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Turtle Island Journal of Indigenous Health Indigenous Epistemologies, Vol. 1(1), 14-25 © The Author(s) 2020 and of Power https://doi.org/10.33137/tijih.v1i1.34021 Dana Hickey1

The study that this paper is based on is a Master’s Thesis, the purpose of which is to understand Indigenous epistemologies of power from the standpoint of Indigenous par- ticipants who are originally from or currently living in the Sudbury and Manitoulin Island areas of Ontario, Canada. Indigenous methods are privileged throughout, and key aspects of grounded are woven in to add support. Comparisons between the Indigenous epistemological concept of power and the Western theories of power of mainstream academia are made, as are relevant criticisms of Western epistemology.

Fifteen Indigenous participants were interviewed. The central category that arose from the data was relationships. This central category ties the main categories together which are: language, sacred sources of power, Indigenous women, abuse of power, and . The findings indicate that there are many forms and manifestations of power which are related to each other. The source of power is in the interrelatedness of ev- eryone to everything else that is known and unknown. Humility, harmony and balanced relationships produce the healthiest and most magnificent manifestations of power.

This paper argues that more about epistemologies of power help illu- minate a pathway by which Indigenous Peoples and Canadians of settler ancestry can better understand one another, creating the shift in these relationships that is required in order to gather large-scale support for reconciliation and for ethical distribution of power resources in Canada.

Keywords Power, Indigenous epistemology, Indigenous , Theories of power, Indigenous power, Indigenous philosophy, Indigenous , Indigenous

Introduction (Hickey, 2019). This underlies colonial doctrines of discovery and claims to settler-state land The research study shows that Western theories of title, and it justifies the oppression of Indigenous pop- power demonstrate a worldview that requires force ulations in colonial states around the world (Schabus, and/or coercion power to maintain order in society 2017). Furthermore, Western epistemology considers its methods superior to all others. Indigenous episte- Acknowledgements: Miigwetch to Ogimaa Kwe Linda Debassige mological knowledge, theory, policy, and are mar- for the community partner to this research as well as thesis ginalized and disregarded (Burrows, 2007; Deloria & committee member. Miigwetch to my thesis supervisor Dr. Kev- Wildcat, 2001; Hart, 2010; Walter & Aitken, 2019). in Fitzmaurice and to committee members Dr. Aurélie Lacassagne The Indigenous worldview of power developed in and Dr. Carrie Bourassa. 1Dana Hickey, Master of Indigenous Relations, Laurentian Univer- this research reflects the intelligent organizing power sity, Anishinaabe, Dokis First Nation, [email protected] of the universe toward balance and harmony. The re- Indigenous Epistemologies 15 search examines how differences in epistemological views besides the Western system. understandings of power between Indigenous People Epistemology is theory of how we come to and non-Indigenous people of settler-ancestry, in part, know things, and is often referred to as “the theory of explain the devastating health effects that unethical knowledge” (Proudfoot & Lacey, 2010, p. 118). It is distribution of power resources have had on Indige- an enquiry into the and grounds of knowledge nous People since colonization. (Proudfoot & Lacey, 2010). Epistemological ques- Adding Indigenous epistemologies to the ac- tions include: What is true and what is false? (Vidal, ademic conversation about power calls attention di- 2012). What are the sources of knowledge? What rectly to a contrast in worldviews. Indigenous Peo- can one know? How does one know if something is ple know that economic and social systems based true? (Chilisa, 2012). If you ask these questions to on Western epistemological are not sustainable a Western-trained scientist, you will get answers that (Deloria, 2003). Western economic and social sys- differ from those that you will receive from an An- tems result in poverty and other alarming social ineq- ishinaabe Elder who participated in this study. Even uities (Walter & Andersen, 2013). Reconciliation as the social scientist would prefer to make a statement a pathway to improved health for Indigenous People of based on that were proven scientifical- is required; however, misunderstandings on an epis- ly, or at least she would support whatever statement temological level are revealed as barriers. she makes with the strongest factual she has. more about the value of Indigenous epistemologies Epistemologically speaking, the Western-trained sci- will help bring about the understanding required to entist’s standard of is different than the Indig- address the misapprehensions between Indigenous enous Elder’s standard of proof. Indigenous Elders People and Canadians of settler ancestry, and cre- will tell you what they know from lived ate a respectful space for co-developed solutions to and from the knowledge conferred on them by their emerge. Ancestors. Much of the knowledge that is carried for- In partnership with the Indigenous communi- ward is accepted as truth because it has always been ty of M’Chigeeng First Nation on Manitoulin Island known to be true. I argue in this paper that both in Ontario, Canada, the study seeks to understand the are valid, as are the methodologies that are utilized to of power, as a phenomenon, from the per- arrive at these truths. spective of 15 Indigenous participants. The value of the research is demonstrated by its applicability to the Theories of Power issue of problematic relations between Indigenous Power is an elusive concept; there are endless ways People and Canadians of settler ancestry. The journey to think about it. During my research on what is toward reconciliation is obstructed by the complexity known about power in Western academia, I encoun- of the issues. Using philosophy and epistemology, the tered many similar statements. Peter Digeser (1992) research aims to address the complexity and illumi- observes that the debate over power ranges across nate a pathway to reconciliation. political , methodologies, and disciplines. Robert A. Dahl (1957) remarked that the concept of On Epistemology power is as ancient and ubiquitous as any that social Canadians of settler ancestry see the world differently theory can boast. Indigenous scholar, Taiaiake Alfred than Indigenous People do, and the converse is also (2009), recognizes the of power in all the true. In the words of Indigenous scholar Linda Smith elements that make up the universe, and describes (2000), “We have a different epistemological tradition how Indigenous teach us to respect and that frames the way we see the world, the way we accommodate that power in all its varied forms. The organize ourselves in it, the questions we ask, and the literature review includes selected theories of power solutions we seek” (p. 230). Epistemological differ- that provide a well-rounded overview of the power ences underlie conflicts between Indigenous Peoples debate. and settler governments; however, little is widely was born in ancient known about epistemology. This includes the that Greece in the fifth and sixth centuries BCE. Socra- there are many epistemological systems and world- tes, , and are famous for pondering the

