Imitation Coral Reconstruction in Cross‐Cultural Contexts

Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch.43(2020): 341–366www.bwg.wiley-vch.de

DOI: 10.1002/bewi.202000010 Outofthe Ivy and into theArctic: ImitationCoral Reconstruction in Cross-Cultural Contexts**

DonnaBilak*

Summary: This essay discusses imitation coral reconstruction workshops based on arecipe from asixteenth-century “book of secrets” that took place in three different educational contexts:Columbia University,Nuna- vut Arctic College, and UniversitätHamburg. It reflects on the utility of reconstruction and material literacy as present-day history of science meth- odologies in which scholarly textual interpretationmeets physical research. It also considers the nature of cultural heritage in shaping material practice through an Inuit cultural context, in which the acquisition and disseminationofknowledge is not rooted in textual traditions, but bodily embedded in oral histories, craft technology,and land stewardship. The essay also presents suggestionsfor new collaborative practices between humanists, artisans, and scientists that can be facilitated by reconstruction methodology.

Keywords: imitationcoral, wonder,reconstruction, Arctic,pedagogy, ex- periential learning

Introduction Sometime during the1580s, in or around Toulouse,amanset aboutthe task of compilinga“book of secrets.”1 It broughttogetherhis knowledgeofdifferent kindsofartisanal technologiesgainedfromtexts,hearsay,and first-hand experience,and by thetimehefinishedrecording allthis, perhapswithpublication in mind,hehad filled 170 folios with hundreds of entries. Thefirst entryinthis compilationisarecipe formakingimitation coral(Figure 1). Currently, this manuscript is part of themassive “CollectiondeBØthune” held in theManuscripts Department of theBibliothquenationale de France,identi- fied by itsshelfmark Ms.Fr. 640. Severalyears ago,areferencetoitcaughtthe

1 Smith2020.

D. Bilak, IndependentScholar andAdjunct Part-TimeFaculty at NewYorkUniversity, Gallatin School of IndividualizedStudy,1WashingtonPlace NewYork, NY 10003, E-Mail: [email protected] ** SincerethankstoPamelaH.Smith (ColumbiaUniversity), BeataHejnowicz (Nunavut Arctic College), andDominik Hünniger (UniversitätHamburg)for providingexperimentalforums. HeartfeltthankstoMarieke Hendriksen forthe opportunity to processmyexperiences andpres- entmyideas in this specialissue.

2020 Wiley-VCH GmbH 341 DonnaBilak

Figure 1: “Coral Contrefaict” in Ms.Fr. 640, c.1580, fol. 3r.Manuscriptdetailfromthe Making and KnowingProject,online: https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/folios/3r/f/3r/tl (accessed13 June 2020).

eyeofanhistorian of early modern science, Pamela Smith, in abook on thesix- teenth-century Huguenot ceramicist,Bernard Palissy, 2 andher curiosityled to its excavation outfromthe archival colossusofthe BØthunecollection. Itssubse- quentinvestigation generatedaresearchenterpriseknown as theMakingand KnowingProject (M&K) underPamela’sdirection at Columbia University,3 dedi- catedtothe material andintellectualexploration of Ms.Fr. 640 throughthe historical reconstruction of itsentries.4 “Coral”was amongthe very firstgroup of recipesthatthe M&Kteamrecon- structed in December2014. Ihavebeenfascinatedwiththisrecipefromthe time when Iwas apostdoctoralscholar on M&K, from 2014 to 2017. In addition to participatinginthe M&Kimitation coralreconstruction, Ihaveled twoother

2 Amico1996. 3 Smithetal. 2014. 4 Making andKnowing Projectetal. 2020.

342 Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 Outofthe Ivyand into theArctic

“coral”-makingworkshops,atavocational school in the Canadian Arctic with InuitMetal Arts students in May2015, andatthe UniversitätHamburg with aca- demiccolleaguesinFebruary2020. Each groupworkedfromthe same text,yet all threeworkshops produced distinctly different“coral” results. Why? This essayinvestigatescross-cultural“coral”-makingtoexplore what theitera- tionsofareconstruction canrevealabout communities, practice,and theco-creation of knowledge. It presents my reflectionsonhow reconstruction changes based on settingand people,and theirknowledge sets,togetherwithahistorically inflectedgenealogy of coral. It is designed as aseriesofintersectingcasestudies that narrates my evolvingrelationshipwithreconstructioninhow “coral”-making playsout across differentaudiences,indifferent contexts andenvironments. The transparency afforded by afrank personal account allows me to bringthe rangeof reactionsintofocus that infuse andinfluence theseworkshops:excitement, doubt, confusion, anxiety, surprise,wonder. Ialsodrawattention to thegenerative powerofhuman errorinpedagogical practice,and howits acknowledgement can facilitate agileand constructive responsestouncertainty andfailure that enhance theteachingand learning process. Achronologicalframework does noteffectively convey theexperientialcomplex that this studyaimstoarticulate. It begins,there- fore,withthe most recent workshop at theUniversitätHamburg,a“coral” recon- structionthatalmostfoundered.Thisparticularaccount also interweavesrecollec- tionson“coral”-making in theM&K labatColumbia in 2014, whichIdrew upon during theHamburg reconstruction in striving to counteract unexpected material reactions. Thenextsection contextualizes theculturalunderstanding and useofcoral in theMediterranean region from antiquitytothe earlymodern period.Suchorganizationmirrors the“show-then-tell”formatIadoptedfor the Hamburgworkshopwhere ourreconstructionsession wasfollowed by adiscussion aboutcoral andmeaning-making in earlymodernhumanist andartisanal spheres. Thefinal part of this essayrelates theimitation coralworkshopthattookplace in theCanadianArcticwithInuit MetalArtsstudentsin2015, wherebyablunder of mine concerning akey material in fact enabledthe studentstolay cultural claimtoareconstruction exercise around asixteenth-century French recipe in an unexpected way. Iuse thetermreconstructionacrossthese differentcasestudies forits flexibility in conveying thesense of building somethingagain as wellasre-enactmentfrom available evidence.5 This premisealsoinvites us to consider thethree imitation coralworkshops as presenting akindofethnography of experience,6 illuminating theheady emotionalmix of playfulnessand apprehension that reconstruction work stirsup. This constitutesanimportant elementofreconstructionmethodol- ogy.Learninghow to work with—and through—such feelings canbeamazingly intellectually transformative.Reconstructionisnot aboutgivingorfollowing instructions.Itisabout workingwithmaterials to probe theunknown to learnwhat

5 Amongthe growingbodyofscholarship on thesubject of reconstruction,re-enactment, andperfor- mance, seeHagendijk 2018;Forsetal. 2016;Chang 2011;Staubermann 2011. 6 Forlearningbydoing,see Ingold 2013;alsoBaiocchietal. 2013.

Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 343 DonnaBilak

you do notknow.Thisexperienceyieldsunderstanding throughself-awareness, whichprimesustoperceivefailure as an invitation to experiment,toengageinin- tellectualrisk-taking,and to trainintuition in producingnew knowledge.

2. Hamburg, February 2020 Oftentimes,the seed of aproject gets plantedataninformalsocialgathering.As it happened,the Hamburgworkshopwas theoutcome of alivelydinnerconver- sation whereImet DominikHünniger,aresearcheratthe UniversitätHamburg with the Forschungsgruppe “Imaginarien derKraft.”7 Dominikwas keen to intro- duce hiscolleaguestoanM&K-style reconstruction workshop,and given my experience as aformerpostdoc on theproject,Iwasin. Iproposedthe imitation coralrecipefromMs. Fr.640 as suitable foraone-daymeeting,and Dominikas- sembledthe requisitematerials basedonmyitemization.8 However, intellectual contextualizationwas intentionally minimal: Ipre-circulatedacase studyofmate- rialsand meaning-making in earlymodernEuropetoprovide abroad frameof referencefor theexperiment,9 as opposedtoscholarship aboutM&K reconstruction.10 My rationalewas simple.Ididnot want to give awaythe reconstruction experience beforeithappened. Itakeafluidapproachtoreconstructionthatis nottightly focusedonproving/disprovingahypothesis.Rather, Iuse material ex- plorationtoask:Whatdoesour thinking look like,whatmight we produce, when we arenot trying to come up with answers?11 This premiseevinces therole that uncertainty playsinknowledge formation, even as it challenges trainedap- proaches in thehumanitieswhere research emphasizes findings butnot necessarily thefailuresorfeelingsthatleadtothem.12 Ialsotakecertain cues from theM&K definition of reconstruction as away of closereading.M&K essentiallyaimsto getits students to triangulatebetween text,hands-onmaterial engagement,and historical objectresearchinorder to form amentalimage of wherethisinterplay mightlead, in whichreconstructionactsasproof of concept.13 With theHam- burg “coral”workshop, Ihoped forthe act of real-timediscoverytoshowthe par- ticipantsadifferentapproachtohistorical research in whichinformation attained

7 With thanks to SurekhaDaviesfor conveningthisconvivial occasion during theJuly2019History of ScienceSociety conference in Utrecht. 8 Idid notrecommend specific brands andIhewedtothe recipe’s resin reference; M&Kworked with rosin(asubstanceproducedfromthe processing of resin) whichisalluded to in therecipe’s paratext “Colophony [rosin]isnothing otherthanrecookedresin.”The Hamburgworkshopused LienzosLevante vermilionpigment andNabürCaravane resin. M&Kand NunavutArcticCollege reconstructionsusedpigmentsfromKremerPigmentsInc.(NewYorkCityart supplier specializing in making historical pigments from minerals andorganic substances); M&K2014email corre- spondencerecords ourAmazonpurchaseofrosin butnot thebrandname. 9 Smith2015a. 10 Smithand Making and KnowingProject 2016;M&K student perspectives in Kremnitzer et al. 2018. 11 In this Iamalsoinspiredbythe notion of “talkative things”and “unthinkable combinations”dis- cussed in Daston 2004. 12 On thepowerfullearningpotential of failure seeFirestein 2016;and Latour 2005 on uncertainty. SeeFebvre1973about thereconstitutionofemotionsinhistory. 13 Seethe contribution of Taapeetal. in this volume.

