2 schools service closure of stores, widespread experienceda over people the 22,000 of some loss population the k per people square 2,622 from a decline kilometer, Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography large scaledisinvestment, and ongoing the Despite This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. etail, commercial and industrial activity. While activity. While commercialand industrial etail, income earners who do not have access to a car. a have to access not do earners who income od landscape, the study area does contain an contain area does landscape, od study the s, industries and public amenities, including amenities, and public industries s, decade, these neighborhoods also have also theseneighborhoods decade, Into addition Census. 2000 the in ilometer for the study (Figures 4 and 5). Unlike many many and Unlike 5). 4 (Figures forstudy the ition of residents in communities communities in of residents ition arge independent supermarkets, where many many where supermarkets, argeindependent te of the widespread decline, was an decline, widespread ofte the e extensive population and investment and investment population eextensive e simply been abandoned, these abandoned, been esimply which has been taking place for over for taking place has been which housing abandonment> abandonment> housing al retail landscape> landscape> retailal 10 Page 10of39 Page 11of39 between mobility and public health outcomes. With With outcomes. health and public betweenmobility particular, higher rates of obesity have beenobser obesity have rates of particular,higher Dependent variable - variable Dependent MEASURES DATA var and socio economic activity sources, pedestrian explorati and a morenuanced environment, built the ac owning not neighborhoods Detroit lower eastside by their by et al.et and hi activity of pedestrian levels low densities, h studies walking.Recent with activityassociated th outcomes, health public on of walking importance 28.71, a classification of overweight (Table 1). G 1). (Table overweight of a classification 28.71, med The 30). ≥ obese (BMI and < obese 30)(BMI not BMIvalues weights.These and height self reported waschosen. ause dicho to choice the obese, or wereoverweight females (especially African American) than in males in than American) African females(especially These (McLaren 2007). levels and education status Independent variables - variables Independent Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography 2014). One important aspect of this research is t is research aspect of this One important 2014). Given the current emphasis placed on emphasis current the Given Acceptedcalculated (BMI). were BMI values bodyindex mass Article The dependent variable was an individual’s an individual’s was variable dependent The This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. Socioeconomic status has long been a predictor of o of a long predictor been has status Socioeconomic o explore in greater detail the association association the detail greater in explore o ian BMI value for survey respondents was respondents for survey BMI ian value , automobile dependence and the anddependence the automobile , 74.49% et al. et (weight (kg) / height (m) height / (kg) (weight 2013). In line with these past these past with Inline 2013). weight status as measured measured as status weight of respondents analyzed ofrespondents besity. Inbesity. 2 ) from 11 population. Walking is accessible and considered a considered accessible is and Walking population. privatevehicle benefits from older neighborhood built environments built olderneighborhood from benefits juice, sweets, salty snacks and fruits & and fruits vegetables snacks salty sweets, juice, likelihood of walking to closer establishments. Th closerestablishments. of walking to likelihood envi food over the control have more to respondents is considered the most frequently engaged in physic in engaged frequently considered most the is (Booth incl activity, physical limited in generallyengage 2011). Consequently, four dietary variables were i were dietary variables four Consequently, 2011). survey questions that asked respondents to record t to record respondents asked that questions survey available for consumption, which can influence diet can which influence consumption, availablefor environments food that shown researchhas Moreover, severe urban decline and poverty (Zick poverty and severedecline urban college degree. college degree. attainment educational Herevariables. dichotomous andeducat Gender attainment. and education income ana the in data employed findings,sociodemographic utilized. neighborhood and their physical ability their and physical neighborhood which is to theirdestinations, walks respondent a Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography Last, the food and beverages one consumes canaffec consumes one and food beverages Last, the Two dichotomous variables are included to capture w capture to are included variables dichotomous Two et al.et It is believed that increased mobility through pr through mobility Itincreased that believed is Accepted past However, & 2002). Donovan Giles Corti 1997; Article and if a respondent predominately walks to any of t of to any walks predominately respondent a if and This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. et al. et . Walking, whether as a leisure or destination act destination aor leisure asWalking, . whether 2009; Vojnovic Vojnovic 2009; uding the elderly and minority populations populations and minority udingelderly the . . e walking measure measure ewalking ncluded, the monthly servings of soda & of soda servings monthly the ncluded, cceptable even among subgroups who who subgroups among even cceptable These measures were calculated from calculated measures were These al activity among a wide spectrum of the spectrum awide among activityal ary intake patterns (Boone Heinonen (Boone Heinonen ary patterns intake ronments utilized but but decrease also the utilized ronments captures whether or not a respondent has a a has respondent not whetheror captures a reflection of the walkability of their of walkability the of reflection a that promote walking have been offset by have been walking promote that lysis included gender, age, household age, household gender, lysisincluded ional attainment are operationalized as operationalized are attainment ional might influence the types of foods foods types the of influence might heir daily and weekly consumption of of consumption weekly and daily heir ivate vehicle ownership might allow allow might vehicle ownership ivate t t hether or not a respondent owneda a respondent not hetheror et al. al. et body weight outcomes weight body research has shown that health health that shown has research 2013, 2014). 2014). 2013, captures whether or not or not whether captures he retail food stores retail food he . . et al.et ivity, ivity, 12 Page 12of39 Page 13of39 directories. entr as as well Corporation Growth Economic Detroit anin database, food licensing retail Agriculture’s der data was environment food The local McDonalds. r Fastestablishment food sources. food nutritious t stores and liquor dollar party, groceries, corner esta fast food and stores convenience supermarkets, res the from calculated were accessibilitymeasures Food environment variables - variables Foodenvironment visited or called to ensure their existence. existence. their to ensure or called visited responden by frequented stores All datasets. above occ also Field visits location. and classification U.S. federal government’s distance criteria utilize criteria government’sdistance federal U.S. nutritional label product.the label for nutritional f of portion the reflectsizes Serving group. each absence of a private vehicle (USDA 2009 (USDA vehicle private a of absence d walking reasonable a measure captures opportunity distances measures (MinDist Supermarkets, MinDist C MinDist Supermarkets, (MinDist measures distances gradual enlargement of a neighborhood food environm food