Logging for the Ark Improving the Conservation Value of Production Forests in South East Asia

Center for International Forestry Research

CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Logging for the ark Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia

Disclaimer The views expressed in this document can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of IFAD, the European Union and SIDA.

Donors CIFOR receives its major funding from governments, international organizations, private foundations and regional organizations. In 2006, CIFOR received financial support from Australia, Asian Development Bank (ADB), African Wildlife Foundation, Belgium, Canada, Carrefour, China, Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement (CIRAD), Convention on Biological Diversity, Cordaid, Conservation International Foundation (CIF), European Commission, Finland, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Ford Foundation, France, German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), German Foundation for International Cooperation, Global Forest Watch, Indonesia, Innovative Resource Management (IRM), International Institute for Environment and Development, International Development Research Centre (IDRC), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO), Israel, Italy, the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Japan, Korea, MacArthur Foundation, Netherlands, Norway, Netherlands Development Organization, Overseas Development Institute (ODI), Peruvian Secretariat for International Cooperation (RSCI), Philippines, Spain, Sweden, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Switzerland, The Overbrook Foundation, The Tinker Foundation Incorporated, The Nature Conservancy (TNC), Tropical Forest Foundation, Tropenbos International, United States, United Kingdom, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF), Wageningen International, World Bank, World Resources Institute (WRI) and World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).

Gustafsson, L. et al. Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia/ by Lena Gustafsson, Robert Nasi, Rona Dennis, Nguyen Hoang Nghia, Douglas Sheil, Erik Meijaard, Dennis Dykstra, Hari Priyadi and Pham Quang Thu. Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), 2007.

ISSN 0854-9818 ISBN: 978-979-1412-19-3 74p. (CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48)

CABI thesaurus: 1. tropical forests 2. secondary forests 3. biodiversity conservation 4. logging 5. forest management 6. code of practice 7. certification 8. guidelines 8. South EastAsia 9. Indonesia 10. Vietnam I. title

Cover photos by Ed Pollard, Benjamin Lee, Rosemary Low, WCS Cambodia, Brian Belcher, Reidar Persson, Manuel Boissière, Hari Priyadi, Douglas Sheil, Christian Cossalter, John Turnbull

Published by Center for International Forestry Research Mailing address: P.O. Box 6596 JKPWB, Jakarta 10065, Indonesia Office address: Jl. CIFOR, Situ Gede, Sindang Barang, Bogor Barat 16680, Indonesia Tel.: +62 (251) 622622; Fax: +62 (251) 622100 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.cifor.cgiar.org Logging for the ark Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia

Lena Gustafsson1 | Robert Nasi2 | Rona Dennis3

Nguyen Hoang Nghia4 | Douglas Sheil5 | Erik Meijaard6

Dennis Dykstra7 | Hari Priyadi5 | Pham Quang Thu4

1 Swedish University of Agricultural Science (SLU), Uppsala, Sweden 2 Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia, and Centre de Coopération Internationale pour la Recherche Agronomique en Développement (CIRAD), Montpellier, France 3 Affiliated to the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia 4 Forest Science Institute of Vietnam, Hanoi, Vietnam 5 Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia 6 The Nature Conservancy (TNC), East Kalimantan Programme, Samarinda, Indonesia 7 USDA Forest Service, PNW Research Station, Portland, Oregon, USA ii

Contents

Abstract vi Introduction 1 Purpose and context 1 Background 1 The management recommendations made in Life after Logging 2 From Life after Logging to the present document 2 The final list… 3 Forests in focus 3 Forestry systems and users of the recommendations 3 A brief history of logging in the tropics 4 Why do biodiversity considerations matter when logging tropical forests? 5

Instruments for Sustainable Forest Management 6 Codes of Practice 7 Criteria and Indicators 8 Reduced Impact Logging 10 Certification 11 Forest Stewardship Council 11 Indonesian Ecolabelling Institute 12 Malaysian Timber Certification Council 13 Forest Certification and Biodiversity 13

Actual logging practices in humid rainforests of Indonesia and Vietnam 13 Indonesia 13 Vietnam 15