344 Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 Outofthe Ivyand into theArctic from doinginforms knowing. Iwas also curioustolearn theirresponsetothe reconstruction experience. On themorning of theworkshop, eleven of us gatheredinamulti-purpose room within theUniversitätHamburg.Itwas largeand airy with modulartables, aprojectionscreenand plenty of poweroutlets,repletewithakitchenette. Apro- tectivelayer of papertaped to thesurface of oneofthe tables wasall that was needed to transformitintoour workbench,laden with ahotplate, aglass baking tray,assortedstainless steelpalette knives,several packetsofresin,asmallbottleof walnut oil, andasmallcontainer of vermilion pigment. Piles of twigslay on anearbytable (collected by theparticipants),alongside abox of nitrileglovesand disposable face masks. Introductionsrevealedthatseveral workshop participants possessedsomekindofcraft skill(cooking,mixed-media art, knitting). Our groupreflecteddifferent facetsofacademe:historiansofart andofscience from Americaand Europe,togetherwiththe director of theuniversity’scentral collection office andthe taxidermistfor itsCenterofNatural History (CeNak).All ex- pressedadeep interest in theideaofblendingexperientiallearningwithresearch andteaching, andeagerly awaitedthe experience of making imitationcoral as away to try outone versionofreconstructionmethodology. Iexplained that we wouldstart with aconsideration of therecipe, devise aworkflow, then do theexperiment. Reflectionsand historical contextualization wouldfollowlunch.Withthat, we launched full tilt into theimitation coralentry on folio3r, workingfromthe M&K digitaledition of Ms.Fr. 640:14

Oneneeds to firstmakethe branches of wood or take abizarre thornbranch, then melt albofthe most beautifulclear pitchresin andput in oneounce of subtly ground vermilionwithwalnutoil,and if youadd in alittleVenicelaque platte,the colorwillbemorevivid,and stir everythinginthe resin melted over acharcoalfire andnot of flame, forfearthatitcatches fire.Nextdip in your branches whileturn- ing, &ifany filamentsshouldremainonit, turn thebranchoverthe heat of the charcoal. We toggled between theoriginalFrenchtextand itsEnglish translationintrying to assess theinformation,and theinformation gaps,presentedinthispuzzling paragraph. Grappling with therecipe’sopacityswiftly prompted questionsabout itsingredients,thenand now. Were we in fact workingwith“themostbeautiful clear” resin? What does this even mean?While theresin that Dominikhad pur- chased onlineappearedtobesuitable, nobodyinour groupinfacthad apointof referencefor knowingotherwise,includingme. What is a“bizarre” branch?Or “Venice laque platte”? What exactlywas this mixtureofalot of resinwithalittle pigmentsupposedtoproduce?Clearly,the recipe involved undisclosedsteps and tacitknowledge,putting theonusonthe grouptotry andfillinthe blanks. Con- sideration of theentry’s marginal notesadded more layers of complication to textual interpretation.Shouldwefactorthe recipe’s paratext into ourreconstruc- tion?15 Insteadofilluminatingapath forward, textualexamination generated

14 Diplomatic Frenchtranscription in Appendix. 15 SeeparatextinAppendix.

Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 345 DonnaBilak

debate aboutexperimentaldesign. Facedwithmultipleentry points into an am- biguouslydescribedprocess,where to even startwiththe reconstruction? SeveralHamburg participants expresseddiscomfortwiththe recipe’s lack of specificity. In terms of theearly modern recipe genre,the imitationcoral entry in Ms.Fr. 640isnot particularly unusualfor itscontent,orlackthereof.16 However, thekindofinformation we expect todayfromarecipe is absent from folio3r; namely,precision instructions that walk us step by step throughthe process, man- agingour expectations at everystage with pithydescriptionsaimed to instillconfi- denceabout obtaining adefinitiveresult. Thegroup askedfor more scholarly contextinorder to constructaworkflow.Tothis, Irequested that we delayinfor- mation delivery (a seeminglycounter-intuitive approach)until theafternoon workshop debrief,havingpreparedapresentation that involved discussion of the M&Kproject together with historical images,objects,and marine-biology reports relating to coral. This was atough call on my part.Idiscernedthatthe groupwas struggling for orientationwiththe recipe,desiringtoattainadegree of certaintywiththe text beforestartingthe reconstruction process. Iempathizedwiththis. YetIbelieve it is vitally importanttosit with uncertaintyinthiskindofsense-based work.17 Doingso, Iargue,encouragesour intuitiontoactivateand enterintothe interpre- tative process. This notion stemsfrommyworkwithstudentsstrivingtorecon- struct entriesfromMs. Fr.640 in M&K.18 My position on uncertaintyasavalua- blecognitiveprocess alsoresonates with what MichaelPolanyihas describedas thetacit dimension. Polanyicontendsthatwepossess avastbodyoftacit knowledge (skills,ideas,experiences)thatweare largelyunaware of,which becomes legibletoour perception throughencounter with theunexpectedand unfami- liar.19 Ithusviewreconstructionasamethodology with thepotential to open us up to such innerconnectivitywhenweallow perceptiontoact as theguide throughintellectualpuzzles,likethose posedbythe informationgapsand varia- bles that characterize earlymodernrecipes. In this, thesensation of disquiet that canaccompany workingwiththe unknownseems to be asfundamental to thereconstruction experience as is the“aha” moment,the stagewhentextand process finally starttomakesense together. TheHamburg groupwas game,eventhoughmyinformation deferral (quite reasonably)increased thelevel of anxietyaroundthe proceedings. Goingintothe reconstruction processwithout theassurance of masteryoverthe text runs contra- ry to howwe, as historians,are trainedtoproceedwithresearch. Nonetheless, the groupdevised aworkflowafter some debate, whichessentially followedthe body text.20 In itsown way,the “coral” entryisrelativelystraightforward.Meltsome kind of high-quality resin(whichweweregoing to do with an electric hotplate, giventhatacharcoal fire wasnot an option in ourworkspace), then somehow

16 “TheRecipes Project: Food,Magic,Art,Scienceand Medicine” presents an excellentscholarly online resource: https://recipes.hypotheses.org/(accessed 13 June 2020).See also Nummedal 2019; Leong2018; Rankin2013. 17 Forsense-based pedagogy as developedsince the17thcentury seeLehmann 2019. 18 Bilak[forthcoming]. 19 Polanyi 1958. 20 An exampleofthisapproachinAlbala2016.

346 Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 Outofthe Ivyand into theArctic combinethe vermilionpigment with an undefinedquantityofwalnut oil, andfi- nally dunk atwigintothismixture.So, despitenot having afullpicture of the stepsinvolved or aclear senseofthe recipe’s outcome, we beganthe experiment with amix of anticipation andtrepidation.Ifelt thesameway too, even though I couldmoreorlessenvisionwhatthisrecipewould producebased on my priorex- perience with “coral”-making. However,the onething Idid notexpect was for thereconstructiontogowrong. As we begantomeltthe resin, Iimmediately noticeditbehaveddifferently from theprevioustwo timesIworked with this recipe.Itbecame very thin in consistency,veryfast. Also,the ounceofvermilion mixedwithwalnutoil called for by therecipedid notcombinewiththe liquifiedresin.Instead,the vermilion-oil mixturebroke up into amyriadoftinyred globulessuspended in thetranslucent resin. We were workingwithawatery substancethatwould notcolor,thatran off ourstirringstick instead of adhering to it—basically,the opposite of my M&K experience with this experiment. Iknewthatthe vermilion andresin used in the Hamburgworkshop weredifferent brands from thoseusedinthe Columbia Uni- versityand NunavutArcticCollege “coral” reconstructions. Isuspected thepres- ence of syntheticingredients,eitherinthe resin, thevermilion,orboth, that inter- feredwiththeir combinationduringthe Hamburgexperiment. ButIam not achemist,and Idid notunderstandthe sciencebehindthisreaction. Thepartici- pants’ anxietyabout goingintothe reconstruction blind,sotospeak,now morph- ed into anxietyaroundpossibledisappointment. What if nothinghappened? I waspreparedtoacceptfailure as theoutcome,but thegroup wasemotionally invested in having a“successful”experience—thatis, in seeing something happen, even if they didnot quiteknowwhatthatshouldbe.21 WhileIprocessedthe look andfeelofthisunexpectedmaterialreaction, Iwas alsothinkingbacktomyfirst “coral”-makingexperienceinthe M&Klab at Co- lumbia,undertakenwithour ScienceHistory InstitutecolleaguesElisabethBerry Dragoand Mariel Carrwho documented it in December 2014.22 Notwithstand- ingthe professionalediting that wentintoproducing thevideo,itcapturesour “coral”-makingprocess in real-time—whichwentsmoothlyinthatthe vermilion- walnut oilmixture immediatelycombinedwiththe resin, creating arichred colour,and thecolouredsubstance we produced readilyadhered to thetwigs.The entire reconstruction process(i.e.,mulling,melting,dipping, anddrying) took around an hour;however,overall preparation(from textualinterpretationto being experiment-ready) involved weeksofconsultationwithartists,chemists, andColumbia University Health andSafetyofficers. Notwithstandingthisexten- sive planning,justasinHamburg,the M&Kteamdid notknowwhattoexpect at “showtime.”The M&Kreconstructionexperiencedovetailedwiththe Ham- burg workshop in otherrespectstoo, such as encountering barrierstotextual interpretation presentedbyearly modern terminologyand tacitknowledge, ques- tioningthe historicalacceptabilityofmodernmaterials andequipment,and won- dering what woulddefineasuccessful experiment. Both groups also exhibited

21 Afascinating studyabout overcoming reconstruction challenges in Principe2016. 22 “Making&KnowingFakeCoral,” online:https://player.vimeo.com/video/129811219(accessed 13 June 2020).

Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 347 DonnaBilak

anxietyand excitement about embarkingonaprocesswithout knowingwhatit wouldyield. As theHamburg experimentbegan to unravel, Idrewfrommybodily memory of theM&K “coral”iteration.Itook over thetaskofstirringthe resin because Iknewwhattofeelfor in terms of consistency: aslightresistanceinthe heated liquid againstthe stir stick, like walking in shallowwater.Because ourhot- platetendedtorapidlyheatup, andbecause theresin quicklyliquified,Ihadone hand continuously fiddling with theelectriccontrol to trytomaintainasteady lukewarm temperature, whilemaintaining acontrolled, slow,figure-eightstirring tempowiththe other, an action that allowed me to monitorhow theresin wasbe- having throughout theentirepot,not just at theouter edgesorinthe center as acircularmotionwould indicate.Ibegandescribingtoaparticipantwhattofeel forinmakingathicker,grainierpaste (morepigment,lessoil). Ihoped this wouldnot only help as colourant,but also actasathickenerfor theresin,like addingcornstarchtoastew.Wekeptuparhythm of stirring theresin andadding thepaste,using up considerably more vermilion than therecipecalledfor (almost two-thirds of thecontainer of pigment).Timeseemedtostand stillduringthisac- tivity,the groupseemedtocollectively hold theirbreath. Afterabout tenminutes of labouringoverthe mixture(unsure theentiretimeifour effortswould yield workable material), it suddenly seemed to reachsomesortofsaturation pointand theresin-vermilion-walnutoil combined into athick,goopybrilliant redvarnish (Figure2). Abrilliantred resincoatedthe twig,transforming theslender woody shoot into “coral.” Once we gottothispoint, things became Zen.There was laughter,soundsof aweand exclamations of delightaswetookturns dippingthe twigsintothe mixture,watchingtheir transformationinto“coral” as thevarnish cooledand hardened,aprocessroughly thelengthoftimeittakes nail polish to dry. We were nowcaughtupinthe playfulness of thereconstruction, making dozens of “coral” pieces.One participanthad broughtindelicatesprigsofdried marjoram,which proved difficulttocoatbecause of howthick andheavy ourvarnish hadturned out.23 Translucentresinouswebsformedbetween itsslender branches andthe sprigs clumpedtogether. This provokedthe determinationtoconduct afutureex- periment usingthe marginal notesabout temperingthe resinwithvinegar as per themarginalia,24 as this participantwas really invested in “petrifying” thedainty marjoram stalkswithavermilion coat. Observing, describing,experimenting,we losttrack of time,something several people remarked on when,withsurprise, Dominikannounced it wasafter noon. In contrast to thegamut of emotions that pervaded themorning’s reconstruction,our afternoon debriefwas relaxed as thegroup unpacked theexperience.25 Wonder at theunfamiliarwas aleitmotiv in our“coral”-making reflections,in both thesenses of theterm:asanexpressionofdoubt aboutthe ability of thetext

23 TheM&K andArctic“coral” experimentsalsoyieldedathickgoopy substancewiththe useof commercial rosinbothreconstructions. 24 Iinterpret themarginalnoteoncolophony to be arecipefor making rosin. SeeparatextinAppen- dixfor acolophony recipe. 25 Comparewithrecollections of RISD glassinstructors recounting theirstudents’ firstdirectexperi- ence making glassinBerwick et al.2017, on 18,21–22.FormalizeddiscussioninMatt2013.

348 Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 Outofthe Ivyand into theArctic

Figure 2: Hamburg“coral,”2020;vermilion,walnutoil,resin,woodbranchesand marjoramsprigs. Photo: Dominik Hünniger. to produceanobject,and as afeeling of amazementuponwitnessingthe woody twigstransform into red“coral.” Wonder as amazementmarkedamoment of sudden insight, wherematerialtransformationrevealedthe relationship between text andpractice. The“coral” recipe in Ms.Fr. 640blurs the boundary between nature andartificeinusing naturalthingstocreateanimitation of anatural material.The coralpresentationIprepared forour groupalsoframedthe imitation coralrecipeasanarrativeoftransformationthatappears in classicaltexts andre- surfaces in thewritingsand objectscreated by theirearly modern interpreters. Just as with theHamburg workshop, this studynow turnstoconsidercoral in the earlymodernimagination as relatedtoblood,petrification,and transformation,26 expressedthrough art, artifact,and naturalphilosophical discourse.27

3. Coral: Matter andMeaning Today, we understand coralasapolypthatcan live aloneorincolonies. Corals have anervoussystem, they grow andreproduce,and they cancover themselves with ahardorsoftexoskeleton.Coral reefsoccur in globaldistributionand dis- play diverse communities, andmostofthe coralecosystems in existencetoday es- tablishedtheir formationbetween 5,000 and10,000 yearsago.Inthe Greco-

26 SeeLander Johnsonand Decamp 2018for cross-cultural studiesabout bloodinpre-modern Europe. 27 SeealsoSmith 2014.

Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 349 DonnaBilak

Romanworld that existed 2,000 years ago,Mediterranean coastlines andislands around south-easternFrance, Corsica,Sardinia, Naples,and Genoawereringed with coralhabitats.28 Coralwas avaluable commodityworkedintojewelry, and high-quality specimenswereconsideredtobeonpar with pearls. Yetcoral as aphysicalentityposed apuzzlefor ancientontologiesofthe natural world. How to understand,and thereforeclassify, somethingthatresembled atree-like rock,orrock-liketree, that grew underwater andapparently hardened upon exposure to air? Theophrastus describes coralasakind of stone-plant, litho- dendron,inabriefentry in De lapidibus,his studyofmineral substances.29 Pliny’s Historia Naturalis provides amoredetailed(if cursory) accountofcoral,charac- terizing it as akindofaquatic plantthatbecomes astone.Pliny comments on its variouslocalities, form andcolor,the differentculturaland commercial values as- signed to it as apreciousmaterial, itsapotropaicpower when hung as branches around theneckofinfants,aswellasits medicinaluse.Pliny also describes coral as asubstance that petrifieswithhuman touch.30 Coral’sperceived abilitytolapid- ifyalsooccurs in Ovid’s Metamorphoses,where thelegendofMedusa, theGorgon whosegazepossessed thepower to turn living matter into stone, narrates acreation storyfor coral. Accordingtothe storyline, theheroPerseus decapitatedthe Gorgon andsubsequentlyweaponizedthe severedhead, whichretainedits petri- fyingpowersevenindeath.31 AfterbattlingCetus thegiant sea-serpent, Perseus setthe Gorgon’s head upon some seaweed that he strewedonthe sandyshore in ordertowashthe gorefromhis hands.32 Contact with theGorgon’sblood trans- formed thepliantaquatic plants into red, hard twigs, delightingnearbynymphs whoscattered them into thesea currents,thuslysowingthe underwater coralfor- ests that fringed theMediterranean region.33 Thenameofthe redcoral genusin- digenous to theMediterraneanregionisknowntothisday as gorgonia.34

28 Plin.Nat.32.11.English translation, seePliny theElder 1855,Book32, Chap.11(“Coral:Forty- ThreeRemediesand Observations”),online: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Per- seus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D32%3Achapter%3D11 (accessed13June2020). SeealsoOceana Report 2007. 29 Caleyand Richards 1956,on24–25,53. 30 Plin.Nat.32.11; Englishtranslation:Pliny theElder 1855,Book32, Chapter11(“Coral:Forty- ThreeRemediesand Observations”),online: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Per- seus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D32%3Achapter%3D11 (accessed13June2020). 31 Ovid 4.604–622; 663–705; 753–803; and5.149–199.Anearly digtal versionofAnthonyS. Kline’sEnglish translationofthe Metamorphoses canbefound here:Book4:604–622 (“Perseus andAtlas”),663–705 (“PerseusOfferstoSaveAndromeda”),753–803 (“Perseustells thestory of Medusa”),online:https://ovid.lib.virginia.edu/trans/Metamorph4.htm(accessed 13 June 2020); andBook5:149 –199 (“Perseususesthe Gorgon’s head”),online: https://ovid.lib.virginia.edu/ trans/Metamorph5.htm (accessed13June2020).Anevocativediscussiononthe conceptualization of Medusa’s bloodinBenvenuto Cellini’sbronzecasting in Cole 1999. 32 Ovid 4.740–752; Englishtranslation (Kline’s version):secondparagraph of Book 4:706–752 (“Perseusdefeats thesea-serpent”),online: https://ovid.lib.virginia.edu/trans/Metamorph4.htm (accessed 13 June 2020). 33 SeealsoGibson2015. 34 Discussion of gorgonia coralinCole1999, on 228–229.