neighborhood a of gradualenlargement cal were and 1609 meters, 805 measures, opportunity viewed as a respondent’s respondent’s viewedas a i Food)the capture Fast andConvenience Cumulative Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography The cumulative opportunity measures (Cumulative Sup (Cumulative measures opportunity Thecumulative Accepted area field were largerthe study within stores All Article This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. overall A series of cumulative opportunity and minimum dist and minimum opportunity cumulative Aseries of neighborhood food environment. Two sets of cumula sets Two environment. food neighborhood ). The second opportunity measures captures the measures captures opportunity second The hat had limited availability ofavailabilityaffordable had limited hat dependent supermarket database from the the from database dependentsupermarket urred to capture any stores not listed in the in listed not stores to captureany urred epresented major U.S. chain franchises such as such franchises chain U.S. major epresented pondents’ home addresses to full service to addresses home pondents’ ood consumed in relationship to the consumed relationship ood in blishments. Convenience stores included included stores Convenience blishments. d to identify “food deserts.” “food to identify d culated in order to examine how the the how examine to order culatedin ies from telephone and internet business business internet and telephone from ies mmediate spatial proximity and can be andcan be proximity spatial mmediate ived from the Michigan Department of Department Michigan the from ived ts outside the study were areastudy the also tsoutside ent might influence outcomes. outcomes. influence might ent onvenience and MinDist Fast Food) onvenienceand MinDist istance to purchase food in the in food to purchase istance ermarkets, Cumulative Cumulative ermarkets, verified to ensure proper proper to ensure verified The shortest Theshortest ance The first first The tive tive 13 their neighborhood environment. food theirneighborhood ArcMap 10.1 (ESRI2011). ArcMap 10.1 road a over calculated were accessibilitymeasures a each to category within store closest capture the cumulative accessibility zones were created. were zones cumulativeaccessibility establishment food or fast convenience supermarket, or n whether (0N | tracked that 1609m 1Y)) Shop and dumm them, two environments around food the utilize RESULTS RESULTS pedestrianactiv the on focus below results andthe overallof models. the fit the influencenegatively sign statistically not were factors such that found Initialm data recorded. and weight e.g.height no househo 11 data analysis, the to Prior Team2014). analyses we All statistical estimation. likelihood for individual level sociodemographics, sociodemographics, level forindividual potenti the on environment food neighborhood of the Statistical analysis - analysis Statistical food environmnet. food cross ref was which basis weekly a on utilized they Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography Accepted Article A binary logistic regression framework was used to wasto used framework regression A binarylogistic This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. Last, in order to capture whether or not respondent or not whether order to capture in Last, mobility and whether or not respondents utilized respondents or not whether and mobility The model parameters were estimated using maximum using maximum estimated were parameters model The Here respondents identified the stores that that storesthe identified respondents Here ificant and their inclusion was found to to was found inclusion and their ificant Core Development (R 3.1.1 R conducted in re Consequently, dietary variables were dropped dropped were variables dietary Consequently, respondent. All distances used in the the in used distances All respondent. odels that included the dietary intake measures measures dietary intake the included that odels ity and food environment components. components. environment ityand food network using ESRI Network Analyst in in Analyst ESRI Network networkusing lds were removed due to insufficient data, insufficient weredue to lds removed al that a respondent was obese controlling obese controlling a was respondent that al erenced against the larger neighborhood largerthe neighborhood against erenced within the previously defined defined previously the within ot a respondent shopped at a at a shopped respondent ota y variables (805m Shop (0N |(0N 1Y) (805mShop variables y estimate the influence the estimate s actually actually s 14 Page 14of39 Page 15of39 becomes salient. The1609m cumulative fast food acc fast food cumulative The1609m becomessalient. to 1.50). Car ownership continues to exhibit a sta exhibit to continues Car ownership 1.50). to li the greater significantly the home, respondent’s of f The number greater obesity. with relationship significant negative relationship with with relationship significantnegative hous and Age model. the dominate sociodemographics obesity on p any impact a have store food retail to accessi cumulative 805m betweenthe associations no CI .99 to .99) than higher income households. households. income higher CIthan .99) to .99 significa were households Low income relationship. within 805m of their home have a higher chance ofo chance have home ofa their higher 805m within environment and environment betweenresponden relationship significant positive environments play in shaping shaping in play environments once socioeconomic status was controlled. was controlled. status oncesocioeconomic statistically had no environment food neighborhood a own privatevehicle. not do who respondents than of greaterhada likelihood vehicle owneda private weight status weight (OR .97, 95% CI .95 to .99) in comparison to older tocomparison older toin .99) .95 CI 95% .97, (OR Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography As the neighborhood food environment is expanded, t expanded, is environment food neighborhood the As The results (Table 2) provide mixed support for the support mixed 2) provide (Table Theresults The inclusion of the Theinclusion Accepted have a to negative continues income and household Article weight status weight This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. 805m weight status weight . Respondents who utilize the neighborhood food en food neighborhood the utilize who Respondents . store utilization store weight status weight outcomes. In terms of spatial proximity, there are proximity, there In of spatial outcomes. terms Younger respondents tended not to be obese obese to be not tended respondents Younger kelihood of being obese (OR 1.24, 95% CI 95% 1.24, 1.05 (OR of beingobese kelihood tistically significant positive relationship with with relationship positive tisticallysignificant revalence. At this level, traditional traditional level, this At revalence. ast food establishments within 1609m of a 1609m within establishments food ast being obese (OR 3.38, 95% CI 1.39 to 8.57) 8.57) CI 95% to 3.38, (OR 1.39 beingobese control variable reveals a statistically a variable statistically reveals control ts’ utilizing their neighborhood food food neighborhood their utilizing ts’ Overall, respondents’ immediate immediate Overall, respondents’ significant relationship to obesity incidences obesity incidences to relationship significant while car ownership has a positive a positive has car while ownership besity (OR 4.10, 95% CI 1.33 to 13.66) than than 13.66) CI 95% to 4.10, (OR 1.33 besity ntly more likely to be obese (OR .99, 95% 95% obese.99, (OR be to likely ntlymore bility measures and BMI; nor does walking walking BMI;does nor and bility measures essibility measure has a positive a positive has essibilitymeasure respondents. ehold income have a statistically astatistically have income ehold role that the neighborhood food food neighborhood the role that he role of the fast food environment environment fast food herole of the relationship. relationship. In