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JULIAN THE APOSTATE JULIAN THE APOSTATE BY GAETANO NEGRI TRANSLATED FROM THE SECOND ITALIAN EDITION BY THE DUCHESS LITTA-VISCONTI-ARESE WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY PROFESSOR p ASQU ALE VILLARI ILLUS'/'RA'I'ED VOL.I. LONDON T. FISH E R UN WI N PATERNOSTER SQUARE MCMV All li'ights Reserved CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION BY PROFESSOR VILLARI vii PREFACE , xix THE BusT OF AcERENZA xxvii INTRODUCTION Julian the Apostate-The Church and Julian­ Ammianus Marcellinus - Libanius - Gregory Nazianzen-Libanius and Gregory-The Writings of Julian - Eunapius - Other Documents - Socrates and Sozomenes - Modern Critics­ An Historical Phenomenon. THE LIFE OF JULIAN 25 Childhood and youth-Julian at Constantinople and Nicomedia-Murder of Gallus-Julian in Milan, and, later, in Athens-Return to Milan-Julian elected Cresar-Julian in Gaul-The Military Re­ volution-The Civil War-Julian on the Danube - Julian, Emperor in Constantinople-Julian in Antioch-Julian in Persia-Death of Julian. THE DISCORD AMONG THE CHRISTIANS • I 43 Constantine-Initial Dissensions-Arius-Athana­ sius -The Victory of Orthodoxy-Corruption of the Church-Monachal Asceticism-Apparent Conversion of Society. V vi CONTENTS PAGE: NEO-PLATONISM 186 Essence ofN eo-Platonism-Origins of N eo-Platonism­ Plotinus and Porphyry-The Teachers of Julian. JULIAN'S ATTITUDE 222 Julian's Philosophy-The King Sun-The "Mother of the Gods "-The Discourse against Heraclius and Divine Symbolism-The "Treatise against the Christians "-Celsus and Julian-Christian­ ised polytheism, and the "Pastorals " of Julian. ILLUSTRATIONS JULIAN. AFTER THE BUST' ON ACERENZA CATHEDRAL Frontispiece CoIN OF JULIAN • Corn OF CoNSTANTIUS GALLUS } F,dng pag, ,5 Corn OF HELENA, WIFE OF JULIAN COIN OF CoNSTANTIUs II THE COLONNADE OF S. LORENZO, MILAN, THE REMAINS OF IMPERIAL BUILDINGS • " 52 THE THERMES, PARIS, THE REMAINS OF " JULIAN'S PALACE ,, " THE VIRGIN CLAUDIA DRAGGING THE VESSEL OF THE MOTHER OF THE GODS, ,, ,, 2 43 From a Terra-cotta Relief. INTRODUCTION BY way of preface to this excellent translation of Senator N egri's work on Julian the Apostate, it may be well to give English readers a little in­ formation regarding the author's personality. Both intellectually and morally, Gaetano Negri stood above the ordinary level of mankind, and the course of his life was equally uncommon. There are some historical figures who would have won less renown had their mental grasp been wider ; but there are others whose fame would be much enhanced had they possessed less versa­ tility of mind. The former, whose intelligence runs in one groove, being impelled to concentrate their strength on a single point, sometimes achieve unexpected results ; the latter, on the contrary, being endowed with many varied powers, are apt to scatter their energies in a number of different directions, and, consequently, no single work of theirs - whatever its merit - can prove the full extent of their mental force. Gaetano Negri belonged to this latter group. Fram one point of view he may be said to have been singularly favoured both by nature and vii viii INTRODUCTION fortune. More than once, however, fortune proved decidedly hostile to him. The son of wealthy parents, he was born at Milan in I 838, and pursued his classical studies at Pavia. He was about to enter the University, when the national War of Independ­ ence broke out, and young Negri burned to join the volunteers ; but, yielding to his father's wishes, he went instead to the Military Academy of I vrea, in order to obtain admittance into the regular army. On being gazetted as a lieutenant, he was ordered to the Southern provinces, and took part in the operations there for the suppression of brigandage ( 1861-62 ). That he bravely did his duty is proved by the fact of his winning two silver medals for " distinguished service in the field." He also received a wound, but the bullet did no great harm. At the close of this campaign, which was by no means congenial to a high-spirited patriot like Negri, who only yearned to share in the real struggle against Austrian oppression, he felt so little inclination to continue his military career, that the moment peace was proclaimed he left the army. We presently find him hard at work at Milan in the office of Assessor to the Municipality for the Department of Public In­ struction, and from 1 884 to I 889 he was the Syndic (Mayor) of Milan. Thanks to his unceasing activity, penetrating intellect, genuine gift of eloquence, and also to the support of energetic friends of the Moderate party, INTRODUCTION ix be was the real head of the city, and the most influential man within its walls. Staunchly sup­ ported by his colleagues, he achieved notable results in the material, moral, and