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Cenozoic Geological and Plate Tectonic Evolution of SE Asia and the SW Paci®C: Computer-Based Reconstructions, Model and Animations

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Cenozoic Geological and Plate Tectonic Evolution of SE Asia and the SW Paci®C: Computer-Based Reconstructions, Model and Animations Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 >2002) 353±431 www.elsevier.com/locate/jseaes Cenozoic geological and plate tectonic evolution of SE Asia and the SW Paci®c: computer-based reconstructions, model and animations Robert Hall* SE Asia Research Group, Department of Geology, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, UK Received 10 November 2000, accepted 30 July 2001 Abstract A plate tectonic model for the Cenozoic development of the region of SE Asia and the SW Paci®c is presented and its implications are discussed. The model is accompanied by computer animations in a variety of formats, which can be viewed on most desktop computers. GPS measurements and present seismicity illustrate the high rates of motions and tectonic complexity of the region, but provide little help in long- term reconstruction. Plate boundaries shifted rapidly in the Cenozoic. During convergence of the major plates, there were numerous important episodes of extension, forming ocean basins and causing subsidence within continental regions, probably driven by subduction. Within eastern Indonesia, New Guinea and the Melanesian arcs, there are multiple Cenozoic sutures, with very short histories compared to most well-known older orogenic belts. They preserve a record of major changes in tectonics, including subduction polarity reversals, elimination of volcanic arcs, changing plate boundaries and extension within an overall contractional setting. Rapid tectonic changes have occurred within periods of less than 5 Ma. Many events would be overlooked or ignored in older orogenic belts, even when evidence is preserved, because high resolution dating is required to identify them, and the inference of almost simultaneous contraction and extension seems contradictory. There were three important periods in regional development: at about 45, 25 and 5 Ma. At these times, plate boundaries and motions changed, probably because of major collision events. The 45 Ma plate reorganisation may be related to India±Asia collision, although some important intra-Paci®c events, such as voluminous Eocene boninite magmatism, seem to be older and require other causes. Indentation of Asia by India modi®ed the Asian continent, but there is little indication that India has been the driving force of tectonics in most of SE Asia. The most important Cenozoic plate boundary reorganisation was at about 25 Ma. The New Guinea passive margin collided with the East Philippines±Halmahera±South Caroline Arc system. The Australian margin, in the Bird's Head region, also began to collide with the SE Asian margin in Sulawesi. The Ontong Java Plateau collided with the Melanesian Arc. These collisions caused a major change in the character of plate boundaries between about 25 and 20 Ma. Since 25 Ma, tectonic events east of Eurasia were driven by motion of the Paci®c Plate. Further, west, the movement of Australia northwards caused rotations of blocks and accretion of microcontinental fragments to SE Asia. Plate motions and boundaries changed again at about 5 Ma, for uncertain reasons, possibly as a consequence of Paci®c Plate motion changes, arc±continent collision in Taiwan, or other boundary changes at the Paci®c margin, for example in the Philippines. Areas to the west and east of New Guinea, the Banda Sea and Woodlark Basin, illustrate the speed of change, the unexpected interplay of convergence and extension, and the importance of subduction as the engine of change. Subduction has been the principal driving mechanism for tectonic change, although its manifestations are varied. They include collision-related phenomena, partitioning of oblique convergence, and effects of hinge roll-back and pull forces of subducting slabs. Magmatism is not always associated with subduction, depending on the movement of subduction hinge, and there may be important extension of the upper plate both perpendicular and parallel to the length of subduction zones. Strike-slip faulting is observably very important within the Paci®c±Australia±Eurasia convergent setting, yet appears in few tectonic models. Long-term strike-slip deformation can explain some of the complexities of areas such as New Guinea, including magmatism and its absence, and thermo-chronological data showing very young and rapid cooling of the mobile belt and fold belt. The inadequacies of the tectonic model re¯ect in part the dif®culties of applying rigid plate tectonics, when there is clear evidence of changing shapes of fragments. Geological knowledge of the region is still inadequate and signi®cant improvements to regional data sets, such as palaeomagnetic data and isotopic ages, are required. New tomographic techniques offer an important means of testing this and other reconstructions. However, valuable insights could also be obtained from simple data sets, such as sediment volumes, if more information that is complete were available in the public domain. Two-dimensional plate tectonic cartoons of small areas are no longer adequate descriptions or tools for understanding. It is essential to test plate tectonic models by using animation techniques with reconstructions drawn at short time intervals, which expose ¯aws in models, show major gaps in knowledge and help identify truly regional events. Observations of present-day tectonics, and all geological evidence, indicate that the model presented here is over-simpli®ed. Improvements in this, or new models, will inevitably be more complex than the reconstructions described here. q 2002 R. Hall. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Arc; Continent; Boundary * Tel.: 144-1784-443592; fax: 144-1784-434716. E-mail address: [email protected] >R. Hall). 1367-9120/02/$ - see front matter q 2002 R. Hall. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S1367-9120>01)00069-4 354 R. Hall / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 *2002) 353±431 1. Introduction wonderful natural laboratory is still not geologically well known. The Cenozoic was a period of major tectonic events, This paper attempts to give an account of the Cenozoic which in¯uenced life and climate in SE Asia and the SW evolution of this vast region >Figs. 1±3), using computer Paci®c. Early in the Cenozoic, the collision of India with animations to illustrate its plate tectonic evolution. Because Eurasia enlarged the area of land in SE Asia. Later, the the region is so large, there is extensive literature >the Royal continuing collision with Australia led to connections Holloway SE Asia Research Group's bibliography, primar- between Australia, Eurasia and the Paci®c, accompanied ily concerned with SE Asia, contains approximately 18,000 by the disappearance of some volcanic arcs and initiation references). The coverage of the region is not even. For of others. Subduction maintained volcanic arcs, which some areas like the Banda Arcs, the amount of geological formed discontinuously emergent island chains crossing literature is daunting, whereas for similar sized and equally the region. The geological evolution of this region is complex parts of New Guinea, there is very little. I have complex, fascinating and important. Many geological tried to provide a basic commentary on the regional geology ideas of great signi®cance have originated here, from the and constraints on reconstructions, before discussing the links between gravity and ocean trenches of Vening sequence of events. In order to do this, I have often cited Meinesz >1934), the mobilist ideas of Carey >1958), to the references, which provide some of this information and development of island arcs in the West Paci®c >Karig, review earlier literature, but may not be the primary work 1974). It is neither coincidence that Wallace's ideas on >for example, there are large amounts of important data in evolution developed here, nor that these original thoughts early Dutch publications, which are generally not cited were closely linked to ideas of geological evolution here). This has been done to keep the reference list manage- >Wallace, 1869). Much of the region has emerged from able, while providing adequate information on the back- the sea very recently, providing opportunities for new life ground, justi®cation for the interpretations made, and to and the incredible diversity of plant and animal species >e.g. provide a starting point for those who wish to research speci- Fischer, 1960; Stehli, 1968; Briggs, 1974; Brown, 1988; ®c areas in more detail. Important sources for information on Gentry, 1988; Paulay, 1997; Morley, 1999), and the region regional tectonics, and overviews of the geology of different continues to change at a rapid rate. Although it is a spec- parts of SE Asia and the SW Paci®c, can be found in Visser tacular region of volcanic activity and seismicity, this and Hermes >1962), van Bemmelen >1970), Dow >1977), Fig. 1. Principal geographical features of the region covered in the SE Asia reconstructions. The light shaded areas are the continental shelves of Eurasia and Australia drawn at the 200 m isobath. R. Hall / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 20 *2002) 353±431 355 Fig. 2. Principal geographical features of the region covered in the SW Paci®c reconstructions. The light shaded areas are the continental shelves of Eurasia and Australia drawn at the 200 m isobath. Hamilton >1979), Hayes >1980, 1983), Kroenke >1984), region. Section 5 deals with Asia±Paci®c±Australian Hutchison >1989, 1996b), Mitchell and Leach >1991) and margins and considers the smaller plates at these plate Hall and Blundell >1996). boundaries, including the Philippine Sea Plate, the Philip- pines and eastern Indonesia. Section 6 deals with the smal- 1.1. Layout of the paper ler plates and arcs around northern and eastern Australia, including New Guinea, the Caroline Plate and the Melane- Section 2 of the paper brie¯y discusses present-day plate sian Arcs. Sections 7 and 8 discuss the plate tectonic model motions, as known from global plate models, GPS and and Cenozoic history of the region for time slices of 5 tomography, considers the limitations of plate tectonics million years from 55 Ma to the present.
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