contrast, individuals who who individuals In contrast, vironment vironment 15 supermarkets within 805 and 1609 meters of a reside of and1609 meters 805 supermarketswithin explaining weight status outcomes such as obesity. obesity. as status outcomes such weight explaining neig rolethe of for results mixed show results the environment u food neighborhood actual and mobility Detroit, Michi in decline and extremedisinvestment reside minority low-income, among status weight and relevant even when accounting for accounting when relevanteven forth measures accessibility variable.Cumulative to variables continue environment food neighborhood s the but remain ownership and car income household food immediate the within shop not do who residents food environment. food DISCUSSION DISCUSSION controlled. are rates carownership .9 CI 95% obese.99, (OR be likely to aremore also mi travel have shorter to who residents Conversely, ha who respondents than 1.00) CI 95% to 1.001, 1.00 supe or independent regional national, to distances relationship. relationship. food neighborhood remaining the while fades income Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography The results from the analysis show that the presenc the that show analysis the from Theresults between n the relationships examinedstudy the This Accepted Articleresponden measures, distance shortest the Regarding The role of car ownership also remains salient but but salient remains also roleownership of car The This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. whether or not respondents’ utilize theirneighborh utilize respondents’ not or whether e fast food establishments at 1609m remain 1609m at eestablishments fast food rmarkets are more likely to beobese (OR to morelikely rmarkets are nimum distances to fast food establishments establishments food distances fast to nimum 9 to .99) even after household income and income even .99) household after to 9 hborhood food environments in food hborhood nt’s home had no relationship with obesity. with relationship had no home nt’s environment. At this level, the role the of level, this At environment. ve to travel smaller minimum distances. minimum travel smaller veto show no relationship with the dependent the with relationship no show aliency of age disappears. The agedisappears. aliencyof environments continue to show no no show to continue environments gan. Socioeconomic status, pedestrian pedestrian Socioeconomic status, gan. nts living in neighborhoods facing facing in neighborhoods living nts tilization were controlled. Overall, Overall, controlled. were tilization e of national, regional or discount discount or regional eof national, ts who travel larger minimum minimum travel larger who ts eighborhood food environment food eighborhood the role of household roleof household the ood ood 16 Page 16of39 Page 17of39 establishments. This is supported further by the l the supported by is further This establishments. influen could unemployment and poverty concentrated an knowledge as nutritional such dynamics household of a are source sources,also food they nutritious styles. styles. purchas establishments such utilize who respondents of a as presence the come as a surprise not should status (1993) noted long ago that ago long (1993)noted in some cases, the only immediate option. These tr These option. immediate cases, some only the in s at items unhealthful and purchasing visiting from experien sociospatial important with along shoppers the stores nearest them. In contrast, residents wh residents Incontrast, them. nearest stores the moreataff shop to required andfiscal constraints burden of restricted accessibility and food poor enand restricted of accessibility burden indica theirhomes could of 805m stores within food obesity levels than residents lacking such options lacking options such residents obesitythan levels superma aof number greater surrounded by Residents utilization supermarkets, food access and obesity (Hattori obesity and access food supermarkets, to demonstrate that failed U.S. the have in studies Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography and While national, regional and independent supermarke andregionalindependent national, While Results indicating higher obesity likelihood re for higher likelihood obesity indicating Results of respondents are included into the model. model. the are of respondents into included Acceptedstores. convenience of proximity the Article This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. residents who do not have the resources to overcome to have resources the not do who residents affordable unhealthful foods. Consequently, Consequently, foods. affordableunhealthful ose coping strategies revolve around avoiding around avoiding revolve strategies coping ose ack of significant relationship between relationship of significant ack The ordable distant stores are much more reliant on on morereliant much are stores ordabledistant were. supermarket does not necessary indicate that that indicate necessary not supermarketdoes et al.et uch stores despite their convenience or being, or being, convenience their despite uchstores ends hold even when the actual store actual the store even when hold ends ces can also work to prevent respondents respondents prevent to work also cescan e nutritious food staples or lead active life life or lead active staples food enutritious a significant association between between association significant a vironments d structural conditions such as such conditions structural d rkets were no more likely to have lower have likely to more no were rkets ce respondents’ interactions with such such with interactions cerespondents’ te that the most disadvantaged bear thebear mostdisadvantaged tethe that preferences, knowledge and attitudes and knowledge preferences, 2013; Gase 2013; These results are similar to past similarto past are results These spondents utilizing neighborhood neighborhood utilizing spondents ts are a source of affordable of aaresource ts . . Bromley and Thomas Thomas and Bromley et al.et 2014). 2014). the temporal temporal the Such findings Such weight weight 17 of placed on marginalized communities byadditiona communities the placedmarginalized on explaining obesity explaining mor be pricesfood might shown, researchrecenthas necessary translates into changes in food shopping shopping food changes in into translates necessary preferences. to minimize choose individuals assuming ratherthan the likelihood of obesity suggest that as distance distance as that of obesity suggest likelihood the (Zenk many and in environment food neighborhood immediate food measure that plays a role in explaining explaining role in a plays measure food that constraints often faced by the working poor (Chen & (Chen poor working the oftenfaced by constraints andocc home the from originate are purpose, single ne immediate their outside betteroptions food find Furthermore, assuming residents shop at the nearest the at shop residents assuming Furthermore, nu afford consume to to able be not might meet ends additional temporal and fiscal burdens. burdens. and fiscal temporal additional like have a lower environment food neighborhood the even when sociodemographic variables are controlled arevariables evenwhen sociodemographic establis of fast food negativeimpact the show that Boone Heinonen Boone Heinonen Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography et al.et Findings indicating that greater distances to super greater that distances indicating Findings studi for indicate need the these findings Overall, The fast food cumulative accessibility measure at 1 at accessibility measure cumulative Thefast food 2011). In addition, improved accessibility to lar accessibility to improved Inaddition, 2011). Accepted Articleacti food residents’ that have shown studies Past et al.et prevalence 2011). 