commercial transformation of Milan ; for he was one of the first to foresee its coming prosperity and importance. Before long, however, came one of those changes which are of too frequent occurrence in political life. Negri and his friends had helped to create in Milan a new order of society that now developed entirely new needs and new tendencies. So, presently, this new society fell out with the very men who had given it being. This turn of affairs was mainly due to the steadily growing influence of the Socialist party that had leapt to life in this centre of trade and industry. Step by step, Negri and his colleagues, who shortly before seemed to be· absolute masters of Milan, were thrust more and more into the background, until at last they counted for nothing in the new city they had so largely helped to create. Now, they were branded as consort-i,1 reactionaries, and even as blacks. 2 The present writer once asked Senator Negri to explain the cause of this strange phenomenon, and he said in reply- " It's a turn of the wheel! In former days we 1 I.e., members of the so-called Consorteria, a clique accused by its opponents of an exclusive regard for its own vested interests. 2 I.e., Clericals and Ultramontanes. X INTRODUCTION had only to go to the office of the Perseveranza, draw up a list of municipal and provincial councillors, and even a list of the deputies to be chosen. All of these, to the very last man, were invariably elected. Nowadays, no candidate of ours is elected. But there is nothing to be done. We are helpless. Later on, perhaps, things may be different! " Under these circumstances, Negri wisely turned his whole attention to other work, for which it was easy to see that he had a strong natural aptitude. His remarkable speeches in municipal assemblies and in parliamentary debates had given ample proofs of his literary talent. Strange to say, the first published results of his wide and various culture were in the shape of contributions to natural science. For as far back as 1867, when studying under Professor Stoppani, he had written geological essays which had elicited much praise from competent critics. But his true bent was for philosophy and letters, and in this field he worked with persistent ardour to the last day of his life. He now gave to the world a large number of essays-historical and critical essays-essays on philosophy and on religion. He wrote on subjects of every kind ; of every age, whether ancient or modern ; of every part of the world. But it cannot be denied that no one could pos­ sibly discourse on so many different themes without INTRODUCTION xi occasionally betraying incomplete equipment in some subject or another. More than once, of course, in the eyes of special experts, Negri must have appeared to be rather a dilettante than a pro­ fessional man of learning. Yet all his productions, while proving the width and variety of his acquire­ ments, likewise abounded in shrewd judgments and original appreciations, expressed with the vivid eloquence that is the natural offspring of earnest thought and conviction. For this reason, many of us believed that our friend Negri was the destined founder in Italy of the species of historical and critical essays which, while so general elsewhere, is comparatively unknown in our own country. Although Negri continually strayed from one subject to another, there was one to which he always recurred with such special zest that it appeared to be his dominant thought, £.e., the religious question of man's final destiny, or-as he expressed it-" the problem beyond the grave." The tendency of his nature led him to ponder repeatedly over this question. In his youth, the study of Renan's works had made the deepest impression on his mind. The fascination of the master's style had subjugated him and destroyed his faith in religion, but had, nevertheless, stimulated his desire to solve by force of reason the very problem that religion had solved by faith. Even as a confirmed rationalist he continued to feel great respect for existing xii INTRODUCTION religious beliefs, recognising the irresistible yearn­ ing for faith that is common to all mankind. Sometimes, indeed, one might have said that here was an unbeliever who had a belief! Accordingly,, N egri's adversaries were not altogether mistaken when they charged him with holding contradictory ideas. In fact, he was dragged this way and that by two opposing currents. But, on every point, he was so truly in earnest, that the strife within his soul gave birth to a wealth of ideas expressed in streams of hotly eloquent words. His favourite heroes were the great unbelievers who, on their conversion, became great apostles ; the great philosophers who had sought to make a religion of their philosophic creed.
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