350 Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 Outofthe Ivyand into theArctic

Theseancient commentaries formed an importantpartofearly modern discourse amongnatural philosophers whoalsograppledwithcoral’s classification.35 Printedworks by GeorgAgricola, Conrad Gesner, PetroAndreaMatthioli,and Ferrante Imperato,for example, discussedthe lapidifyingcharacteristics of coral as well as itsmedicinal value.36 Coral’sperceived dual nature as marine plantand hard mineral made it adesired item in museumsassembled by such collectors as Imperato,Francesco Calzolari,Ole Worm,and Gillis de Kimpe, elicitingwonder from visitors andsparkingdebateabout itsplacement in thenatural order.37 The artist Domenico Rempsusedwhite,black,and redcoral specimenstoemblema- tize therelationshipbetween naturalhistory andnatural philosophy in his trompe l’œil cabinetofcuriosities. Thetop shelfholds ahumanskull to whichisaffixed ared coralbranch, itsstaring eyesockets theinverse of Medusa’s petrifying glare. Thecollector as allegorist conjoins mementomori, naturalia,and artificialia in cre- atingamicrocosmicworld inside asimplewoodencabinet (Figure3).38 Thenatureofcoral findsallegoricalexpressioninMichael Maier’s Atalantafu- giens,analchemicalretooling of anotherOvidian legend aboutthe race between thefleet-footedhuntressAtalantaand hersuitorHippomenes.39 Emblem XXXII in Atalanta fugiens depictsacoralfisherman liftingacoralbranchfromalake. Half submerged, thecoral’s transformation from supple aquaticplant to hardened rock is impliedbythe artist’s hatching techniqueinthe illustration,usedto convey itslapidificationincontact with air.40 Thethemesofblood,petrification,and transformationthatcut across Pliny andOvidmingleinthe earlymodernartisanal imagination.WenzelJamnitzer ex- emplifiesthese in hismaterialactualization of stillanother Ovidianlegend, the nymphDaphne’stransformationintoalaurelbush.41 Createdaround1570,Jam- nitzer craftedDaphne’sbodyingold andsilver,using redcoral branches to ex- pressher metamorphosis (Figure4). Coralburstsfromher upraised arms at the wrists andshoot up outofher coiffure,its ends decoratedwithtinygreen enam- eled leaves to indicate thefast-growing greenery that will soon engulf herform. Jamnitzer’sstatuette seemstoplaywiththe ancients’notionofcoral as atree-like rock,orrock-like tree,evenasthe coralbranchesevoke thelapidificationofblood associated with theMedusalegend.

35 Ottaviani2015; also Chessa 2020. Caleyand Richards 1956, on 11 listsearly modern printededi- tionsofDe lapidibus. SeealsoSchmitt 1971. 36 Agricola 1657,on603;Gesner1565; Matthioli1598. Fordiscussionofcoral’s medicalproperties seeRijks 2017. 37 Ottaviani2015,on290,311–313.OndeKimpe seeRijks 2019,on320;compare Kimpe’s “coral”-making material with paratext (right-handmargin) in Appendix.For earlymodernculture of wonder andcollecting seeDastonand Park 1998. 38 Thesequenceofartifacts andtheir organization in levels in Remps’ painting hasparallels in printed portrayals of earlymodernmuseums;see Ottaviani2015, on 303and fn.53. Forearly modern col- lectingculture,see Impeyand MacGregor1985; Findlen1994. 39 Nummedal andBilak 2020. 40 Maier 1618. 41 Ovid 1.525–552; Englishtranslation (Kline’s version):Book1:525–552 (“Daphne Becomesthe Laurel Bough”), online:https://ovid.lib.virginia.edu/trans/Metamorph.htm#488381109(accessed 13 June 2020).

Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 351 DonnaBilak

Figure 3: “Cabinet of Curiosities” by Domenico Remps, c.1689;oil on canvas.Dimensions99 137cm. Museodell’Opificio dellePietreDure, Florence.Image:created 21 May2020, source/pho- tographerWGA on WikimediaCommons,online: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cabi- net_of_Curiosities_1690s_Domenico_Remps.jpg(accessed 13 June 2020).

As apreciousred stone, coralcorporealizes theperceived sanctified properties of Christ’s blood andits relationship with thetransubstantiationofthe Eucharis- ticelementsofbread andwineintothe body andblood of theSon of God in the moment of consecration.The ancientviewofcoral’sapotropaicpropertiesis thusly recastinearly modern religiouspaintings of theChristchild,which relate to thecontemporaryvogueinportraiture fordepictinginfants andchildren adornedwithcoral braceletsand necklaces(Figure 5).Suchjewellery in both reli- giousand secularcontextsisusually rendered as astrandofsmall roundcoral beads,sometimes with adanglingbranch, fastenedabout theneckorwrist.How- ever,inthe Christianframe of reference, coral’sperceivedtransformativenature assumesemblematicsignificance as thelapidificationofblood that flowed from thewoundsofChristathis sacrificefor theredemptionofhumankindfromthe stainoforiginalsin.Coral jewelleryinportraits of Christ as childcan thereforebe understood in termsoftransposition.The coralisnot to protectChristfromex- ternalizeddangerorevil (asismeant with otherchildren).The coralhewears em- bodies akindofmementomori,areferencetothe redemption that flowsour way throughthe bloodthatisspilled in Christ’s sacrificialcrucifixion.Nails will pierce hishands andfeet, acrown of thorns will bite into hishead, andaspearthrust will open awound in hisbody. In portraitsofthe infant Jesus, it is sight, ouract

352 Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 Outofthe Ivyand into theArctic

Figure 4: Statuetteof“Daphne”byWenzelJamnitzer, Nuremberg, c.1570;gold, silver,coral.MusØe national de la Renaissance.Image:created 27 March2013, author P. poschadel on Wikimedia Com- mons,online: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%C3%89couen_(95),_ch%C3%A2teau,_ 2e_%C3%A9tage,_cabinet_d%27orf%C3%A8vrerie,_statuette_de_Daphn%C3%A9,_Wenzel_Jam- nitzer,_Nuremberg,_vers_1570.jpg (accessed13June2020).

Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 353 DonnaBilak

Figure 5: “Virgin andChild”byJoosvan Cleveand collaborator, c.1525;oil on wood.Overalldi- mension283/821 1/4in. (72.154 cm). Metropolitan Museum of Art, NewYork. Image: Public Domain,online: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/436795 (accessed 13 June 2020).

354 Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 Outofthe Ivyand into theArctic of looking at thecoral jewelleryhewears,thatactivates itsChristologicalredemp- tive meaning.42 As text andartifact, imitationcoral in Ms.Fr. 640 participates in theallegorical andnatural philosophicaldiscourse of an earlymodernculturalhistory of coral. Thehardening of thered,resinousvarnish as it cools in theair,the action that transforms woodytwigs into “coral,” recalls bothancient andearly modern com- mentariesoncoral’s dual nature andability to lapidify.Wedonot know if the author of Ms.Fr. 640had first-handexperienceseeingorhandlingcoral speci- mens.But he mayhavereadabout coral.43 Certainly, therecipe’sfantastical branches arereminiscent of gorgonia coral. Was“faked”coral intended to de- ceive?44 Notionsofvalue aretiedtothisquestion. Extant contemporary invento- ries andrecipes hint at thecommercialvalue imitationcoral mayhaveheldmore generally in early modern European culture.45 Nevertheless,the author of Ms.Fr. 640 likely viewed this recipe forits philosophicalvalue as an exercise in creating aprocess that mirrored thematerialtransformationassociatedwithcoral,which extendstoour time.“Coral”-making illuminatesarelationship betweenprocess andmythinhow we learnabout thenatural worldand history, even as itscrea- tion enchants ourintellect.

4. Iqaluit, 2015 Thequestion“What is coral?”plays outdifferently in thereconstructionwork- shop IheldatNunavutArcticCollege (NAC)inMay 2015. BeataHejnowicz, Senior Instructor of theMetal Arts programme at NAC, hadinvited me to Iqaluit to lead ahands-onjewelleryhistory workshop with herstudents(Figure 6).Iqa- luit,situatedonFrobisher Bay, is thecapital of theCanadianterritory of Nunavut with apopulationofaround7,000 people:itisthe largestArcticcommunityin Canada (mostothersare much smaller),and itsdesignation as acityfollows the 1993 NunavutLandClaims Agreement. NACisavocational school in Iqaluit runbythe Canadiangovernment. Itsprimary focusistoserve theInuitcommun- ityinacquiring professional skills andtraining, although theschoolincludes “southern” students living in Iqaluit(acommondesignation used “upnorth”for anyone, or anything,thatcomes from outsidethe Arctic). Beatawantedmetointroduce herstudentstopracticeand design from differ- entculturesand periodsasawaytoexpandtheir knowledge, skills, andcreativity in jewellery making.The May2015visit constituted my firstofaseries of now annual tripstoNAC to teachjewellery history. Beataand Ikneweachother from theJewelleryArtsprogramme at theGeorgeBrown CollegeofApplied Arts and

42 Forcoralrosariessee Rijks2015, on 66. 43 Folio1r(online:https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/folios/1r/f/1r/tl;accessed13June 2020)lists “Hermolaus Barbarus”among otherancient andcontemporary authors. Theaccompa- nyingbibliographical note in thedigital editionidentifiesthisasErmolao Barbaro(1454–1493), Venetian humanistrenownedfor hisedition of Pliny’s Natural History;see Barbaro1493; also Bar- baro andWildenberg1548. 44 Rijks2017; Bol2014probesthe meaningof“counterfeiting.” Hendriksen2019offersadifferent perspectiveofartificialcoral. 45 Rijks2019, on 321discusses theAntwerp silversmithHendrik Smitswho mayhavecounterfeited coralfor profit.See also Smith2015b.

Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 355 DonnaBilak

Figure 6: Flying into Iqaluit,January 2020.Photo:author.

Technology in Toronto, Ontario, of whichweare graduates.Ihadworkedprofes- sionally as awax model-makerand designer in Toronto’sjewellery industry,and I came to be ahistorian by handling awiderange of jewellery at auctions and throughestatejewellery dealers. Asking questionsabout theseartifacts opened up apaththatled me to graduateschool, andmyintellectualunderstanding of practice expandedsubstantially as an M&Kpostdoctoralscholar. When Beataand Ireconnected in 2015, Iwas into my secondyearonM&K, wheremyinner goldsmithhad beenreawakenedinworking with ColumbiaUni- versitystudentsontheir historical reconstructionsofentriesfromMs. Fr.640. Beataorganized ameet-and-greetinMay to getmeacclimatedwiththe Metal Arts programme,and Iwas to return in Januarytoleadatwo-week jewelleryhis- tory course.46 TheMay workshop involved sevenNAC students in thefinal year of theprogramme,and Iplanned an imitationcoral reconstruction forthe same reason that informed my decision five yearslater in Hamburg: do-ability with materialsand processinalimitedtimeframe.Moreover,the experience of making imitationcoral with theM&K team wasfresh in my mind,and Iwas interested to seehow theproject’s ideasabout reconstruction mightapply to an Arcticvoca- tional school—so, akindofM&K “userstory”thattested outthe transferability

46 “FrozenMuseum” is the2016NAC workshop that produced an open-accessonlineexhibitionof Inuit“cylinder seals,”which recast an ancientMesopotamianlithicformofcommunication into acontemporary carrieroflivingArcticstories,online:http://frozenmuseum.cngo.ca/ (accessed13 June 2020).

356 Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 Outofthe Ivyand into theArctic of theproject’s pedagogy by exportingimitation “coral”-making to theArctic.47 I wasalsocompelledbyadeeper, personal question.Would my work as ahistorian of earlymodernscience have anysocialrelevance in amarginalizedcommunity with differentkinds of educationalneeds andgoals?Inaskingmyselfthis, Iwas sensitivetothe fact that this is also asociety sufferingfromtraumacausedbygen- erations of governance by anotherculture (mine),and aplace whereindustrialex- tractionbyEuro-NorthAmericancompanies impact howthe Inuitare able to re- claimtheir culture, whichisrootedinlandstewardship.48 Ihad no idea what to expect. The material preparationfor the “coral”experiment wasreasonably straightfor- ward. Idecided to use thesame brands for the NACworkshop as were used in the M&Kreconstruction at Columbia University. That said, the artists supplier Kremer Pigmentswas sold outofvermilion when Iwent to their store in NewYork City stockup, so Ipurchased cinnabar as asuitable substitute (the two pigments are chemically related, but the latter is notasbrilliant ared as the former).49 The only thing Idid not pack werethe “bizarre branches”called for in folio3r, knowing that plantmatter would notclearinternational customs. Ifiguredwewould just use branches from up north. Idonot knowwheremyhead wasatbecause there are no trees in the Arctic, as Iwas reminded when flyinginand lookingdownatavast stretch of tundra from 30,000feet. Beata’s solutionturned outtobesimpleand ef- fective.Wewoulduse caribou antlerthat she had on hand in the studio. Iorganized theNAC workshop into twoparts basedonthe “tell, then show” premise—basically theoppositeformatofthe Hamburgworkshop. Themorning focusedonamedia-rich PowerPoint presentation of earlymodernimagesand objects. This wouldcontextualize thereconstructionbyshowing howthe imitation coralrecipefromMs. Fr.640 presents afascinating window into abygoneworld of collectingpractices andideas aboutnatural history.The afternoon wouldbe dedicatedto“coral”-making in thestudio. Ikicked offour morningsession with Étienne Delaune’s1576 printofthe goldsmith’sworkshoptoillustratesimilarities as wellasdifferences in shop organization andpractices,thenand now.50 Next,I showed differentcoral examples,suchasaseventeenth-century spoonfeaturing acoral branch forahandlefromthe V&Acollections,51 as well as Jamnitzer’s statuetteofDaphne, recounting thestory of hertransformation. Iwas just about to engage thestudents in aclose-lookingexerciseatthe detailsinthe printofFer-

47 User storiesare “short,simpledescriptionsofafeaturetoldfromthe perspectiveofthe person who desiresthe newcapability, usuallyauser or customer of thesystem. They typicallyfollowasimple template:Asa< type of user >,Iwant < some goal > so that < some reason >,” online: https://www.mountaingoatsoftware.com/agile/user-stories(accessed 13 June 2020). M&Kprelimi- nary planning forthe digitaledition brainstormed user storiesinbroadly imaginingadiverseread- ership andwhattheir needsmight be. 48 Heyes2007;Wachowich 2010. 49 Kremer Pigments 10620NaturalCinnabar, online:https://shop.kremerpigments.com/media/pdf/ 10620e.pdf (accessed13June2020).See also earlymodernvermilion-making in Smith2015b. 50 Online:https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/P_1951-1120-5 (accessed13June 2020). 51 Online:https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O294981/spoon-unknown/(accessed 13 June 2020).

Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 357 DonnaBilak

ranteImperato’s1599 museum,for historicalcontext on therelationshipbetween objectsand collectinginthe earlymodernstudy of thenatural world,52 when astudent raised hishandand asked: “What is coral?” Full stop.How could Ihave made thisassumption?Iwas mortified. When I pulledtogethermyPowerPoint presentation back in NewYork,ithad never oc- curred to me thatIshouldprefacemyintroduction to this Arcticimitation coral workshop with an explanation of thebiology of coraland marine ecosystems. Why did Iassume universal knowledge of this polyp?The next question wasmine (and the one Ishould have led with): “Who knows what coral is?” All but one of Beata’s students were from Arctic communities andhad never heardabout coral. This stony substance constitutedatotally newthingtoalmost theentire class. Thestudent’s coral question necessitated that Idropmyscript andgofreestyle withthe presentation. Iused the two Macdesktops in the classroomtostart pulling up interactivemaps, images of coralreefs,and YouTube videos of underwater scuba footage of coralintropical climates. As we explored this underwater world together, the NACstudents widened the discussion with accounts of their lived experience of Arctic land and water.Our conversation about meaning and materials greworgani- callyaswelet websitesand storytelling weave apath ofdiscovery.Acounterpoint conversation emerged with this onlineexploration of coral as students started shar- ing what it waslike to go hunting and fishing (thedeadptarmigan in the lunch- room fridge served as freshevidenceinthis discussion). Some studentsalsorelated theirobservationsabout howthe landischanging becauseofclimateconditions.53 These narratives in turn prompted my questions abouttraditional Inuitand modern ways of hunting. This led to more stories about life outdoorsintheir home communities, and explanations of howorganic material fromthe fish, birds, and animals they harvestfrom the land canbetransformed intoart.The frameofrefer- encethat the studentsprovided for me about the Arcticnatural world enabled me to better contextualize coral as both organic matter and historicalartifactfor them. This firstNAC encountermademeaware that Icannotexportresearchques- tionstothe Arctic. Theneeds of thestudents take priority in teaching,which are unknowable untilwemeetand startinteracting.Indeparting from my prepared talk andallowing the“What is coral?”questiontoreshape oursession,the imitation coralrecipefromthissixteenth-century French manuscript turned into akey that opened us up to one-another’sworlds. Ialsobelieve that theacknowledge- ment of my erroneousassumptionmadethe students more comfortable with me. This vulnerability, together with theuse of digitaltechnology, worked to create thesocialbonding that subsequently formed around ourimpromptu andlively discussion aboutbiodiversity, andabout materials andtechnologies in Inuitand Westernartisanal traditions.And then it wasnoon. Thereconstructionbegan afterour lunchbreak. Istarted offwitharead- throughofthe “coral”recipeinEnglish translation, expecting to provideconsider- able guidance in itsinterpretationasthe NACstudents were nottrained in the

52 Online:https://brbl-dl.library.yale.edu/vufind/Record/3433271(accessed 13 June 2020). 53 Four centuriesafter theauthorofMs. Fr.640 penned his“coral” entry,the Mediterraneancoral reefsaswellasreefs andatollsinother partsofthe biosphere areunder threat from anthropogenic environmentalstressors;see Ezzatetal. 2013.