2011). This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. (Ghosh Dastidar (Ghosh Dastidar weight status. status. weight et al.et hments on diet related outcomes and obesity and obesity related diet outcomes on hments ighborhood. Similarly assuming that all trips trips all that assuming ighborhood.Similarly patterns (Cummins (Cummins patterns to supermarkets increase a heavier heavier a increase tosupermarkets retail food store ignores the crushing burden crushing the ignores store food retail ur during the day ignores the challenges and challenges the day ignores the urduring tritious diets even when they are present. arethey even present. when diets tritious e crucial than distance to stores in in stores to distance than ecrucial Cark 2013). 2013). Cark 2014). Thus, people struggling to make to struggling people Thus, 2014). l travel costs associated with their efforts to to efforts their with associated travel costs l lihood of being obese, despite the the despite of beingobese, lihood (Maddox 2004; Inagami 2004; (Maddox distance in their shopping shopping their in distance cases do not begin or end at the home orhome endthe at begin casesnot do 609m is the only spatial proximity only the is 609m spatial es to document where people shop shop people esto document where Such results confirm past findings past confirm results Such ge scale retail supermarkets do not not supermarkets do retail ge scale markets play a role in explaining explaining marketsrole a in play vity spaces often go beyond their their beyond oftengo vityspaces et al.et 2014). et alet . 2009 . Moreover, as Moreover, ; 18 Page 18of39 Page 19of39 by diet, a variable that should be considered asim beconsidered should that bya variable diet, activity, Besides physical and swimming). jogging by age, socioeconomic status and gender. gender. and status bysocioeconomic age, closeto one. distanc on rolethe of muchtoo emphasis placing in and they are the product of a broader legacy of rac of of legacy a broader product the are andthey neighborhoods Detroit eastside The lower Detroit. an Race matter. not imply to race does that not is built the of importance the override variablescan disinve experiencingsevere communities in hold not activity physical form, betweenurban relationship similar to other studies (Michimi and Wimberly 2010 Wimberly and (Michimi studies similarto other v of absence the mechanismin serve coping a can as rel statushow outcomes reveal weight shape outlets outcomes showin staples. Likewise, food nutritious might which vehicle, a lacking households costsfor i Similarly, travel occurs. automobile relianceon should include various types of moderate and vigoro of moderate types various include should i measure walking the for Thelack of significance a broad asin one element beviewed walkingshould overweight and obesity. In turn, both physical act In physical both turn, and overweight obesity. Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography The role of class emerges within this research, and this within emerges class Therole of Accepted Article This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. d class are intricately intertwined especially in in especially intertwined areclass intricately d environment in shaping health outcomes. This This outcomes. shaping in health environment portant as physical activity in reducing in activity as physical portant ivity and diet are variables that are that influenced variables are andivitydiet ial residential segregation that economically economically that segregation residential ial and public health, including obesity, might might obesity, including health, and public are approximately 93% African American American African 93% areapproximately a healthy body weight also will beinfluenced will also weight a body healthy t also signifies potentially greater travel greater travel potentially signifies talso us exercise (such as gardening, hiking,gardening, as (such exercise us stment and decline. Socioeconomic and decline.Socioeconomic stment strategy to promote physical activity, which activity,which physical promote to strategy limit one’s ability to purchase more purchase to limit ability one’s g that shorter distances to fast food food to fast shorter that g distances e in the models since the odd ratios are ratios modelsodd the since the ein atively nearby cheap energy-dense food food energy-dense cheap nearby atively iable options. While such findings are While findings such options. iable ; Reitzel ;Reitzel n influencing body weight reveals that weight influencing n body reaffirms that the traditional traditional the that reaffirms et al.et 2014), caution is needed needed is caution 19 that the survey returned a slightly educated higher slightly a returned survey the that extrapolate beyond the lower eastside neighborhoods eastside lower the beyond extrapolate censu neighborhood underlying of the representative respondents aged in the shortest distance models. models. shortestthe distance in aged respondents likelihood the Similarly, 1609m increased. within overweight inc being respondent of a likelihood The two signi dichotomy found nested from this Findings groups two norma into broken were respondents obese lead to measurement, reliability and validity issue and validity reliability measurement, leadto public in measures self reported legitimacy the of lev BMI calculate to measurements weight heightand stratified the region. region. the stratified CONCLUSION CONCLUSION health shaping in public role playto a significant are controlled. utilization store andneighborhood evenwhen obesity, influencing on environment food bemixe there to appears theselimitations, Despite household income in the results as the odd ratios a ratios odd the as incomeresults the in household the sampling frame was low. While the overall comp the While low. was frame sampling the s sample the Third, study. of the generalizability captures only design study the nature sectional of Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography Accepted Articlefindings. research affect the Severallimitations sen a on obesity, was study of this focus the While Moreover, one should avoid giving too muchtoo t weight giving avoid should one Moreover, This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. outcomes. outcomes. ize is modest and the overall response rate of response rate of overall and the modest is ize s (Brener s one point in time, which limits the the limits which time, in one point In particular, fast food establishments appear establishments fast food In particular, health research, self reported responses can responses research, health self reported d support for the role of the neighborhood neighborhood the for role the of support d s demographics, care should be taken not to to betaken not should care demographics, s of Detroit. of Detroit. of being overweight increased as overweight being of sociodemographics and pedestrian mobility pedestrianmobility and sociodemographics re very closeto reone. very osition of the sample is is sample of the osition els. While considerable research supports research supports considerable While els. sample than the underlying population. population. underlying the than sample reased as the number of supermarkets supermarkets of number the reasedas First, the study relied on self reported self reported on study the First, relied ficant differences between the groups. groups. the between differences ficant l and overweight was conducted. conducted. was overweight and l et al.et sitivity analysis in which non- the analysis sitivity 2003). Second, 2003). Moreover, it should noted be should it Moreover, relatively o the role of rolethe o of the cross the 20 Page 20of39 Page 21of39 boasts more than ten seasonal neighborhood farmers farmers neighborhood seasonal ten morethan boasts conditions. While improving accessibility to sourc improving to accessibility While conditions. byand oftenmediated larg complex are environments owned independent supermarkets in the city fail to to fail city the in supermarkets ownedindependent subsid receiving public is Meijer Foods, LikeWhole process the in and are boundary city’s the northern 17 a chain opened Meijer