Volume 1, Issue 1 16 Hickey (2020) philosophical questions of life and society during other in the state of nature (Hobbes, 1997). this period (McInery & Caponigri, 1963). We know was also interested in the social through Plato’s writings that believed that contract and the state of nature. For Locke, the peo- those who hold the power in society should be virtu- ple to be governed, but the people can also ous and properly prepared through philosophic edu- withdraw their consent, overthrow the ruling power, cation (Brooks, 2006). and up a new government. Therefore, power is es- Plato echoed Socrates’ that people who sential to the running of a peaceful commonwealth; exercise power should be endowed with expertise in however, this power over, or force power, must be political governance and philosophy (Brooks, 2006). vigorously checked and controlled (Moseley, 2005). In the at 426d, Plato argues that the right to This is Locke’s version of liberalism, wherein consti- hold power is not conferred by majority approval or tutionalism, limited government, and the , by material wealth, but by expertise in statesmanship liberty, and prevail (Locke, 2015). Locke’s (Grube, 1992). Socrates is the main character in the liberal philosophy was immensely influential and was Republic, and through him, Plato defends and embodied in the American Declaration of Indepen- describes the perfect city in which democracy is re- dence in 1776 (Dewey, 1963). jected in favour of rule by kings. Norbert Elias highlighted the functional in- In Book II of Politics, Aristotle critiques terdependence between people (Dunning & Hughes, Plato’s ideal state, thereby initiating the practice of 2013). Power is not something that is possessed by scholarly debate – an academic tradition that endures one person and not by another, instead, power is a (Aristotle, 1995). In Book III of Politics, Aristotle structural characteristic of a relationship – of all hu- records the various types of government that he has man relationships (Dunning & Hughes, 2013). It is observed, including monarchy, aristocracy, polity, therefore difficult for one person, or group of people, tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy (Aristotle, 1995). to control outcomes, since their and actions Later in Book III, in similar style to Socrates and Pla- are always moderated by others upon whom they are to, Aristotle declares that those who are most virtuous dependent, and all outcomes; therefore, represent the have the strongest claim to all rule (Aristotle, 1995). interweaving of countless individual interests and in- These three laid the foundation tentions (Newton, 1999). for what has become a longstanding debate about This is the point where an interesting philo- the phenomenon of power, and upon which a range sophical turn is made, and the structural and relation- of theories of power are built. Aristotle’s typology of al aspects of how power dynamics work come into regimes was so successful that it ended up being used view. ’s on power also focus extensively until the of Machiavelli, nearly 2000 on power relationships. Foucault insisted that power years later (Clayton, 2004), and is still called upon to cannot exist on its own, in the absence of a relation- this day. ship. The term “power” designates relationships be- Machiavelli’s The Prince is notorious for its tween partners (Foucault, 1994, p. 135). “Power ex- cruelty and ruthlessness. In its pages, we find images ists only as exercised by some on others, only when of power as domination and control, which is to be it is put into action” (Foucault, 1994, p. 137). Fur- exercised over others, and society constituted through thermore, power is not only rooted in government and the domination of the weak by the strong (Haugaard in institutions, it exists wherever relationships exist, & Clegg, 2009). practically everywhere. Power relations are rooted In ’s Leviathan, he contend- in the whole network of the social (Foucault, 1994). ed that are by nature unruly, and therefore, Therefore, whenever people interact, there are power discord exists among them. To seek shelter from this relations present, whether we are aware of the power state, humans willingly form governments. This idea relations in our interactions, or not. forms the basis of Hobbes’s theory in In the 1960s, a movement toward the study which he argues that citizens should come together of community power generated an interesting - and agree to sacrifice their power (over others) to a bate about power relationships. It began with Robert central authority, in exchange for safety from each Dahl’s examination of the community of New Haven,