358 Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 Outofthe Ivyand into theArctic humanities.Thisturnedout to be anotherassumptiononmypart. To my surprise, theNAC students readilyconceptualizedwhatthe recipe mightproduce, andwereunfazed by thetacit dimensionofthe recipe.Inthe studio,theyeasily self-organized into designated tasks—mulling thepigment with oil, meltingthe resin, combiningthe materials, anddipping theantler—all newtechniquesto them that they confidentlyhandled,adaptingtheir existing artisanalknow-howto the“coral”-makingprocess.54 Iwas basically superfluous. As the“coral”-makingactivityunfolded, Ithought aboutthe workshop dynam- icsbetweenthe M&KstudentsatColumbia andthe NACMetal Arts students. Theformerwas grounded in theory butnot necessarilyinpractice. Sense-based learning required dedicatedtimeinteachingthemhow to work with eachother as well as with tools andmaterials.Conversely, theNAC grouphad material knowledgebut were lackinginhumanitiestraining. They struggled less in coming to termswiththe recipe.Thisresponsemight stem from certainaspects of Inuitculture.Inuit artcharacteristically depictssomeformofinterface between humans andnatureinthe visualizationofwhole systems, expressedasscenesor- ganizedaroundthe depictionoffamilial, ecological,orcosmological happen- ings—aswellasthe fusion of thesedifferent elements.55 As well,inArcticcraft traditions thekindofnaturalia and artificialia embodied by theimitationcoral recipe areanaturalcourseofmakingart;Idiscussthismorebelow.The Inuit alsoteach throughstorytelling:“Forthe Inuit, wordsare tools that actuponthe world.”56 This traditionoforalhistory,which linkseachgenerationtothe next, meshes in interestingwayswiththe constructivist educationalapproachand its focusonsocialand emotionallearning.57 This perspectiveviews knowledgeasrel- ativeinastudent-centered learning experience,the premise beingthateverybody putthingstogetherdifferently.The NACstudent’s coralquestionmarkedthe turnaround moment when theArcticworkshopshifted from aone-way transmis- sion of informationfromteacher to student, to formingacommunityaround knowledgeexchanges.Perhaps this senseofcommunity made thestudentsmore receptivetolearningabout atextinwhich atreebranch, or caribouantler, could transforminto“coral.” It also amazed me that thetwo “coral”-making campaigns produced such different objects, even though therecipe, materials, andprocess wereessentially the same.The “coral” createdbythe M&Kteamwithquincebranchesconstitutes amoreaccuraterepresentation of thetextfromfolio 3r.The Arctic “coral” presents awonderful kind of cultural mashup,engenderedbyour unexpectedcross- cultural discussion around coralthatmorning,aswellasmaterially throughthe useofcaribou antler as opposedtotreebranches. Thecaribou coralembodies amaterialmeeting of earlymodern artificialia with Arctic naturalia (Figure7). In retrospect,the NACstudents’ intuitiveartisanal response to asixteenth-century French imitationcoral recipe should nothavebeenall that surprising.Trans-

54 Images online:https://dbilakpraxis.com/arctic-metalarts/(accessed 13 June 2020). 55 “Siilavut, Nunavut(OurEnvironment,Our Land)”, lithograph by Kenojuak Ashevak(1999), ar- chived online:http://www.spiritwrestler.com/catalog/index.php?products_id =7456 (accessed13 June 2020). 56 Wachowich2010. 57 Mensah 2015.See also Bennemaand Lehmann2019.

Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 359 DonnaBilak

Figure 7: Left:Arcticcaribou “coral”, 2015;cinnabar, walnutoil,resin, caribouantler. Right: M&K “coral,” 2014;vermilion,walnutoil,resin,quincebranches. Photos: author.

formations areculturally embeddedinInuit creation storiesand in shamanic practices,58 andthe Inuitare consummate artisans.59 Intergenerationaltransferof skilloften begins within thefamilyduringchildhood in workingwithstone, bone,and skin,and in visualizingthe transformation of thesematerials into new formswithnew applications (clothing,implements,ornaments). It is customary foranInuit artisantouse material from oneanimalinthe creative reimaginingof itsformintoanother,using physical characteristicsasaguideinartisticdecision- making.Thisinterplay between form andmaterialisexemplified in acarving that Johnny Angutikjuak, aNAC studentfromalaterjewellery historyworkshop (2018) showed me,inwhich he hadcarved theshape of adivingloon that he dis- cerned in thecurveofawalrus tusk.60 AnotherNAC student, PeterNowyook, hasaspecial affinity forwalrustuskand narwhaltusk(Figure 8),materials that he specifically employstocarve narratives “about howweuse theseal,”anaspectof Inuitculture with personal significance to this artisan. As Peterexplains:

Thereisaspecialboneinside thesealthatholds adeepmeaning forme, it is called kutina.Weusedtogoout huntingwithmyfamily, andevery time we hadameal outside,the cooked seal wasshared with everyone,but this pieceofsealmeatfrom this particular bone wasreserved forthe womentoeat.Thatiswhy Icarve women’s jewellerywhich Idesignasulukearringsand as earrings in theshape of this special seal bone.61

58 “Bearinshamanic transformation”sculpture by DavidRuben Piqtoukun(c.1991), steatite (soap- stone),bone, aluminum,and paint. On exhibitatFineArtsMuseums of SanFrancisco,online: https://art.famsf.org/david-ruben-piqtoukun/bear-shamanic-transformation-200721269(accessed 13 June 2020). 59 Images of Inuitpractitioners at “DorsetFineArts,”online: http://www.dorsetfinearts.com/stonecut (accessed13June2020). 60 Angutikjuak’s artist statementonline: https://arcticmetalarts.com/guiding-hands/ (accessed13June 2020). Foranother exampleofartisticmaterialtransfer, see“Standing Bear”carving by Barnabus Arnasungaaq (c.1972), muskoxhorn, stoneand graphite,inWalker’sAuctionscatalogue,“Inuit& FirstNations ArtAuction”(May18, Ottawa), lot40(p. 13 in PDF),online: http://www.walkersi- nuitart.com/assets/walker-s-inuit-art-spring-20i7-complete.pdf (accessed13June2020). 61 PeterNowyook,interview by DonnaBilak,Nunavut Arctic College, Iqaluit, Nunavut, January 2016.QuotedinNowyook’s exhibit“IvoryCarving,”The FrozenMuseum, online:http://frozenmuseum.cngo.ca/exhibits/show/peter/peters-seal.html(accessed 13 June 2020). “Ulu”translates from InuktituttoEnglish as “women’s knife,”and it is atraditional tool of Inuitwomen.

360 Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 Outofthe Ivyand into theArctic

Figure 8: PeterNowyook,walrustuskearrings, 2016.Left: This pair is carvedinthe shapeofthe ulu (“women’s” knife).Right:Thispairfollows theanatomy of theseal’s bone referenced in Nowyook’sin- terview,online: http://frozenmuseum.cngo.ca/exhibits/show/peter/peters-seal.html(accessed 13 June 2020). Photo: author.

My experienceswiththe students in theArctichaveled me to thinkdeeplyabout shared historiesand sharinghistories,and howthisrelates to making newknowl- edge.The NACstudentsmay notbetrained as humanities scholars,yet they par- ticipate in amorecapaciousunderstanding of humanism as it pertains to our presenttime.62 Artforms encode theirlived Arcticexperience, culturalheritage, andthe realityoflivingintwo worlds definedbyexposuretoEuro-NorthAmeri- canculture (industry, education, arts,socio-political systems).63 TheInuit are deeply concernedwithreclaimingtheir cultureand keeping it alive(theway we used to live is differentfromnow).64 Art-making amalgamateswiththe different kindsofknowledge—material, technological,cultural—that socio-historicalen- tanglement produces.Onmypart, IfeelthatwhatIhave beendoing thesepast severalyears as ateacher,researcher, andmaker is akindofhumanism in real- time,and Ihavecometobelieve that humanism is alivingpractice. However,humanism is notjustabout producingnew knowledge. It is fundamentally about learning how to know.

5. Outro Collectively, the“coral” reconstructionsrevealoverlapand singularity. On theone hand,all threeexperiences sharecertain commonalities. Each reconstruction

62 Broadlystated, humanismembracesthe worksand workings of aparticulartimeand placeinser- vice of therecovery of knowledge, andindevisingofnew methodstoadvance knowledgeabout the worldguidedbyobservation andexperimentalpractices.Collaboration andcommunity arehall- marks of earlymodernhumanistpractices.Modes of making andcommunicating knowledgewere predicated upon exchangesofideas andthings, andthrough encounters involving scholars,artisans, merchants, andindigenouspeoples.See Park andDaston2008; Norton 2017;Bauer andMarro- quínArredondo 2019. 63 Pitsiulaketal. 2018;Campbell2017. 64 Heyes2007,oniv.

Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 361 DonnaBilak

worked from thesametextand used similartypes of materials,equipment,and techniques. On the otherhand, the“coral” artifactsdifferwitheachiteration. This reflects thedifferent kindsofknowledgebrought into thereconstructionex- perience by theparticipants, andbyme, derivedfromthe kindsofskills,questions, andmemoriesthatcharacterized each group, andthatare unique to each workshop.Failure holdsanimportant placeinthe “coral” reconstructionsacata- lyst forcuriosity andcommunity building.65 Thepleasurethat“coral”-making givestoour intellectisalsorevealedtobepartofthe process. Does reconstruction have an epistemology of playfulness? Howcan we examine theculture of play in itsextension to thedomains of learning andresearch?Iwasespecially struck by thesoundscapeofwonderassociatedwith“coral”-makingthatconnected allthree workshopsaroundthe moment of material transformation.Itseems wonder dis- solves cultural andgeographical boundaries. Theafterlife of the“corals”raisesinteresting forward-thinking questionsabout experimental design andthe kindsofquestions we mightwanttoprobe with reconstruction.The M&K“corals”haveretainedabrilliantred colouroverthe years, buttheyare brittle, andthe resinous coatsofseveral objectsare crazed and flaking. With object decayinmind, Iadvised theHamburg participants to dis- play theirreconstructiontrophiesinasealed glassjar.66 Idonot know aboutthe stateofthe Arctic “coral.” Whatinsightsmight “coral” decaymonitored in acon- trolledsetting yield? This kind of analysis invitesalongue durØe approach to reconstruction andhighlightsthe necessityofacreatingalarger dataset. Thethree “coral” reconstructionshaveservedtoidentify certain material limitations. Infor- mation from theimitation coralrecipe’sparatextmapsout newkinds of recon- structioniterationsfor awider scopeofmaterialevaluation. Theleft-hand margin presents adetailedrecipefor colophony.Would “coral” createdfromresin tem- peredwithvinegar be easier to work with,orproduce amorestableobject?67 An opportunityexiststoexplore thepropertiesofanaturalsubstance in away that probesthe preoccupationwithmaterial“virtues” held by earlymodernnatural philosophers andother contemporary practitioners interested in theindustrial, medical, or artisanalapplicationsoforganic matter. Afinal thoughtabout assumptionsofpermanence. It is surreal to me that I composed this essayinanewreality catalyzedbyCOVID-19barelyamonth afterthe Hamburgworkshop. Ourrelationshipwithphysicaland digitalrealms in howweinteractand communicatesuddenlyand dramatically changedwithco- ronavirusrestrictions. YetevenasIjoinedmuchofthe worldinthe hard pivotto remote instructionand socialdistancingduringthe spring of 2020, Iwas amazed by reportageaboutthe sheerscale of hands-on culinary experimentation taking

65 SeeFirestein 2016 forathoroughdefinitionand explorationofthe utilityoffailure in science. 66 Vermilionisacompound of mercuric sulphide andM&K consultedwithbothColumbiaHealth andSafetyaswellaschemistsaffiliatedwiththe ScienceHistory Instituteabout thepossible dangers of workingwiththispigment andhandlingitas“coral.”Itisinadvisabletouse this Ms.Fr. 640 recipe to create objectsfor handling,suchasjewellery forexample,because of thedangers associated with prolongedskincontact with vermilion. 67 SeeAppendix.

362 Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 Outofthe Ivyand into theArctic placeindomestickitchensacrossNew York City whereIlive,throughoutNorth America, andbeyond.Shortages of staplesinmanysupermarketsnecessitatedcre- ativereimagining of bread-making andstews,while theInternetopenedup aworld of recipestotry out. This recourse to material experimentation with digi- talguidanceonasweeping social scaleprovidesanunexpectedcasestudy on co- existencyand naming that as ahybridexperienceaswerethinkhow to teachand research when physical access to people,classrooms, labs,and archives is limited anduncertain.Whatnew directions mightexperientiallearningtakegoing forward?Ifreconstructionmethodology is like thescholar’s SwissArmyknife,how mightavirtualdimension extend ourpractice?

Appendix:DiplomaticFrenchtranslation of body text in folio3r, “Imita- tion Coral” in Ms.Fr. 640, andparatext.68 Diplomatic French transcription Il faultpremierementfaire lesbranchesdeboysouprendre unebranche despine bisarrepuysfondreune lb de poix resine claire de la plus belle et ymectreune once de vermeillon broyesubtillem{ent} avecqhuile de noix Et si tu yadjoustes un peudelaque platte de veniselacouleur en sera plus vive et remuer le tout dans la resine fondue surfoeudecharbon et nondeflammedepeurque le feune sy prenne Aprestrempeentournoya{n}t tesbranchesdedans&silyrestoitquel- quefilamenttournelabranche surlachaleur du charbon

Paratext Left-hand margin Colophony is nothingother than recooked resin. To do it well, take aleadedpot &meltthe resin, &boilitover thebrazier agood hour,&untilitappears notto be thick, butclear &liquidlikewater,&easilyruns&flows from thetip of astick with whichyou grindit, &testit. Then pour it throughacoarse canvasor averylight tammycloth,suchthatwhenpouring it falls into thestrongest vinegar that youcan find,for thevinegar givesitstrength&prevents it from beingso fragile. Reiteratethistwo or threetimes &itwillbebeautiful &wellpurified. Forcounterfeitingyourcoral,you can mixaquarter part of mastic into your puri- fied resintorenderitmorefirmand more beautiful,&if you weretotake asingletearofmastic, it wouldbeall thebetter, butitwould be toolong. Sulfur&vermilion makes thesameeffect.

Center margin Thecoral made of gulesred enamelendures thefileand polishing.

68 Online:https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/folios/3r/f/3r/tl (accessed 13 June 2020).

Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 363 DonnaBilak

Right-hand margin It is made like cement that is stronger mixedwithpestled than of glassrather than with brick. Thus,hereone mixeswellpestled gulesred enamel,which is red in body,withthe vermilion. Thus with allcolorsofenamels.

References

Agricola,Georg,“De natura fossilium, liberIV, ”inDe re metallicalibri XII […](Basil: Emanuel Koenig 1657), 594–603, online:https://doi.org/10.3931/e-rara-15392(accessed 13 June 2020). Albala,Ken,“CookingasResearchMethodology:Experiments in RenaissanceCuisine,” in Renais- sanceFoodfromRabelaistoShakespeare:Culinary Readings andCulinaryHistories,ed. Joan Fitz- patrick(London:Taylorand Francis, 2016), 73 –88. Amico, LeonardN., BernardPalissy:InSearchofEarthly Paradise (Paris andNew York:Flammarion, 1996). Baiocchi,Gianpaolo,Diana Graizbord,and MichaelRodríguez-MuÇiz,“Actor-NetworkTheoryand theEthnographicImagination:AnExerciseinTranslation,” QualitativeSociology 36,no. 4(2013): 323–341. Barbaro, Ermolao, CastigationesPlinianae et Pomponii Melae (Rome: EuchariusSilber, 1493). Barbaro, Hermolao Iunior,and Hieronymus Wildenberg, Naturalis scientiaetotiuscompendium,exAr- istotele,&alliis philosophis (Basel:Oporinus, 1548). Bauer, Ralph, andJaime MarroquínArredondo, “Introduction: An AgeofTranslation,” in Translating Nature:Cross-CulturalHistories of EarlyModernScience,ed. RalphBauer andJaime MarroquínAr- redondo(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2019),1–23. Bennema, Frederiek, andAnn-SophieLehmann,“Teaching by Heart: Care,Education, andArt,” in To Mind Is to Care,ed. Joke Brouwerand Sjoerd vanTuinen(Rotterdam:V2Publishing, 2019), 190–211. Berwick,Rachel, Denise Markonish, andJocelynePrince, Wonder:50Years RISD Glass (Providence: RhodeIslandSchoolofDesignand RISD Shortruns, 2017). Bilak, Donna, “Pedagogyinthe Making andKnowing Project,”inMakingand KnowingProject et al.2020, online:[forthcoming]. Bol, Marjolijn, “ColoringTopaz,Crystaland Moonstone: Gems andthe ImitationofArt and Nature,300 –1500,” in Fakes!?: Hoaxes,Counterfeitsand DeceptioninEarly Modern Science,ed. MarcoBeretta andMaria Conforti(Sagamore Beach, Mass.: ScienceHistory Publications,2014), 108–129. Caley, EarleR., andJohnF.Richards(eds.), TheophrastusonStones (Columbus: Ohio StateUniversity, 1956). Campbell,Nancy, AnniePootoogook: CuttingIce (Fredericton,NB: GooseLaneEditions; Kleinburg, ON:McMichael Canadian ArtCollection, 2017). Chang, Hasok, “How Historical ExperimentsCan ImproveScientific Knowledgeand ScienceEduca- tion:The CasesofBoiling Waterand Electrochemistry,” Science&Education 20 (2011): 317–341. Chessa, MariaAlessandra,“Imitation Coral_3r (2014FallAnnotation),”inMakingand Knowing Projectetal. 2020,online: http://makingandknowing-prototype.cul.columbia.edu/index.html%3Fp=1481.html(accessed 13 June 2020). Cole, Michael, “Cellini’s Blood,” TheArt Bulletin 81,no. 2(1999): 215–235. Daston,Lorraine, “Introduction: Speechless,” in Things That Ta lk:Object Lessons from Artand Science, ed.LorraineDaston(NewYork: Zone Books, 2004), 9–24. Daston,Lorraine, andKatharinePark, Wondersand theOrder of Nature,1150 –1750 (New York: Zone Books, 1998). Ezzat, Leila, Pierre-Laurent Merle, PaolaFurla,Alexandre Buttler, andChristine Ferrier-Pages, “The Response of theMediterranean Gorgonian Eunicellasingularis to ThermalStressIsIndependent of ItsNutritional Regime,” PLoS ONE 8, no.5(2013),online: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/arti- cle?id =10.1371/journal.pone.0064370 (accessed 13 June 2020).