supermarket scaleregional C youngat professionals city’s for the marketplace b are and subsidies Large scaleinvestments 2013). cit the in otherstores few that aatsubsidy level move into the city. city. the into move and boutiqu nearbyopen outlets andretail regional initia Moreover, such formats. “alternative” their andseas scale smaller support, relianceoutside on g are fragile initiatives of these many importance, support increasingly restaurants, by sourcing local di boxes FoodShare produce Fresh monthly,low cost andemployment neighborhood various in farmstands region’slargest the Market, Eastern collectives. city’s the in disinvestment extreme the responseto Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography Whole Foods opened its doors to national media fanf media national to doors Foodsopened its Whole Yet as the results of this study show, the relation the study show, of this Yetresults as the Accepted Article Detro in years,retail food fresh few Overlast the This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. y can claim to have received (Sadovi 2013; Stock Stock 2013; (Sadovi received yhave can to claim produce market, sponsors 18 seasonal, weekly seasonal,weekly 18 sponsors market, produce tives also face an uncertain future as national future as national face an uncertain also tives iven their newness and labor intensiveness, and labor intensiveness, newness their iven onality and experience modest revenues due to due to revenues experiencemodest onalityand small scale food enterprises. Despite their their Despite enterprises. food small scale food environment. The city of Detroit now now cityof Detroit The environment. food of building a new store in northwest Detroit. Detroit. northwest in store a ofnew building e markets catering to high income earners high income to ecatering markets es of affordable nutritious food sources is sources food is nutritious esof affordable adillac Square. At the same time, the large the time, same the Square.At adillac receive (Zemke 2011). 2011). receive(Zemke eing made to create a giant open air food food giantopen air a create to eingmade ies that many of the historic and minority and minority many that ies historic of the ,652 sq. m. store at Woodward and 8 Mile, Mile, and 8 Woodward at store m. sq. ,652 markets and several food buying food buying and several markets er structural issues and sociocultural sociocultural and issues erstructural stributed at 35 community locations and community 35 at locations stributed locations. Other initiatives, such as such Other initiatives, locations. ship between neighborhood food food betweenneighborhood ship it’s neighborhoods has expanded in in expanded has neighborhoods it’s are in 2013 in midtown, with public public with midtown, in 2013 in are 21 (Brownell 2004). Moreover, older homes hosting poo hosting olderhomes Moreover, 2004). (Brownell can lead it t environments, city marketinginner in househol within knowledge of preparation food basic during dollars food stretch help to establishments encourag may weekly provisions for environment food place burdens additional The interventions. health Detroit. of out status weight to explaining found not store are full-s a stores whether food accessto neighborhood foun been environment have food neighborhood the of restauran fast food fewer with residents than obese th around establishments food fast of concentration eas lower 1609m, scaleof them. At larger a around obese than of being likelihood higher a (805m)have theirimmedi rely heavily on who Residents scales. obesit as outcomes such status to weight contribute environment. environment. on are rely that to forced amongsubpopulations the study, mig this there in asnoted system.However, o stratification andracial economic underlying the mu equity, strategies groundssuch of on imperative Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography Accepted warrants environment food fast of the Thesalience Articleof the that dimensions certain has study found This This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. the month. When combined with the erosion erosion the with combined When month. the o the creation of a “toxic food environment” environment” food of a “toxic creation the o ccurring in the region and broader food food broader and region ccurringthe in d on residents to escape their neighborhood neighborhood their escape to residents on d ht be some benefit to such interventions interventions such to benefit besome ht their immediate neighborhood food food neighborhood immediate their st seriously tackle the structural conditions conditions structural the seriously tackle st ds and schools and targeted fast food and targeted and schools ds comes in residents on the lower eastside eastside lower the on residents comesin ate neighborhood environment food ateneighborhood rer families also may have less reliable havereliable may less also rerfamilies at different out play dimensions Such y. ervice supermarket or a convenience orconvenience a ervicesupermarket ts around them. Yet not all dimensions dimensions all not them. Yet tsaround tside Detroit residents with a greater a with residents Detroit tside residents who do not utilize the stores not stores the utilize do who residents em have a higher possibility of being of being possibility em higher a have e their reliance on fast food food fast on reliance e their d to be influential. Traditional Traditional influential. to be d additional attention in terms in of public attention additional neighborhood food environment food neighborhood 22 Page 22of39 Page 23of39 outcomes in Detroit. in outcomes future into and should beincorporated examination power. and electrical/gas water equipment, kitchen Accepted Article Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. Such complexities warrant further complexities Such policy strategies to ameliorate public health health ameliorate public to strategies policy 23 Cao, X. (2010), Exploring Causal Effects of Neighbo Effects Causal Exploring (2010),X. Cao, Booth, M., A. Bauman, N. Owen & C.J. Gore (1997), P Gore (1997), &C.J. Owen N. Bauman, A. M., Booth, Bodor, J.N., J.C. Rice, T.A. Farley, C.M. Swalm & D Swalm Rice, C.M. Farley, T.A. J.C. Bodor,J.N., Boone Heinonen, J., P. Gordon Larsen, C. Kiefe, J. J. Kiefe, C. Gordon Larsen, P. J., Boone Heinonen, Boone Heinonen, J., A.V. Diez Roux, D.C. Goff, C.M. D.C. Diez Roux, A.V. J., Boone Heinonen, Cummins, S., E. Flint &n Flint E. (2014), New Matthews S., S.A. Cummins, Chen, X. & J. Clark (2013), Interactivethree dimen (2013), Clark &X. Chen, J. Chen, S., R.J.G.M. Florax, S. Miller S. & SnyderC.C. Florax, R.J.G.M. S., Chen, Fight: Food K.D.(2004), Brownell, Brooks, T. (2001), Kroger opens new Detroit store. store. new opens Detroit Kroger Brooks,(2001), T. Bromley, R.D.F. & C.J. Thomas CJ (1993), The(1993), retail CJ Thomas & C.J. Bromley,R.D.F. Berrigan, D., Z. Tatalovich, L. Pickle, R. Ewing & L. Ewing R. 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A., Gustafson, Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography Journal of Preventive Medicine Preventiveof Journal Health percent20Summary percent20v1.pdf>.Accessed on 16 Fe 16 on percent20v1.pdf>.Accessed percent20Summary pe percent20in percent20Crisis percent20Foreclosure Health NutritionHealth American Medical Association Medical American Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) Participants in Participants (SNAP) Program Assistance Nutrition University of Pennsylvania Press. Press. Pennsylvania Universityof 1793 1812. 1793 1812. of Physical Activity. Determinants Environment Obesity Foodand Prices Store, to Distance (2014), Consumption, and Obesity in a Racially Diverse, LowDiverse, and Obesitya Racially in Consumption, Fruitand Vegetable Access, Store Grocery Reported 2014. 2014. http://www.detroitparcelsurvey.org/interior.php?nav on percent20and percent20the percent20Impact percen percent20Impact percent20the percent20and on Accepted 10.3389/fpubh.2014.00229. doi: 2.229, Article 18.1, pp. 42 54. 