Turtle Island Journal of Indigenous Health Indigenous Epistemologies 17

Connecticut, which focused on decision making as an present an overall picture, and to explain the concept important factor of (Dahl, 1961). Bachrach of power from an Indigenous epistemological stand- and Baratz (1962) criticized Dahl’s use of decision point. Indigenous methods are meaningful to the In- making as a standard of measuring power, since it re- digenous participants, who derive power by sharing flects only the direct aspects of power, as we know it their knowledge and by seeing themselves reflected in to function in democratic societies. They argue this the holistic narrative about what power means to In- constitutes only one face of power, and they direct digenous People. Western methods are used to decon- us to what they coin as the second face of power – struct the story, reducing it to its basic structure, so that the restrictive face that prevents certain members of it can be presented thematically, and in a manner that society from participating in the process of decision encourages across Indigenous and Western making (Bachrach, P. & Baratz, 1962). Steven Lukes knowledge traditions. Presenting the research in this (1974) adds a third face, the face of power interrelated way allows for a conversation between that influences, shapes and determines the very wants what is currently known about power from a Western of community members. The skilled application of viewpoint, as well as from an Indigenous viewpoint. normative power can prevent real issues from arising, First, an Indigenous decolonization research if community members willingly accept their role framework was designed to provide the structure of in the social order, or are unaware of their interests. the overall project. This framework addresses the Peter Digeser (1992) brings the fourth face of power structural inequalities produced by colonization, by describing how the powerful decision makers are and it is important for establishing three things in “created over time” by the influence of social power, this research: that anti-colonial Indigenous theoret- which is then put into operation when we participate ical perspectives will be privileged throughout; that in and norms (Digeser, 1992, p. 982). An every precaution will be taken to ensure Indigenous important point to consider here is that power does participants are not further disempowered during the not exist independently of those practices; howev- research; and that I am an Indigenous researcher in- er, in the writings of Indigenous scholars, I find that terested in contributing to research that produces de- power is an ever-present force, or flux, that originates colonizing outcomes. According to Baskin (2005), from a sacred source. Indigenous research is not worth doing if it does not The Western theories of power show the di- focus on the goals and processes of decolonization rection that the academic conversation about power is and self-determination. Once this framework was in headed. The philosophical assumptions that underlie place, two qualitative approaches were added; IRM the mainstream theories have not been fully expanded and grounded theory. to include an understanding of power through an In- Indigenous research methods (IRM) were the digenous epistemological lens. Western conceptions chosen approach to build long-term, respectful re- of power are, therefore, incomplete because they are lationships with Indigenous community partners, to based only in Western knowledge. If we can know privilege Indigenous voices, and to ensure that Indig- more about the phenomenon of power from an Indig- enous knowledges remain privileged and prominent enous epistemological standpoint, then perhaps we throughout. IRMs were also used to design the proj- can begin to glean solutions to the power imbalances ect, collect the data, involve community in the anal- and the misapprehensions that stand between us and ysis of the data, and to present it back to Indigenous reconciliation. People in a culturally relevant way. Reflexivity and relationality are key in these processes. Methods The research data was gathered using pre- dominantly Indigenous research methods, to collect Being of mixed Indigenous and non-Indigenous an- Indigenous knowledge in story form. Storytelling is cestry in my and my , I chose to a valid form of Indigenous knowledge, as it includes combine Indigenous research methods (IRM) and responsibility on the part of the listener/researcher, Western grounded theory as a practice of theoretical incorporates both interpretation and analysis, has and cross-cultural dialogue. Holistic IRM are used to room for many for the phenomena be-