Recommendations for forest managers, with special emphasis on Indonesia and Vietnam 17 Minimising direct threats and logging damage 18 Before granting logging rights 18 Inventory, survey and planning prior to logging 18 Maintaining connectivity 20 Maintaining habitat complexity and diversity 21 Keeping keystone resources 22 Minimising damage linked to infrastructure 22 Minimising stand damage during logging and related operations 24 Post-logging operations 25 iii

Minimising indirect impacts and threats 27 Hunting and extraction 27 Fire 28 Exotic and invasive species 29 Domestic animals 29 Traffic 30 Pollution 30 Logging and conservation for local people 30 Implementation and vigilance 31 Monitoring 31 Awareness and training 32

References 32 Appendix 1: Some conservation biology concepts and theories relevant to South East Asian rainforest 38 Forests, flora and fauna 38 Biodiversity hotspots 38 The importance of production forests to biodiversity 38 Protected areas versus production forests 38 Unprotected forests – the matrix 39 Four different roles for the matrix 39 Critical factors for the preservation of biodiversity 40 Environmental conditions 40 Landscape properties 41 Fragmentation and the importance of habitat size 42 References 43 Appendix 2: National guidelines for sustainable forest management and biodiversity considerations in South East Asia 44 Introduction 44 Brunei Darussalam 48 Cambodia 50 Indonesia 56 Lao People’s Democratic Republic 58 Malaysia 60 Myanmar 63 The Philippines 65 Singapore 67 Thailand 68 Timor-Leste 69 Vietnam 71 References 73 iv

Abstract

In order to maintain the high levels of biodiversity and the ecological functions of tropical forest landscapes in South East Asia, production forests need to be managed in a more sustainable way. Numerous initiatives already exist in the form of codes of practice, criteria and indicators, and certification schemes in the countries of South East Asia, but to date such guidelines and standards have been vague and have lacked quantitative targets. Reduced- impact logging (RIL) is a concept related to techniques and practices that aim to achieve environmentally sound timber harvesting; the concept has gained broad acceptance in the tropics. As yet, however, RIL guidelines have focused mainly on environmental aspects such as soil and water, and have taken the flora and fauna into account to a minor degree only. In this report, detailed recommendations are made to help forest managers take account of biodiversity conservation in dipterocarp logged-over and primary natural forests where mechanised logging is practised. The recommendations are based on those made in the CIFOR publication Life after Logging, further developed through three workshops held under a joint project between the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, CIFOR and the Forest Science Institute of Vietnam. The recommendations are linked to the different phases of the forestry cycle: i.e. planning (inventories of sensitive species and habitats, delimitation of set-aside areas and riparian buffers), infrastructure (logging camps, roads, bridges, skid-trails, landings), logging (retention of critical structures, micro-habitats, key resources, felling techniques, harvesting intensity, site-adaption), post-logging (understorey slashing, rehabilitation of log-landings and stream crossings, re-forestation), and monitoring (biodiversity inventories). Issues related to hunting, fire, invasive species, domestic animals, traffic, and logging and conservation for local people are also covered. Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia

Introduction

Purpose and context of biodiversity and fulfil important ecological The recommendations made in this report functions both locally and globally. At present, aim to improve the conditions for biodiversity however, large-scale implementation of conservation in the selectively logged sustainable forest management (SFM) is not production forests of South East Asia, a region general practice. Deforestation rates are still which is one of the most important hot spots for high in many South East Asian countries. Illegal global flora and fauna and which is at the same logging and habitat destruction continue to time suffering from a very strong demand for be a cause for concern, despite logging bans timber. Selective logging is common practice in a number of countries. However, some in the natural forests of South East Asia. Under countries have made progress, and in the past this system only a small proportion of the 20 years there has been a marked increase in trees in a production forest are harvested, at the number of instruments and tools designed more or less regular intervals, usually 20–40 to enable, lead to and achieve SFM. The initial years. Secondary managed forests, i.e. those impetus was provided by the Rio Earth Summit that have been harvested at least once, are in 1992, which highlighted many problems in ecologically important components of current the forestry sector, particularly in the tropics forest landscapes, and most will probably where poor logging practices were leading to become even more significant in the future in rapid deforestation and loss of biodiversity. view of the anticipated increased demand for wood products. In South East Asia, instruments and tools for SFM are increasingly being used, both at the The report highlights the situation in Indonesia government level, as part of new forestry and Vietnam, mostly because of the long legislation, and at the forest management unit history of research activities in Indonesia and (FMU) level. Most of the tools and guidelines, the funding opportunities in both countries, such as Criteria and Indicators (C&I), Codes and, not least, because different types of of Practice (CoPs) and reduced-impact logging forest management models and forest policy (RIL), focus on improving silvicultural and systems are found there, representative also operational aspects of forestry management, of other countries in the region. Plantations, such as concession planning, directional i.e. fast-growing and intensively tended felling, road design and waste management, forests of usually exotic species, are not but in terms of biodiversity only the primary discussed in this report, although many of the effects of logging are addressed. Other tools, components and approaches suggested could such as the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) also be transferred to such forests. certification scheme, also address the primary impacts of logging on biodiversity, but their The recommendations are based on the concern for High Conservation Values (HCVs) assumption that quite small adjustments to gives them additional value. However, day-to-day forestry activities will substantially although good in intention, few of these tools benefit the flora and fauna of production and guidelines address biological issues to the forests. They are intended for the use of those extent that is required to provide replicable who work with selective forestry on the ground, guidance or steps on how to survey, monitor regardless of whether they are involved in and retain species diversity in production planning, logging and maintenance, or follow- forestry areas and the wider forested up activities. It is hoped that the practices landscape (Meijaard et al. 2005; Meijaard and suggested will eventually be used as a matter Sheil 2007a). of course and integrated into manuals and guidelines for the management of South East In Indonesia, scientists from the Center for Asia’s forests. International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and other research institutions in Borneo have Background published Life after Logging (Meijaard et al. The need for sustainable forest management is 2005). This book synthesizes a vast amount of clearly recognized throughout South East Asia research in the area of wildlife and logging and as its tropical rainforests contain high levels provides a guide to biodiversity considerations CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

in logging concessions, including species- as the availability of tree hollows or breeding specific guidelines. An Indonesian-language habitats for amphibians, were analysed. version of the book has recently been published, Knowledge of these requirements, combined and this makes its recommendations available with an assessment of their relative importance to a much wider audience of practitioners for different species groups, made it possible (Meijaard et al. 2006a). to give specific management recommendations for the protection of these forest features. The management recommendations made in Life after Logging The final list of recommendations has three Various activities led to the recommendations principal origins: established elements of that were finally published in Life after good practice drawn from the literature, Logging. The emphasis was on forest recommendations derived from the review management practice and the potential of wildlife sensitivities and a number of more to make it more compatible with wildlife speculative suggestions (e.g. on traffic) where (i.e. vertebrate) conservation. The reason there is a gap in the available literature. In for this is that plant conservation concepts some cases the recommendations draw on remain poorly developed in this region, and other aspects of our own research – several most conservation agencies, as well as most are derived from work with local people in conservation research programmes, have been Malinau, e.g. the recommendation to prevent wildlife oriented. unnecessary understorey slashing. In some cases our own judgement was used to choose Initially, as part of a collaboration between the between contradictory recommendations CIFOR and the Wildlife Conservation Society (e.g. ‘roads should go around large trees’ was – Indonesia Program (WCS-Indonesia), existing considered to be less important than the idea data sets on the effects of logging on Bornean that ‘roads should be as short as possible’). wildlife, especially those species that have been identified in the Malinau District of East Guidelines often require some kind of stated Kalimantan, were gathered and evaluated. limits, especially within the framework of certification standards. Setting these limits All available literature (published and reflects a compromise. Why fell only trees unpublished) on the relevant Bornean species over 60 cm diameter (rather than perhaps 65 was sought out and reviewed. Published and cm or 55 cm)? Or limit felling only on streams unpublished material was also sought through wider than 1 m, or on slopes of more than 50%? broad consultation with local and international Many of the specific criteria proposed derive experts. Opinions were also sought from these from the authors’ judgement in consultation experts on why species were or were not with those who work in forest management. sensitive to different types of interventions. The analysis included 280 publications and From Life after Logging to reports based on studies carried out in Borneo the present document and a similar number of publications based on Parallel to the work on the Life after Logging research carried out elsewhere in South East publication, another project involving the Asia, but with relevance to Bornean wildlife. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Wider global literature was also considered (SLU), CIFOR and the Forest Science Institute when it appeared relevant. of Vietnam (FSIV), financed by the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), Hunting, forest fragmentation and many was being undertaken. The purpose of this other factors that are sometimes neglected project was to develop biodiversity-oriented as logging impacts were specifically taken into guidelines for tropical forestry in South East consideration. Based on this information, an Asia, focusing on Indonesia and Vietnam. overview of the sensitivity of Bornean wildlife to logging was obtained, providing a basis for Because of the very large amount of work interpreting the general ecological effects already undertaken on Life after Logging, and of selective logging on wildlife populations. Indonesia’s being relatively advanced in the This knowledge was translated into practical field of logging codes, RIL and certification, as recommendations for forestry management. In well as the scarcity of relevant information for addition, species-specific requirements, such Vietnam in the literature, it was decided that Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia

the project should continue through a series of recommendations may be costly, but many are workshops, building on the Life after Logging not. A brief outline of the ideas and arguments recommendations and drawing on expert behind each guideline is provided and we judgement from Indonesian and Vietnamese encourage each of the recommendations to be researchers and forest practitioners. challenged or improved upon in circumstances in which they are inappropriate or when Three workshops were held, the first in March ideas and understanding change. More review 2003 in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. At this and data gathering will always be needed, workshop, biodiversity scientists and forest regulations can always be improved or practitioners from Vietnam, Indonesia, CIFOR adapted, and the details of any change could and SLU discussed factors of importance to be argued ad nauseam, but what is bad for biodiversity in tropical forests, e.g. habitats, wildlife and what can and should be done structures, stand and landscape factors. At about it is already known. the second workshop, held in February 2004 at CIFOR headquarters in Bogor, Indonesia, Some recommendations that were considered attended by some of the biodiversity scientists not useful or totally impractical have been from the first workshop and Indonesian forest dropped. This remains a point of discomfort practitioners, this knowledge was translated for us, as what might appear unwieldy and into an example of practical guidelines for impractical in some cases can turn out to more biodiversity-friendly tropical forestry. be easier and more useful than anticipated. At the third workshop, held in January For example, the proposition that concession 2006 in Hanoi, Vietnam, a subset of the holders should prepare and improve nesting recommendations drafted after the Bogor holes to benefit hornbills may sound far workshop was discussed by representatives of fetched, but a recent report from Thailand government organisations, forest enterprises, shows that it can be done, and that it does NGOs and scientific institutions. benefit hornbills (Poonswad et al. 2004).

A compilation and analysis of current Forests in focus biodiversity guidelines for sustainable forest The recommendations are directed towards management in South East Asia was also natural forests and the focus is on logged-over carried out, as part of the SIDA project, (Dennis and primary forests with mechanised logging et al. 2007); this shows how many of the as the main forest operation method. Hill recommendations presented in this document dipterocarp forests (Indonesia) and evergreen are relevant outside Indonesia or Vietnam. moist forests (Vietnam) are the main target forest types. However, many of the proposed The recommendations and guidelines – the measures are general and applicable to a wider core of the present paper – are the results range of forest types. of both projects: the CIFOR publication Life after Logging (Meijaard et al. 2005) and the Forestry systems and users of SIDA-financed project. The recommendations the recommendations build on those presented in Life after Logging Logging intensities and forestry practices vary but are further developed and examples are greatly among South East Asian countries, given for Indonesia and Vietnam. Nevertheless, from very large concessions in Indonesia and we consider these recommendations valid Malaysia with large-scale harvest operations for a large part of South East Asia. Some and a high degree of mechanisation to recommendations were dropped because small forest holdings with low-intensity they were considered not useful or practical use and usually considerably less advanced by most of the practitioners consulted. Other technologies in, for example, Vietnam, recommendations were added because they Myanmar and Cambodia. The area of primary are linked to major forest management forests has been decreasing rapidly for many certification schemes. years, leaving behind areas with secondary forests in different stages of regeneration and The final list… with different degrees of tree cover. In all, In some senses the list of recommendations is there are hundreds of millions of hectares in a ‘wish list’, but it is a pragmatic list, based the region covered by forests that are being on validation by forest practitioners. Some or that in the future will be harvested using CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