42 54. pp. 18.1, Driving Detroit: The Quest for Respect in the Motor the Respectin for Quest The Detroit: Driving 16.7, pp. 16.7, 1229 1237. This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. The City after Abandonmentafter City The 307, pp. 491 497. 491 497. pp. 307, Nonresponse in Household Interview Surveys Interview Household in Nonresponse 47.5, pp. 587 595. 587 595. pp. 47.5, Buckner & A. Vail (2013), Neighborhood and and Neighborhood &(2013), Vail A. Buckner Mismatch in Detroit. Detroit. in Mismatch ial Parcel Survey. Available at: at: Available Parcel ial Survey. revalence of Obesity and Trends in the the Trends in and revalenceof Obesity nfluence of Individual, Social, and Physical and Physical Individual,Social, of nfluence (2011), Community Stabilization and the and the Stabilization Community (2011), C. Huang, R. Beckman & T. Dubowitz Dubowitz & Beckman T. Huang, C. R. ), The Association between Self Self between ),The Association Social Science and MedicineScience and Social ess toward Recovery: June 2008 June toward ess Recovery: in Urban Food Deserts. Deserts. Food Urban in =reports iles/Communitypercent20Stabilizati Intake, Sugar Sweetened Beverage Beverage Intake,Sugar Sweetened rcent20Detroit percent20Executive percent20Executive rcent20Detroit Fayette County, Kentucky. Kentucky. Fayette County, Income Population. IncomePopulation. t20of percent20the percent20the t20of y Intake among Supplemental ySupplemental Intakeamong 99 2010. 99 2010. bruary, 2014. 2014. bruary, . Philadelphia: University of University of Philadelphia: . . Accessed on 16 February, 16 on Accessed . City Journal of Transport Transport of Journal Journal of the the of Journal . Philadelphia: Philadelphia: . Front Public Public Front American American . New New . 54, pp. pp. 54, Public Public 25 Hattori, A., A. Ruopeng & R. Sturm (2013), Neighbor &Sturm R. Ruopeng A. A., Hattori, Inagami, S., D.A. Cohen, B.K. Finch & S.M. Asch (20 Asch &S.M. Finch B.K. D.A.Cohen, S., Inagami, Inagami, S., D.A. Cohen, A.F. Brown & S.M. Asch (20 Asch &BrownS.M. A.F. D.A.Cohen, S., Inagami, Hutchinson, P.L., J.N. Bodor, C.M. Swalm, J.C. J.C. Rice Swalm, C.M. Bodor, P.L., J.N. Hutchinson, LaMonte, M.J., J.L. Durstine, F.G. Yanowitz, K.D.D F.G. Yanowitz, Durstine, J.L.M.J., LaMonte, Kmart Corporation (2001), Kmart Opens a Second Supe aSecond Opens Kmart (2001), Corporation Kmart Kumar, S., S.C. Quinn, A.M. Kriska & S.B. Thomas (2 &Thomas S.B. Kriska A.M. Quinn, S.C. Kumar,S., LeDoux, T.F. & I. Vojnovic (2014), Examining the Ro the Examining (2014), I.T.F. Vojnovic & LeDoux, Lopez, R. (2004), Urban Sprawl and Risk for Being O for Being and Risk Sprawl Urban (2004), Lopez,R. Maddox, J. (2004), The Relationship Between Obesity The(2004), Relationship J. Maddox, Guptill, A. & J. Wilkins (2002), Buying into the Fo (2002), the into Buying Wilkins &A. J. Guptill, Handy, S.L., M.G. Boarnet, R. Ewing & R.E. Killings & Ewing R.E. R. Boarnet, S.L.,Handy, M.G. Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography Medicine pp. 683 695. 683 695. pp. Applied Geography Applied Public HealthPublic Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh. of Neighborhood the Perceptions Americans’ African 137 143. 137 143. 31.1, pp. 10 17. 10 17. pp. 31.1, Among California Adults, 2007 and 2009. and 2009. 2007 Adults, Among California Store Locations, Weight and Neighborhoods. and Neighborhoods. Locations, Weight Store DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5888/pcd10.120123. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.5888/pcd10.120123. fast food and restaurant concentration, and carown and concentration, andfast restaurant food Environments and Obesity in Southeast Louisiana. Louisiana. Southeast in and Obesity Environments Sample of Women. of Women. Sample C r and Fitness Cardiorespiratory (2002), Ainsworth Affects Physical Activity: Views from Urban Plannin Urban from Views Physical Activity: Affects 15 December, 2012). 2012). December, 15 Accepted Article Local Foods. for Implications and US 23, pp. 64 73. 64 73. pp. 23, Health & Health Place 94, pp. 1574–1579. 1574–1579. pp. 94, This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. 55, pp. 9 18. 9 18. pp. 55, Circulation 17, pp. 370 378. 370 378. pp. 17, 106, pp. 403–406. pp. 106, American Journal of Health Promotion Health of Journal American Agriculture and Human Values Human and Agriculture Preventing Chronic Disease Disease Chronic Preventing od System: Trends in Food Retailing in the the in Retailing Food Trends in System: od & D. Rose (2012), Neighbourhood Food Food Neighbourhood (2012), & Rose D. uBose, T. Lim, P.G. Davis, & B.E. B.E.& Davis, Lim,P.G. uBose, T. American Journal of Preventive Medicine Preventive of Journal American worth (2002), How the Built Environment Environment Built How(2002),the worth verweight or Obese. or verweight hood Food Outlets, Diet, and Obesity and Obesity Diet, Food Outlets, hood and the Prevalence of Fast Food Food of Fast Prevalence and the 06), You Are Where You Shop: Grocery Grocery Shop: You Where Are You 06), le between the Residential Neighborhood Neighborhood Residential le betweenthe 011), “Food is Directed to the Area”: Area”: the to Directed is “Food 011), 09), Body mass index, neighborhood neighborhood index, Body 09), mass rcenter in City of Detroit. Available at: at: Available of Detroit. City in rcenter ership. ership. Health & Health Place eactive Protein among a Tri ethic a Tri ethic among eactiveProtein g. Nutrition Environment in in Environment Nutrition 10&item=25034>. Accessed on on Accessed 10&item=25034>. Journal of Preventative Preventative of Journal ds in Detroit, Michigan. Detroit, in ds Journal of Urban HealthUrban of Journal 18, pp. 854 860. 854 860. pp. 18, American Journal of of Journal American 19, pp. 39 51. 39 51. pp. 19, 10:120123. 10:120123. 19.2, pp. pp. 19.2, 86, 86, 26 Page 26of39 Page 27of39 Otterstrom, S. (2003), Population Concentration in in Concentration Population (2003), S. Otterstrom, Pothukuchi, K. (2005), Attracting Grocery Retail to Retail Grocery Attracting (2005),K. Pothukuchi, McLaren, L. (2007), Socioeconomic Status and Obesit Status L.Socioeconomic (2007), McLaren, Michimi, A. & M.C. Wimberly (2010), Associations of Associations (2010), &M.C. Wimberly Michimi,A. Place,Spatia About Thinking (2012), S.A. Matthews, Sadovi, M.W. (2013), Whole Foods Bets Detroit. Detroit. FoodsWhole(2013),Bets M.W. Sadovi, E.K. Cromley, Nguyen, N. Regan, Reitzel,S.D. L.R., Assoc &Wing S. (2006), Roux A.V.Diez K., Morland, Ogden, CL, M.D. Carroll, B.K. Kit & K.M. Flegal (20 &Flegal K.M. B.K. Kit Carroll, CL,Ogden, M.D. Pruchno, R., M. Wilson Genderson & A.K. Gupta (2014 Gupta &A.K. Wilson Genderson M. R., Pruchno, Preston, R. (1967), Urban Development in Southern C Southern in Development Urban (1967), R. Preston, R Development Core Team (2014), R: A LanguageandE A R: (2014), Team Core Development R Mehta, N.K. & V.W. Chang (2008), Weight Status and Status Weight (2008), Chang & V.W. N.K. Mehta, Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography International Journal of Health Geographics of Health Journal International American Journal of Public Health Public of Journal American for Health Statistics. Statistics. forHealth Geografie Phases. Current Trends and Historical 2000: Outside the Box. Box. the Outside at: Accepted ArticleAnalysis. 94, pp. 477 495. 477 495. pp. 94, American Journal of Preventiveof Medicine Journal American This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. Economic Development Quarterly Economic Development American Journal of Preventive Medicine Preventive of Journal American NCHS data brief data NCHS 104.5, pp. 924 929. 924 929. pp. 104.5, American Journal of Public Healthof Public Journal American The Wall Street Journal. WallJournal. The Street United States City systems from 1790 to to 1790 from City systems States United the Inner City: Economic Development Development Inner the Economic City: , no 131. Hyattsville, MD: National Center 131. National no , MD: Hyattsville, American Journal of Public Health Public of Journal American Tijdschrift voor Economischeen Sociale Sociale Economischeen voor Tijdschrift l Behavior, and Spatial Processes in Processesin and Spatial Behavior, l 9:49. DOI: 10.1186/1476-072X-9-49. 