Volume 1, Issue 1 18 Hickey (2020) ing researched, is a creative search for solutions, and and feel safe participating. Therefore, I must always is a political act of liberation and self-determination practice reflexivity, or awareness of the place where (Baskin, 2005). I fit within the “two worlds” that this research navi- Grounded theory is a de- gates, and I must declare my awareness of it to every in which the inquirer generates a general expla- audience. Reflexivity in this context refers to the on- nation (theory) of a process, an action, or an interac- going assessment of the influence of my background tion shaped by the views of the participants (Creswell, and ways of perceiving , , ideolog- 2013). This method was used to focus the research ical biases, and interest during the research (Chilisa, approach, to design the mechanics and movement of 2012, p. 168). research activities, and to formulate research ques- The allowed for Indigenous tions that induce responses that shed light on power People to form research relationships with each oth- as a process. The teachings of grounded theory helped er, as well as with our . Utilizing reflexivity to communicate the research problem and the research remain accountable to all of my relations while con- purpose in a format that is well understood in Western ducting research is a movement toward the concept of academia. relational knowledge, and a movement away from the To explain the meaning of Indigenous knowl- Western idea that knowledge is an individual entity edges and epistemologies to a non-Indigenous audi- that can be gained and owned (Wilson, 2008). Instead, ence, it is incumbent upon Indigenous researchers to relational knowledge is freely shared and focuses on bridge worldviews and to explain the process through- how all things are related and therefore relevant (Wil- out academic writing (Wilson, 2008). Applying West- son, 2008). ern (grounded) theory, as a supplementary method, The data analysis stage involved a mixture of allowed for presentation of the data in a way that IRMs and grounded theory. The first phase of data encourages cross-cultural understandings. The study analysis involved processing the interviews, and then argues that IRM are sufficient to determine an Indig- reading and re-reading transcripts, while making time enous epistemological worldview of power. Howev- to include ceremony, meditation, contemplation, and er, Western has come to mediate the entire reflection. Later, using Creswell (2013) as a primary world to the point where worldviews that differ from guide, the data was coded according to the grounded the mainstream are relegated to the periphery (Hart, theory method of open coding, axial coding, and then 2010). Although it is my position that IRMs produce selective coding. I decided to code the data manually valid data, I anticipate that Western-trained scientists because that method is the most intimate and helpful who do not understand the utility of holistic thinking for developing a relationship with the . and/or who are not familiar with IRM, will encounter The coding process indicated that the Indigenous difficulty following Indigenous epistemological log- epistemological understanding of power provided by ic. Considering the risk that Western-trained scientists the Indigenous participants would be made up of five will disregard the importance of data generated using themes that are related to each other. IRM alone, I decided to add grounded theory to con- duct the familiar scientific process of reducing the ho- Relationship listic story down to smaller, indivisible components for the purpose of a complementary analysis. The re- The requires that respectful research sults of the grounded theory analysis are presented in relationships be built and maintained in an Indige- a format that is more recognizable, and acceptable, to nous community. To the great benefit of this research, Western science. Ogimaa Kwe Linda Debassige, Chief of M’Chigeeng When undertaking research with Indigenous First Nation, accepted the role of Indigenous commu- Peoples, it is absolutely crucial that relationships nity partner to this project early on, and we developed of honesty and trust are established, that the re- a shared vision for the implementation of the research searcher(s) intentions are made known and are trans- plan into the community. To further ensure researcher parent, and that participants have all the support and accountability, Ogimaa Kwe Debassige also repre- information that they need to understand the research sented the community as a full member of the thesis