364 Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 Outofthe Ivyand into theArctic

Febvre,Lucien, “Sensibility andHistory:How to Reconstitutethe EmotionalLifeofthe Past,” in A NewKindofHistory:Fromthe Writings of Febvre,ed. PeterBurke (London: Routledgeand Kegan Paul,1973), 12 –26. Findlen, Paula, PossessingNature: Museums, Collecting,and Scientific CultureinEarly Modern Italy (Berkeleyand LosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1994). Firestein, Stuart, Failure: WhyScience Is So Successful (New York:OxfordUniversityPress,2016). Fors,Hjalmar, Lawrence M. Principe,and H. Otto Sibum, “Fromthe Librarytothe Laboratory and Back Again:Experiment as aToolfor theHistory of Science,” Ambix 63 (2016):85–97. Gesner,Conrad, “DeCoralis,” in De omni rerum fossiliumgenere, gemmis,lapidibus,metallis […] (Zurich: JacobGesner, 1565), 983–990. Gibson,Susannah, Animal,Vegetable,Mineral?How Eighteenth-Century ScienceDisrupted theNatural Order (Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 2015). Hagendijk, Thijs, “LearningaCraftfromBooks:HistoricalRe-EnactmentofFunctionalReading in Gold-and Silversmithing,” Nuncius 33 (2018):198–123. Hendriksen,Marieke M. A.,“CastingLife, CastingDeath:Connections betweenEarly Modern Ana- tomicalCorrosive Preparations andArtisticMaterials andTechniques,” Notesand Records: The RoyalSociety Journalofthe History of Science 73 (2019):369–398. Heyes, Scott, “Inuit Knowledgeand Perceptionsofthe Land-Water Interface” (PhD thesis,McGill University,Montreal,2007),online: http://hdl.handle.net/11343/39421(accessed 13 June 2020). Impey, Oliver,and Arthur MacGregor(eds.), OriginsofMuseums:The CabinetofCuriosities in Six- teenth-and Seventeenth-CenturyEurope (Oxford: ClarendonPress,1985). Ingold,Tim, Making:Anthropology, Archaeology, Artand Architecture (Londonand NewYork: Rout- ledge, 2013). Kremnitzer,Kathryn,SiddharthaV.Shah, andWenruiZhao, “ThreeRecipes forHistoricalRecon- struction,” Common Knowledge 24,no. 3(2018): 389–396. Lander Johnson, Bonnie,and EleanorDecamp(eds.), BloodMatters:Studies in European Literature andThought,1400–1700 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018). Latour,Bruno, Reassembling theSocial: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory (Oxfordand New York:OxfordUniversityPress,2005). Lehmann, Ann-Sophie,“An Alphabet of Colors:Valcooch’s Rules andthe EmergenceofSense-Based Learningaround 1600,” in LessonsinArt:Art,Education,and ModesofInstruction Since1500/ Lessen in kunst: kunst, onderwijsenvormenvan instructie sinds1500,ed. Eric Jorink,Ann-Sophie Lehmann, andBartRamakers (Leidenand Boston:Brill 2019), 168–203. Leong,ElaineYuenTien, Recipesand Everyday Knowledge: Medicine,Science,and theHousehold in EarlyModernEngland (Chicago;London: University of ChicagoPress,2018). Maier,Michael, Atalanta Fugiens (Oppenheim:Johann-TheodordeBry,1618),online: https://digi- tal.sciencehistory.org/works/pc289j53n/viewer/zg64tm73g (13June2020). Making andKnowing Project, Pamela H. Smith, NaomiRosenkranz, Tianna Helena Uchacz, Till- mann Taape, ClØment Godbarge,SophiePitman, JennyBoulboullØ,JoelKlein,Donna Bilak, Marc Smith, andTerry Catapano (eds.), SecretsofCraft andNatureinRenaissance France:ADigital Critical Editionand EnglishTranslation of BnFMs. Fr.640 (New York:Makingand KnowingProj- ect, 2020), online:https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/ (accessed13June2020). Matt,Susan J.,“Recovering theInvisible:Methods forthe Historical Studyofthe Emotions,” in DoingEmotionsHistory,ed. Susan J. Matt andPeter N. Stearns(Urbana:UniversityofIllinois Press, 2013), 41 –53. Matthioli, PetroAndrea, “Corallium,” in Operaquaeextant omnia: hocest,commentarii in VI.libros PedaciiDioscoridis AnazarbeideMedica materia (Frankfurt:NicolausBassaeus, 1598), 955–956, online:https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/30625(accessed 13 June 2020). Mensah,Emmanuel, “Exploring Constructivist Perspectives in theCollege Classroom,” SAGE Open 5, no.3(July–Sept.2015),online: https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015596208 (accessed13 June 2020). Norton,Marcy,“SubalternTechnologiesand EarlyModernity in theAtlanticWorld,” Colonial Latin American Review 26,no. 1(2017): 18–38. Nummedal,Tara, AnnaZieglerin andthe Lion’sBlood:Alchemy andEnd TimesinReformation Germany (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019). Nummedal,Tara, andDonna Bilak(eds.), Furnaceand Fugue: ADigital EditionofMichael Maier’s Atalanta fugiens (1618) with ScholarlyCommentary (Charlottesville:UniversityofVirginia Press,

Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366 365 DonnaBilak

2020), online:https://www.upress.virginia.edu/content/furnace-and-fugue (accessed22July 2020). OceanaReport, “TheCoralsoftheMediterranean”(August 2007), online:https://oceana.org/reports/corals-mediterranean-0 (accessed13June2020). Ottaviani,Alessandro, “The CoralofDeath: Kunst- undWunderkammern betweenTemporality and Allegory,” Nuncius 30 (2015):281 –319. Park,Katharine, andLorraine Daston,“Introduction:The Ageofthe New,”inEarlyModernScience, CambridgeHistory of Science,vol.3,ed. DavidC.Lindbergand Ronald L. Numbers(Cam- bridge:Cambridge University Press, 2006;onlinepublished in 2008),1–18, online:https:// doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521572446(accessed 13 June 2020). Pitsiulak,Tim,Laakkuluk Williamson Bathory,Koomuatuk Curely, Taqralik Partdirge, JocelynPiirai- nen, Anna Hudson,Georgiana Uhlyarik,and Kenojuak Ashevak, Tunirrusiangit:KenojuakAshevak andTim Pitsiulak [= catalogueofthe exhibition of thesamename held at Art Gallery of Ontario June 16–August12, 2018](Toronto,ON: ArtGallery of Ontario; Fredericton, NB:Goose Lane Editions,2018). Plinythe Elder, TheNaturalHistory,ed. andtrans.JohnBostock andHenryT.Riley (London: Taylor andFrancis,1855),online: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plin.+Nat. +toc(accessed 13 June 2020). Polanyi, Michael, Personal Knowledge: TowardsaPost-CriticalPhilosophy (Chicago:UniversityofChi- cago Press, 1958). Principe, Lawrence M.,“Chymical Exoticainthe SeventeenthCentury, or,How to Make theBologna Stone,” Ambix 63,no. 2(2016): 118–144. Rankin,Alisha, Panaceia’s Daughters: Noblewomen as HealersinEarly Modern Germany (Chicago:Uni- versityofChicago Press, 2013). Rijks, Marlise, “Defenders of theImage:Painted Collectors’Cabinetsand theDisplay of Displayin Counter-ReformationAntwerp,” Nederlands KunsthistorischJaarboek 65 (2015):54–83. Rijks, Marlise, “Unusual Excrescences of Nature:Collected Coraland theStudy of PetrifiedLuxury in EarlyModernAntwerp,” DutchCrossing 41 (2017):1–29. Rijks, Marlise, “Gems andCounterfeited Gems in EarlyModernAntwerp:FromWorkshops to Col- lections,” in Gems in theEarly Modern World: Materials, Knowledgeand Global Trade, 1450–1800, ed.Michael Bycroft andSvenDuprØ (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019). Schmitt, CharlesB., “Theophrastus in theMiddleAges,” Viator 2(1971):251 –270. Smith, Pamela H.,“KnowledgeinMotion: FollowingItineraries of Matter in theEarly Modern World,”inCultures in Motion,ed. DanielRogers, BhavaniRaman,and Helmut Reimitz (Prince- ton: PrincetonUniversityPress,2014),109–133. Smith, Pamela H.,“ItinerariesofMaterialsand Knowledgeinthe EarlyModernWorld,” TheGlobal Lives of Things:The Material CultureofConnections in theEarly Modern World,ed. Anne Gerritsen andGiorgio Riello (Florence: Taylor &Francis Group, 2015a),31–61. Smith, Pamela H.,“TheMatterofIdeas in theWorking of Metals in EarlyModernEurope,”inThe Matter of Art: Materials, Practices, Cultural Logics, c.1250–1750,ed. ChristyAnderson, Anne Dunlop,and Pamela H. Smith(Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,2015b), 42–67. Smith, Pamela H.,“An Introduction to BnFMs. Fr.640 andits Author-Practitioner,” in Makingand KnowingProject et al.2020, online:https://edition640.makingandknowing.org/#/essays/ann_ 300_ie_19(accessed 13 June 2020). Smith, Pamela H.,Amy R. W. Meyers,and Harold J. Cook (eds.), Ways of Making andKnowing: The Material CultureofEmpirical Knowledge (Ann ArborMichigan: TheUniversity of Michigan Press, 2014). Smith, Pamela H.,and Making andKnowing Project, “Historiansinthe Laboratory:Reconstruction of RenaissanceArt andTechnologyinthe Making andKnowing Project,” ArtHistory 39 (2016): 210–233. Staubermann, Klaus(ed.), Reconstructions: Recreating Scienceand Te chnology of thePast (Edinburgh: NMSEnterprises,2011). Wachowich, Nancy, “TechnologiescrØatives: expØrimentationetpratiques socialesdansles sociØtØs arctiques/Creativetechnologies: Experimentationand Social Practice in Arctic Societies,” Études Inuit Studies 34,no. 2(2010): 5–19,online: https://doi.org/10.7202/1003777ar (accessed 13 June 2020).

366 Ber. Wissenschaftsgesch. 43 (2020):341 –366