10.1186/1476-072X-9-49. DOI: 9:49. alifornia between 1940 and 1965. and 1965. 1940 alifornia between 13), Prevalence of Obesity among Adults: Adults: among Obesity of Prevalence 13), y. L.L. Strong, D.W. Wetter & L.H. Wetter & L.H. D.W. Strong, L.L. Restaurant Availability a Multilevel aMultilevel Availability Restaurant iation of Neighborhood Characteristics Characteristics of Neighborhood iation ), Neighborhood Food Environment and and FoodEnvironment ), Neighborhood supermarket accessibility with with supermarket accessibility nvironment for Statistical Computing. Computing. Statistical for nvironment Epidemiologic ReviewsEpidemiologic 5, pp. 237 254. 237 254. pp. 5, 19.2, pp. 232 44. 232 44. pp. 19.2, 34.2, pp. 127 133. 127 133. pp. 34.2, puting. Available from from Available puting. dual and Neighborhood Effects. and Neighborhood dual conterminous United States. States. United conterminous 4423904578523712663750112>. 4423904578523712663750112>. estaurants and Body Mass Mass Body and estaurants 42.5, pp. 516 520. 516 520. pp. 42.5, 4 th June. Available Available June. 29, pp. 29 48. 29 48. pp. 29, . 104.1, pp. .pp. 104.1, 96, pp. pp. 96, 27 Stock, K. (2013), For Whole Foods, Dismal Detroit i Detroit Dismal Foods, Whole For (2013),K. Stock, Sturm, R. &D.A. Cohen (2004), Suburban Sprawl and P Sprawl Suburban (2004), &D.A. R. Cohen Sturm, Snavely, B. (2014), Kmart Closing 5 more Michigan S moreMichigan 5 Closing Kmart B.(2014), Snavely, Siegel, J.S. (2002), Siegel,J.S. Scott, M.M., T. Dubowitz & D.A. Cohen (2009), Regio & (2009), D.A.Cohen Dubowitz T. M.M., Scott, USDA (2009), Access to Affordable and NutritiousFo and Affordable to Access (2009), USDA of Wholesa Census (1967), Bureau Census of the U.S. Communi Censusthe(2010c), American of Bureau U.S. (1997), J. Thomas strategi Preventive & G. B. (2002), Egger Swinburn, U.S. Bureau of the Census (2007), Census of Wholesa Census (2007), Bureau Census of the U.S. U.S. Bureau of the Census (2000), 2000 Census of Po of Census 2000 (2000), Bureau Census of the U.S. U.S. Bureau of the Census (2010a), 2010 Census of P of Census (2010a), 2010 Bureau Census of the U.S. U.S. Bureau of the Census (2010b), American Communi American (2010b), Bureau Census of the U.S. Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography Public PolicyPublic Health Place dream location>. Accessed on 15 December, 2013. 2013. December, 15 on Accessed dream location>. Accepted Article 488 496. pp. 118, Redevelopment and Race: Planning a Finer City in Po in City Finer a Planning Race: and Redevelopment Applied Demography: Applications to Business, Gover Business, to Applications Demography: Applied . San Diego: Academic Press. Academic Press. Diego: San . 3, pp. 289-301. 289-301. pp. 3, This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. s a Dream Location. Available at: at: Available Location. a s Dream opulation and Housing Summary File 1 and Housing Summary opulation pulation and Housing Summary File 1 Summary and Housing pulation le Trade. Washington DC: Government Government DC: Washington Trade. le le Trade. Washington DC: Government Government DC: Washington Trade. le tores. tores. es against weight gain and obesity. and gain weight esagainst nal Differences in Walking Frequency Frequency Walking in Differences nal hysical and Mental Health. Health. and Mental hysical ty Survey – 1 year estimates. estimates. ty1 year – Survey od: Measuring and Understanding Understanding and Measuring od: ty Survey, 2006–2010 (5-year (5-year 2006–2010 tySurvey, The Detroit Free Press Detroit The higan/2014/09/24/kmart closing 2015. 2015. for Blacks and Whites? and Whites? Blacks for r whole foods dismal detroit is a arch Service, Reportto Service, arch stwar Detroitstwar nment, Law, and and Law, nment, Public Public . Available Available . . . Health & Health 28 Page 28of39 Page 29of39 Walker, R.E., C. Fryer, J. Butler, C. Keane, A. Kri A. Keane, Butler, Fryer, C. C. J. R.E., Walker, Vojnovic, I., Z. Kotval K, J. Lee, M. Ye, T. LeDoux Lee, Ye, J. T. I., M. Z. Kotval K, Vojnovic, Wang, Y., & M.A. Beydoun (2007), The Obesity Epidem The(2007), Obesity Beydoun & M.A. Wang, Y., Williams, J., P. Scarborough, A., Matthews, G. Cowb G. Scarborough, P. Matthews, J., A., Williams, Vojnovic, I., J. Lee, Z. Kotval K, A. Podagrosi, P. Lee,Podagrosi, A. I.,Kotval K, Z. J. Vojnovic, Zemke, J. (2011), New Meijer Store Set to Replace O Replace to Set Store Meijer (2011), New Zemke,J. Wrigley, N. (2002), Transforming the Corporate Land Corporate the Transforming (2002), N. Wrigley, USDHHS (1996), Physical Activity and Health: A Repo A Health: Activity and Physical (1996), USDHHS Zenk, S., L. Lachance, A. Schulz, G. Mentz, S. Kann S. Mentz, G. Schulz, Lachance,L.A. Zenk, S., Vojnovic, I., C. Jackson Elmoore, J. Holtrop &B Holtrop S. J. I.,Jackson Elmoore, C. Vojnovic, Vojnovic, I. (2006), Building Communities to Promot to I.BuildingCommunities (2006), Vojnovic, Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography pp. 1 17. 1 17. pp. National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and and Disease Prevention Chronic for Center National oasis. oasis. of a residents low income in buyingfood practices Core: An Exploration of the Detroit Region. Region. Detroit of the Exploration An Core: Travel Accessibility,and Environments, Built Urban Schools on Obesity related Outcomes. Outcomes. Obesity related on Schools the Influenceof of the Review A(2014),Systematic and Meta Regression Analysis. Analysis. andMeta Regression Charac and Geographic Racial/Ethnic, Socioeconomic, Michigan. t in Behavior and Travel Form,Accessibility, Urban and ASocio economic of Place: Burdens The(2013), Accessed on November 26, 2013. 2013. 26, November on Accessed Department of Health and Human Services / Centers f Centers Services / Human and Health Departmentof Population. Population. Int Vegetable and Fruit and Food Environment Retail Form and Public Health: Promoting Increased Physica Promoting Health: Formand Public Geographic Analysis. Analysis. Geographic Accepted ResearchMethods Mixed of Journal Article Journal of Urban DesignUrban of Journal American Journal of Health Promotion Health of Journal American This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. 93.1, pp. 62 82. 62 82. pp. 93.1, Geografiska Annaler B Annaler Geografiska Epidemiologic ReviewsEpidemiologic 18.1, pp. 1 35. 1 35. pp. 18.1, Obesity ReviewsObesity Varnakovida, T. LeDoux, & J. Messina Messina & J. LeDoux, T. 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Surgeon of rt the ic in the United States—Gender, Age, Age, States—Gender, United the in ic Tijdschrift voor Economischeenvoor Tijdschrift food desert and a low income food food and a low income desert food 23.4, pp. 255 264. 255 264. pp. 23.4, he Lansing Capital Region, LansingRegion, he Capital Retail Food Environment around Food Environment Retail Behavior in a Declining Urban Urban a Declining in Behavior Health Promotion. Promotion. Health ake in a Multiethnic Urban Urban a Multiethnic in ake or Disease Control and Prevention / / Prevention and Control orDisease Ethnic/Racial Exploration into into Exploration Ethnic/Racial l Activity in Michigan. Michigan. Activity in l teristics: A Systematic Review Review ASystematic teristics: 15.5, pp. 359 374. 359 374. pp. 15.5, 29.1, pp. 6 28. 6 28. pp. 29.1, rdetroit121311.aspx>. rdetroit121311.aspx>. 36.2, pp. 225 255. 36.2, 225 255. pp. Cities 23, 23, 29 Zenk, S.N., A.J. Schulz, S.A. Matthews, A. Odoms Yo A. Matthews, S.A. Schulz, A.J. Zenk, S.N., Zick, CD., K.R. Smith, J.X. Fan, B.B. Brown, Y. Iku Y. B.B.Brown, Fan, J.X. Smith, Zick,K.R. CD., Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography pilot study. pilot Stokes (2011), Activity space environment and dieta environment Activity(2011), space Stokes Accepted ArticleObesity. between Neighborhoo The Relationship Store? the to Social Science &Science Medicine Social Health PlaceHealth This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. 