Turtle Island Journal of Indigenous Health Indigenous Epistemologies 19 committee. tion is converted into ordinary language, all that I am Ogimaa Kwe Debassige assisted with partic- really asking is: “what is power” or “what does this ipant recruitment and her contributions were invalu- concept ‘power’ mean to you?” Sometimes partici- able during the data collection phase. Decisions such pants can talk at length and provide a full interview of as whom to recruit as key informants, as well as se- their response, contributing data without being asked lecting research sites where the interviews occurred, any further questions. Sometimes participants are not were reached by using a purposeful sampling strat- quite sure what I mean. Therefore, I developed an egy (Creswell, 2013), wherein participants who can interview guide that asks for the answer to the main contribute to the development of an Indigenous the- question, but also includes secondary questions that oretical view of power are purposefully sought out. can prompt the participant to move their thinking into Interviews were conducted during events and gather- different areas and flesh out a more detailed response. ings, and there were several one-on-one pre-arranged The sub-questions, or prompts, include: (a) Who has meetings as well. Snowball sampling was used occa- power? (b) Do you have power? (c) Who does not sionally during interviews that occurred at gatherings. have power? (d) How do power dynamics affect or For example, I recorded four interviews at the Wiik- influence you? (e) How does power work in our soci- wemkoong Annual Cultural Festival. I carried folding ety? (f) What makes a person powerful? Every partic- chairs with me and set them up in comfortable spots ipant was asked to answer the main question, but the off to the sides of the powwow to interview three par- sub-questions were asked only if the prompts were ticipants, and I interviewed another participant in her found useful during the interview. kitchen closeby. I also interviewed three participants After preliminary data analysis, the commu- at the M’Chigeeng Annual Traditional Powwow in a nity partner and I planned a knowledge sharing similar manner. The audio recordings of those inter- that was named Eshkweziiwin exhibit. The event was views include the heartbeat of the powwow drum in designed to allow for ceremony, a presentation of the the background. Some of these participants had rec- data, and discussion, as well as presentations by the ommended other people they knew who could con- research participants. To properly honour and show tribute to the study, and they helped us introduce the gratitude to the community, we shared a feast before idea to these potential participants as well. The snow- these presentations, and a giveaway occurred after- ball effect was easy to achieve in these settings, and ward. a total of seven out of 15 people were interviewed at The Eshkweziiwin exhibit was important for these events using a combination of the two methods. maintaining good relationships in the process of ana- The other interviews were pre-arranged with Indige- lyzing the data. The event was designed to show the nous People who were selected based on their experi- participants and the community the direction the re- ence with power, and sometimes other considerations. search was taking and the outcomes that might result For example, Ogimaa Kwe Debassige and I had pre- from the analysis of the data. It was an opportunity for viously discussed which Elders I would recruit to an- the participants to see themselves in the themes that swer the research question, and we achieved a desired were extracted from the data, and to add their voices balance in the ratio of two female Elders to two male to the co-creation of relational knowledge. The Es- Elders. hkweziiwin event further shaped the epistemological While designing the research question and view of power that emerged from this research, and it sub-questions, I decided to stay away from asking provided a time and place to practice relationality and the cause-and-effect questions, such as: “What are the accountability in the way that we research, and the causes of power?” Or “What are the effects of pow- way that we share what we learn with each other. er?” However, those ideas were addressed, and are impossible to eliminate, while discussing power. For- Results tunately, grounded theory allows for the examination of processes using a variety of “how” or “what” ques- Following Creswell (2013), I selected relationships tions. I can therefore focus on: “What is power from as the single, central code to become the focus of the an Indigenous epistemological view?” Once the ques- theory. The categories that emerged from the final

Volume 1, Issue 1 20 Hickey (2020) stage of the data analysis include sacred power sourc- 2012). For the purposes of this project, I have nar- es, the abuse of power, Indigenous women, language, rowed the focus to epistemology. Participants were and knowledge, each of which are held together by asked the epistemological question “what is power?” the common prominent theme: relationships. The question invites the respondent to become aware The project utilizes both worldviews to syn- of their worldview, and therefore the answer reflects thesize an Indigenous theoretical of pow- not only aspects of their epistemology, but also as- er and to deconstruct the data and represent it in a pects of their worldview. way that is more recognizable in Western academia. Power is such a broad concept that the re- A combination of the grounded theory and IRM anal- searcher must devise a way to narrow the focus. As ysis resulted in the following paragraph: expected, the boundaries of the study are too confined Power is honouring all of Creation. Power is to present a comprehensive review of the voluminous connectedness to Mother Earth and respect literature on the . Therefore, the literature re- for her life systems. Power is caring for the view is restricted to an overview of prominent theo- Ancestors and using the knowledge and cer- ries of power, and epistemological comparisons are emonies they passed down. Power is Indig- made using these theories and the data provided by enous women who bring balance, carry the the respondents. The selection of Western theories is water, and give life. Power is our languages, curated to demonstrate how the debate has evolved our voices, our stories, and our songs. Power prior to colonization of the Americas, and after. is the cognitive experience known An examination of power always brings to the as Indigenous knowledge, which is based surface many related concepts, which have their own on experience, language, and shared beliefs. clusters of sub-concepts, such as leadership, authori- Power is kinship, community, and good re- ty, , legitimacy, and sovereignty, to name only lationships. Power is remaining resilient, a few. It would take a lifetime to address every aspect adapting to change, and ensuring that Indige- of the phenomenon of power; therefore, concepts se- nous knowledge survives the colonial assault lected for deeper analysis are restricted to prominent (Hickey, 2019, p. 105). themes that emerged from the data. The limited scope of the project successfully These results were further condensed to answer the produced an Indigenous epistemological statement of research question in the following statement: There the meaning of power as a phenomenon from the per- are many forms and manifestations of power that are spective of fifteen Indigenous participants. The study related to each other. The source of power is in the paves the way for Indigenous scholarship to spring- interrelatedness of everyone to everything else that board to a larger study, with a larger sample and more is known and unknown. Humility, harmony, and bal- complicated methodology, toward the goal of devel- anced relationships produce the healthiest and most oping a theory of power that will stand on equal foot- magnificent manifestations of power. ing to the other major theories.