17.5, pp. 1150 1161. 1150 1161. pp. 17.5, 69, pp. 1493 1500. 1493 1500. pp. 69, ho & L. Kowaleski Jones (2009), Running Running (2009), L.& ho Kowaleski Jones ung, J. Wilbur, L. Wegrzyn …& C. L. C. …& Wegrzyn Wilbur, ung,J. ry and physical activity behaviors: a activity behaviors: ry and physical d Environments and the Risk of Risk the and Environments d 30 Page 30of39 Page 31of39 Dietary Intake (monthly servings) (monthly Intake Dietary (0N Degree College BMI Variable iDs atFo m 4 4.024.014.0978 4 997.80 1 1047.00 442.70 2347.00 191 144.70 452.80 247 1081.00 974. 63.02 1001.00 247 1996.00 150.20 247 0 9.00 6.00 805m (0N Travel | 1Y) MinDist Fast (m) Food 0.00 0.00 247 (m) MinDist Convenience 247 14 (m) MinDist Supermarkets 13. Fast Food (1609m) Opportunity Cumulative 6.00 0.00 4 247 Fast Food (805m) Opportunity Cumulative 2. 247 (1609m) Convenience Opportunity Cumulative 0.00 (805m) Convenience Opportunity 0.00 Cumulative 247 247 (1609m) Supermarkets Opportunity Cumulative (805m) Supermarkets Opportunity Cumulative Age 69 rvl(N|1)191 1609m (0N Travel | 1Y) 27164 20500 28767 135000 246 5000 215 (0F Gender | 1M) Income Household a wesi 0 Y 222 (0N | 1Y) Car Ownership ak(N Y 191 Walk (0N | 1Y) Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography 1 50.64 66.05 6.00 68.25 36.00 17.95 28.00 62.00 180.00 No 62.03 360.00 1.00 Yes 241 360.00 2.00 246 2.00 245 &Fruits Vegetables Snacks Salty Sweets 1.36 1.95 Soda & Juice 27.46 22.20 27.44 22.07 29.90 24.96 25.00 16.95 78 63 No Yes Non-Overweight Overweight Obese 2 N N = 255 No Yes Female M ale No Yes No Yes A serving size for food consumed was referenced to was referenced consumed for food size A serving (m)BMI / height (kg) = weight Accepted Article 1 | | 1Y) Table 1: Model variables with descriptive statisti descriptive with variables Model Table1: This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. 2 2 4 80 40 22 30 16.33 53.00 52.27 94.00 18.00 247 5 - - - - - 156 - - - - - 6.04193 34.83 36.73 61.10 30.10 106 0 - - - - - 107 - - - - - 182 239 247 3 - - - - - 139 2 - - - - - 125 4 .0100 83 .029.25 6.00 18.31 180.00 1.00 243 5------35 - - - - - 46 4------84 - - - - - 64 3------83 6------66 n Min Max Mean Median Std Std Dev Median Mean Max Min n the portion of food consumed in relationship to th relationship in consumed food of portion the 1 6 .9 5 6 1 .1 0 0 .920 1.08 2.00 1.79 .00 0 81 80 5.14 18.00 18.13 .00 004 .00.56 0.00 0.42 00 042 .02.46 4.00 4.25 00 3 0 .0 6 .530 2.42 3.00 3.55 8 .01.36 0.00 .85 2 8 .7 1 0439.07 80 cs 9 0 .4 9 9 6 .2 1 7 .4 1 e nutrition label. nutrition e 31 Household Income Household |DegreeCollege (0N 1Y) Age (Intercept) Travel 805 Meters Controlled 155 n= p< p 0.05, * 0.01 ** < X Model R Opportunity Cumulative (Fast Food) Opportunity Cumulative (Convenience) Opportunity Cumulative (Supermarkets) (0N| Walk 1Y) Ownership| Car (0N 1Y) (0F |1M)Gender Income Household |DegreeCollege (0N 1Y) Age (Intercept) Meters1609 155 n= p< 0.05* X Model R Opportunity Cumulative (Fast Food) Opportunity Cumulative (Convenience) Opportunity Cumulative (Supermarkets) (0N| Walk 1Y) Ownership| Car (0N 1Y) (0F |1M)Gender Income Household |DegreeCollege (0N 1Y) Age (Intercept) 805 Meters Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography 2 2 = = 0.121(Hosmer-Lemeshow), 0.152(Cox-Snell), 0.20 = = 0.143(Hosmer-Lemeshow), 0.176(Cox-Snell), 0.23 2 2 Accepted = (9) 30.06 Article = (9) 25.58 This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. Table 2: Logistic regression results Logisticregression Table2: - - - -0.165 -0.431 -0.315 -0.024 -0.022 -0.073 -0.635 -0.368 -0.018 -0.845 0.277 0.057 1.219 0.491 0.243 0.753 0.387 0.223 0.027 1.236 0.511 1.85E 1.81E 1.66E 05 05 05 B B B B B - - - 8.01E 8.06E 8.43E 0.172 0.080 0.345 0.408 0.460 0.415 0.487 0.011 0.771 0.495 0.012 0.780 0.090 0.039 0.213 0.423 0.465 0.428 0.496 0.012 0.993 5 5 (Nagelkerke) 8 8 (Nagelkerke) 06 06 06 SE SE SE - - - 0.999982 0.999982 0.999983 1.320 1.059 0.848 0.650 3.385 0.730 1.634 0.977 1.275 2.122 0.978 1.472 1.249 1.027 0.930 0.530 3.441 0.692 1.667 0.982 0.429 OR OR OR 0.999965 0.999965 0.999966 2.50% 2.50% 2.50% 0.951 0.906 0.427 0.289 1.398 0.318 0.635 0.954 0.280 0.814 0.955 0.319 1.050 0.951 0.607 0.227 1.408 0.294 0.635 0.960 0.059 95% CI 95% 95% CI 95% CI 95% 0.999996 0.999997 0.999999 97.50% 97.50% 97.50% 97.50% 97.50% 1.873 1.240 1.665 1.443 8.579 1.635 4.342 0.999 5.863 5.746 1.000 6.924 1.500 1.111 1.407 1.204 8.790 1.588 4.498 1.005 2.963 * * * ** * * * * 32 Page 32of39 Page 33of39 MinDist Fast Food Fast MinDist ConvenienceMinDist SupermarketsMinDist (0N| Walk 1Y) Ownership| Car (0N 1Y) (0F |1M)Gender Income Household |DegreeCollege (0N 1Y) Age (Intercept) Minimum Distance 155 n= p< 0.05* X Model R 1609m (0N Travel |1Y) Opportunity Cumulative (Fast Food) Opportunity Cumulative (Convenience) Opportunity Cumulative (Supermarkets) (0N| Walk 1Y) Ownership| Car (0N 1Y) (0F |1M)Gender Income Household |DegreeCollege (0N 1Y) Age (Intercept) MetersControlled1609 Travel 155 n= p< 0.05* X Model R Travel | 805m (0N 1Y) Opportunity Cumulative (Fast Food) Opportunity Cumulative (Convenience) Opportunity Cumulative (Supermarkets) (0N| Walk 1Y) Ownership| Car (0N 1Y) (0F |1M)Gender Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography 2 2 = 0.147(Hosmer-Lemeshow), = 0.181(Cox-Snell), 0.24 0.142(Hosmer-Lemeshow), = 0.176(Cox-Snell), 0.23 2 2 Accepted (10) 30.93 = Article (10) 30.03 = This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. - - -0.017 -0.954 -0.747 -0.518 -0.067 -0.002 -0.648 -0.263 -0.019 -0.120 -0.781 -0.361 0.529 1.413 0.250 0.029 0.980 0.001 0.001 0.954 0.718 0.634 0.387 0.214 0.030 1.192 1.87E 1.57E 05 05 B B B B - - 8.26E 8.40E 0.499 0.012 1.007 0.588 0.180 0.081 0.416 0.427 0.469 0.418 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.412 0.458 0.415 0.510 0.012 0.861 0.416 0.091 0.040 0.219 0.455 0.467 0.431 4 4 (Nagelkerke) 7 (Nagelkerke) 06 06 SE SE - - 0.999981 0.999984 1.697 0.983 0.385 4.107 1.284 1.029 0.474 0.596 2.665 0.935 0.998 1.001 1.001 0.523 2.595 0.769 2.050 0.981 1.885 1.472 1.239 1.030 0.887 0.458 3.292 0.697 OR OR 0.999964 0.999967 2.50% 2.50% 0.642 0.960 0.051 1.336 0.909 0.877 0.202 0.254 1.076 0.408 0.997 0.999 1.000 0.230 1.071 0.336 0.766 0.959 0.351 0.652 1.040 0.954 0.572 0.183 1.339 0.294 95% CI 95% 95% CI 95% 0.999997 97.50% 97.50% 97.50% 97.50% 13.667 10.451 4.612 1.006 2.716 1.848 1.207 1.044 1.368 6.842 2.121 0.999 1.003 1.003 1.165 6.516 1.727 5.759 1.004 3.360 1.489 1.116 1.359 1.102 8.447 1.610 1.000 ** * * * * * * * 33 Numbers shown Numbers roundedwere the to thirdpladecimal Status Weight (BMI)is the outcome variable regression- B coefficient,SE standard- OR error, 155 n= p< p 0.05, * 0.01 ** < X Model R Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography 2 = = 0.135(Hosmer-Lemeshow),0.167(Cox-Snell), 0.225 2 Accepted Article = (9) 28.33 This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. - odds-confidence - CIratio, interval ce (Nagelkerke) 34 Page 34of39 Page 35of39 Accepted Article Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. 160x112mm(300 300DPI) x Study Area Map Area Map Study Accepted Article Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. 135x90mm (300135x90mm 300DPI) x Abandoned Store Abandoned Page 36of39 Page 37of39 Accepted Article Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. 135x90mm (300135x90mm 300DPI) x Abandoned Factory Abandoned Accepted Article Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography Neighborhoodextensive of ab housing blocks consist This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. 320x240mm(180 180DPI) x andonment Page 38of39 Page 39of Accepted Article Tijdschrift vooreconomischeensocialegeografie/JournalofEconomicandSocialGeography Liquor and party stores dominate party Liquorand local the retail l This article isprotected by copyright. All rights reserved. 135x90mm (300135x90mm 300DPI) x andscape andscape