Limitations Discussion

The greatest limitation to a study that seeks to inves- Now that we have an Indigenous epistemological tigate the meaning of a phenomenon as complicated statement about power, it is time to discuss how it fits as power from more than one epistemological world- into the larger conversation about power. The theories view, is the scope of the project. It is difficult to design of power presented at the beginning of the article re- a study that draws clear boundaries regarding what us about what is well known about Western the- concepts will be included, and which will be set aside ories of power. They teach us the theory behind force/ for future development. For example, there are many coercive power, which remains the chosen weapon philosophical concepts that make up a worldview, of normalized oppression to this day. Furthermore, such as (model of being), (theory from the Western worldview, Indigenous epistemol- of values), and praxeology (theory of action) (Vidal, ogies appear to have less merit, scientifically speak-

Turtle Island Journal of Indigenous Health Indigenous Epistemologies 21 ing, when compared to mainstream academia. It has Henderson, 2000, p. 21). “As a theory, it postulates been difficult to convince academics that Indigenous the superiority of Europeans over non-Europeans. It knowledge is valid, and worthy of the academy’s ac- is built on a set of assumptions and beliefs that edu- ceptance as such. The key to creating balanced rela- cated an usually unprejudiced Europeans and North tionships requires that Indigenous epistemologies be Americans habitually accept as true, as supported by integrated through all academic disciplines. the facts, or as reality” (Battiste & Henderson, 2000, Two important differences stand out between p. 21). Indigenous epistemologies present a challenge Western and Indigenous epistemologies of power. to the “truths” produced by Eurocentric logic, and These are the source of power, and our intentions for Indigenous scholars present a challenge to the fun- the use of power. What are the outcomes we wish to damental pillars of Eurocentrism: the obsession with achieve by utilizing power? In Western epistemolo- and . gy, the source of power has mainly been by , Vine Deloria (2003) was the first to create a by right, or by legitimacy. Western societies have al- space within Western academia where we could look lowed people to accumulate disproportionately high at power as it exists outside of the Western preoccu- levels of power over others because it is considered pation with objectivity. “In Western thought scientific either virtuous, righteous, or legitimate. In Indigenous theories of reality, knowledge, and methods for know- societies, the source of power is the sacred network ing are logically consistent. The problem is that they of interconnectedness of all elements of the universe, constrain, even preclude, any discussion of our hu- swirling around in a dance of perpetual change and man experience and life as a part of processes involv- transformation — or the flux. ing power(s), which are irreducible to discrete objects The goal that Western societies seek to achieve or things” (Deloria & Wildcat, 2001, p. 15). The In- with power is the production and maintenance of digenous participants of this project accessed their relatively orderly societies, based on individualism Indigenous lived experience and described their life and competition, and wherein great discrepancies in as part of these processes, and the Indigenous episte- wealth and power distribution are a normal feature of mological statement about power is derived from that the capitalist model. Indigenous People do not claim space, where Indigenous knowledges reside. that any one person is more entitled to hold a dispro- Alfred articulates that in Indigenous philoso- portionately high amount of power over any other phies, power flows from respect for nature and the person or creature of Earth, because imbalances cause natural order (Alfred, 2009). “To hold power, it is ill health in communities and in ecosystems. The data necessary to gain knowledge through life experience shows us that unbalanced power relationships are an- and directed learning from Elders” (Alfred, 2009, p. tithetical to Indigenous epistemological views about 75). These philosophies are missing from the main- being part of a healthy network. The goal that Indig- stream understanding of power, which is reflected in enous societies seek to achieve with power, is to live the imbalances we see throughout contemporary so- harmoniously within the delicate balance of forces ciety. Modern society does not give the proper rev- that constitute the flux that is our lived experiences in erence for the existence of power in all the elements Indigenous spaces. that make up the universe. Indigenous philosophies Another key that stands out from teach us to respect and accommodate that power in all this research, is that Western epistemologies of power its varied forms (Alfred, 2009). focus on what is superior and what is inferior, where- Indigenous Knowledge and Indigenous lan- as Indigenous epistemologies are not concerned with guages were prominently discussed by participants, making about the value of one over the and were identified as having thematic significance. other. According to Indigenous epistemologies, all of Indigenous worldviews are empirical relationships creation is sacred. Previous critiques of the Western with local ecosystems, and Indigenous languages worldview have resulted in the common use of the are an expression of these relationships (Henderson, term, Eurocentrism, which is defined as an “imagi- 2000). Indigenous languages express an awareness of native and institutional context that informs con- a local ecology and are directed to understanding both temporary scholarship, and law” (Battiste & external life forms and the invisible forces beneath

Volume 1, Issue 1 22 Hickey (2020) them (Henderson, 2000). Peoples. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission As indicated, relationships are especially rele- (2015) provides the following definition: “reconcili- vant to the study of power. Indigenous Knowledge is ation is about establishing and maintaining a mutu- specific to certain ecosystems and to the relationships ally respectful relationship between Aboriginal and that create those ecosystems. Therefore, Indigenous non-Aboriginal peoples in this country. In order for ways of knowing, or Indigenous epistemologies, have that to happen, there has to be awareness of the past, ethical and moral dimensions, and are tied to places, an acknowledgement of the harm that has been in- to ecologies, and to life systems (Baskin, 2016). Un- flicted, atonement for the causes, and action to change like European languages, the purpose of Indigenous behaviour” (The Truth and Reconciliation Commis- languages is for maintaining positive relationships. sion of Canada, 2015, p. 6). Unlike most Europeans, (Algonquian peo- Indigenous scholars and activists are critical ples) do not have a noun-oriented language toward reconciliation, indicating that decolonization that creates divisions or dualities. Their pur- of Canada is required first, including a massive trans- suit is to be with the flux, to experience its fer of land, power, and wealth back to Indigenous changing form, to develop a relationship with Peoples (Alfred, 2017; Palmater, 2017). “Reconcili- the forces, and thus to create harmony. Their ation is recolonization because it is allowing the col- language and thought are an attempt to learn onizer to hold on to his attitudes and mentality and from being part of the flux, to create a com- does not challenge his behaviour towards our people plementary and harmonious relation with na- or the land” (Alfred, 2017, p. 11). To change the at- ture, to experience the beauty of the moment, titudes and mentality of the colonizer, and to encour- and to release such inspirations back to where age understanding amongst Indigenous Peoples about they came from without fear or loss. Their lan- how individuals of settler ancestry become convinced guage has not developed a method to explain of their own superiority in the first place, I advocate the forces or change them, merely to contain for an epistemological shift in thinking. them. This is the vital context of their worl- I believe that reconciliation is about the rela- dview and life. Because of the awareness of tionship between Indigenous Peoples and persons of flux and its forces, the Algonquian language is settler ancestry, and I believe that the relationship is an active relationship between the elements of worth the effort. However, I also believe that recon- a particular environment (Henderson, 2000, p. ciliation requires understanding of each other’s epis- 262). temological worldviews, and this understanding is As Henderson articulates, Indigenous languages were almost completely inadequate. We can not claim to not developed to explain, describe, label, or measure be in the infancy stages of reconciliation since we are the forces of the universe; they are designed to sup- still conceiving the meaning of it. I believe that newer port and honour the life-giving and life-sustaining generations of Canadians, armed with access to the forces of the universe (Henderson, 2000). According truth, will decide to engage in this process because it to Battiste & Henderson (2000), Indigenous knowl- is the right thing to do. I believe that the cross-cultur- edge is the expression of the vibrant relationships be- al epistemological understandings articulated in the tween people, their ecosystems, and the other living study will help us co-develop a pathway to reconcili- and spirits that share the lands. ation. In Canada, the truth and reconciliation pro- cess requires us to re-examine and make a sincere Conclusions effort to understand what truth is from both- episte mological viewpoints (The Truth and Reconciliation The Indigenous epistemological statement produced Commission of Canada, 2015). However, the new by this research is an original contribution to the era of reconciliation is perplexing for everyone. Can- conversation about power. The value of this data is ada has not officially described the meaning of the demonstrated by its applicability to the issue of prob- concept as it pertains to relations with Indigenous lematic relations between the Indigenous population and the settler population. It has further value by the

Turtle Island Journal of Indigenous Health Indigenous Epistemologies 23 way it uncovers the friction that occurs when West- References ern and Indigenous worldviews collide. Within the parameters of the thesis, the theoretical basis for an Alfred, T. (2009). Peace, Power, Righteousness: An Indigenous theory of power was established. I be- Indigenous Manifesto. Don Mills: Oxford Un- lieve that the development of an Indigenous theory versity Press. of power is worth more study, as is the applicability Alfred, T. (2017). It’s All About The Land. In P. Mc- of philosophy and epistemology to reconciliation and Farlane & N. Schabus (Eds.), Whose Land Is It healing. Anyway?: A Manual For Decolonization (pp. From the totality of the research I conclude 11–13). Vancouver: Federation of Post-Second- a more balanced distribution of power resources will ary Educators of BC. be required to achieve reconciliation. Indigenous Aristotle. (1995). The Politics. (E. Barker & R. F. epistemologies explain the that we must do Stalley, Eds.). Oxford: Oxford Unversity Press. this work, and they provide the tools to get it done. Bachrach, P. & Baratz, M. (1962). Two Faces of Pow- Indigenous communities must continue their work er. The American Political Science Review, 56(4), restoring Indigenous worldviews and languages, and 947–952. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/ non-Indigenous communities must create space for about/terms.html,bycontactingJSTORatjstor-in- Indigenous epistemologies, while we work together [email protected],orbycallingJSTORat to solve our common challenges. Baskin, C. (2005). Storytelling Circles: Reflections As has been discussed, Indigenous People un- of Aboriginal Protocols in Research. Canadian derstand the force power that has disrupted the trajec- Social Work Review, 22(2), 171–187. Retrieved tory of Indigenous lives on this continent and around from https://about.jstor.org/terms the world. However, the data of this research shows Baskin, C. (2016). Strong Helpers’ Teachings: The that Indigenous People continue to practice the rich Value of Indigenous Knowledges in the Helping theory and philosophy behind traditional ways of liv- Professions. Toronto: Canadian Scholars’ Press ing and of being Indigenous, which has everything Inc. to do with power, and nothing to do with force. It is Battiste, M., & Henderson, J. (2000). Protecting In- the that Indigenous People have survived the digenous Knowledge and Heritage: A Global colonial experience up until now. Indigenous People Challenge. Saskatoon: Purich Publishing Ltd. understand that our power is in the community, and Brooks, T. (2006). Knowledge and Power in Pla- we work together toward community-oriented goals. to’s Political Thought. International Journal of Theory of power is not always about force – and this Philosophical Studies, 14(1), 51–77. https://doi. is an important point – because it is a point of entry to org/10.1080/09672550500445137 a new understanding of power. Burrows, J. (2007). Recovering Canada: The Resur- Canadians and Indigenous People must work gence of Indigenous Law. Toronto: Toronto Uni- together toward truth and reconciliation. The goal is versity Press. peaceful and ethical coexistence. However, this re- Chilisa, B. (2012). Indigenous Research Methodolo- quires that ongoing colonial violence be addressed. gies. Thousand Oaks: Publications. It requires that we place the “truths” of Western epis- Clayton, E. (2004). Aristotle: Politics. In The Inter- temology on the same shelf as the “truths” of Indig- net Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from enous epistemology and respect their value equal- https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/ ly. Indigenous People are not asking for a dramatic Creswell, J. (2013). Qualitative and Research switch from Western methods to Indigenous methods. Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches (3rd Instead, we need willingness from the settler popu- ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications Inc. lation to allow for Indigenous ways of knowing to Dahl, R. A. (1957). The Concept of Power. Behav- share the same space as Western ways of knowing. ioral Science, 2(3), 201–215. https://pdfs.se- This will only grow our collective pool of resources manticscholar.org/b6a1/33a495488468b9b24c- from which we can draw solutions to our challenges. de4728e7472ca0560d.pdf Dahl, R. A. (1961). Who Governs?: Democracy and

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