mechanised logging operations. These forest industrial logging operations were leaving landscapes are invaluable to the rich and forests in a seriously degraded condition unique biodiversity in this part of the world. (e.g. Dawkins 1958; Nicholson 1958; Redhead The significance of the flora and fauna would 1960; Wyatt-Smith and Foenander 1962; Fox be enhanced if forestry were more carefully 1968). Some authors, most notably Dawkins planned, prepared and carried out. Thus, the (1958), went so far as to suggest that selective ultimate goal of the recommendations is to harvesting of moist tropical forest might contribute to future forest landscapes with be incompatible with the goal of sustained- high species richness and viable populations yield management because of the excessive of plants and animals, and at the same time damage to residual vegetation that resulted provide for efficient and sustainable timber from mechanized logging. At the same time, extraction. other tropical foresters (e.g. Bruenig 1957) had begun to develop and test prescriptions The recommendations were based originally for mechanized logging that would minimize on insights gained into ecological conditions damage to residual vegetation and soils and gained on Borneo, results of the work carried thus foster sustained-yield forest management. out to produce Life after Logging, and in this Even so, comparisons over time by authors version they were most directly applicable to such as Fox (1968), Nicholson (1979), Ewel Indonesian (and Malaysian) forestry on Borneo. and Conde (1980), Marn and Jonkers (1982), Through the funding received to undertake a Estève (1983), DeBonis (1986), Jonkers (1987), joint project involving Sweden, CIFOR and Hendrison (1989) and Bruijnzeel and Critchley another country in South East Asia, it was (1994) suggested that as increasingly powerful possible to include Vietnam, which was chosen machinery was being introduced into tropical because of the contrast between concession forests the scale of damage to soils and residual practices there and those on Borneo. Thus, the vegetation was rising proportionally. hope is that the recommendations might be useful not only to concessions holders but also By 1992, when the UN Conference on to the wide range of foresters in the countries Environment and Development convened in of South East Asia. Rio de Janeiro, it had become clear that at least in some instances the mechanization A brief history of logging in of logging operations in the tropics posed a the tropics serious threat to the long-term sustainability Until the end of World War II, logging operations of the resource, particularly if impacts on in tropical forests were for the most part non-timber values were added to the equation unmechanized, relying largely on human and (Dykstra and Heinrich 1992). Around the same animal power. As such, they involved only time, the first publications were beginning to small areas of forest and had little impact on appear in which the term ‘reduced-impact the resource. Nevertheless, some of the best logging’ was used (e.g. Putz and Pinard early work on management of tropical forests 1993). Somehow this term and its acronym, emphasized the importance of careful logging RIL, proved more broadly acceptable than to protect future crop trees. An example of this ‘environmentally sound timber harvesting’, is the management system for teak developed an alternative that was being promoted by by Sir Dietrich Brandis in Burma (Dawkins and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization Philip 1998) during the second half of the (FAO) Forestry Department (e.g. Dykstra and nineteenth century. Heinrich 1992). The Tropical Forest Foundation introduced the related term ‘low-impact Beginning in the 1950s, industrial logging logging’, but this was not generally adopted of tropical forests became widespread as by environmentalists who seemed to feel that the worldwide demand for timber increased ‘low-impact’ and ‘logging’ were mutually dramatically as a result of rapid postwar exclusive terms. The more neutral term economic expansion. Mechanized logging ‘reduced-impact logging’ (RIL) was quickly technologies developed in the industrialized picked up and widely used, both in technical countries were quickly introduced into the articles and in news releases. The concept of tropics, and both the scale and intensity of forest management technologies that reduce operations changed substantially. Tropical logging impacts appeared to resonate not only foresters began to recognize that many with foresters but also with the general public Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia

and perhaps most importantly with influential utilize non-timber forest products requires environmental organizations such as WWF considerable evaluation and planning. Although and the World Conservation Union (IUCN). it varies somewhat with the local situation, As a consequence, RIL gained a legitimacy RIL in tropical forests generally requires the that foresters themselves could never have following (see, for example, Sist et al. 1998): provided. • Pre-harvest inventory and mapping of Also around this time, a concerted effort was individual crop trees; underway on a variety of levels to assess the • Pre-harvest planning of roads, skid trails effectiveness of tropical forest management and landings to provide access to the and to develop and implement guidelines to harvest area and to the individual trees improve management practices. Influential scheduled for harvest while minimizing soil publications stemming from this activity disturbance and protecting streams and included Poore et al. (1989), ITTO (1990), waterways with appropriate crossings; Poore and Sayer (1990), FAO (1993a) and FSC • Pre-harvest vine cutting in areas where (1994, revised 2000). Building on these efforts, vines bridge tree crowns; a number of initiatives were undertaken to • The use of appropriate felling and bucking develop CoPs for logging in tropical forests. techniques, including directional felling, Many of these CoPs borrowed heavily from cutting stumps low to the ground to avoid guidelines developed for Australian tropical waste, and optimal crosscutting of tree forests during the 1970s and 1980s (Queensland stems into logs in a way that will maximize Forest Service undated; Ward and Kanowski the recovery of useful wood; 1985). An early effort was the Fiji National • Construction of roads, landings and skid Code of Logging Practice (Fiji Ministry of trails so that they adhere to engineering Forestry 1990), developed with assistance and environmental design guidelines; from the International Labour Office. By 1996, • The winching of logs to planned skid trails FAO had published a ‘model’ code of forest and ensuring that skidding machines remain harvesting practice (Dykstra and Heinrich on the skid trails at all times; 1996), and this spurred a large number of • Where feasible, the use of yarding systems efforts by tropical countries to develop their that protect soils and residual vegetation own CoPs, often with assistance from FAO, by suspending logs above the ground; the International Tropical Timber Organization • The conduct of a post-harvest assessment (ITTO), the European Union, or bilateral in order to provide feedback to the development-assistance agencies such as the concession holder and logging crews and to German Agency for Technical Co-operation evaluate the degree to which RIL guidelines (GTZ), USAID (United States), Australian AID, have been successfully applied. French Cooperation, DFID (United Kingdom), and others. FAO’s Regional Office for Asia Why do biodiversity considerations and the Pacific subsequently worked with its matter when logging tropical member governments to develop the Code of forests? Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific Tropical forests are the most biodiverse (FAO 1999) and is also assisting with the terrestrial ecosystems on earth. It is estimated development of national CoPs as extensions to that tropical forests originally covered 6–7% the regional CoP. of the global land area and supported 50% of all plant and animal species (Primack and To a large extent, the RIL technologies that are Corlett 2005). South East Asia is exceptional being promoted for adoption in tropical forests both for hosting 4 of the 25 global biodiversity have been developed in temperate forests and hotspots (i.e. areas with very high proportions are utilized as a matter of common practice of endemic species) – Indo-Burma, Sundaland, there. In this sense they represent nothing new. Wallacea and the Philippines – which cover the Because of the differences between tropical whole region (Myers et al. 2000) and also for and temperate forests, however, many of its very high rate of forest habitat loss (Sodhi these practices require significant adjustment and Brook 2006). South East Asia has already in order to be economically and technically lost the majority of its original vegetation viable in the tropics. Also, protection of non- and unfortunately this process is continuing. timber values in areas where local populations In the four hotspots that cover the whole of CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

South East Asia, only 3% of primary vegetation and ecological research. Although research remains in the Philippines, 5% in Indo-Burma, sometimes seems to fail in targeting, analysing 8% in Sundaland and 15% in Wallacea (Primack and solving important conservation problems and Corlett 2005). (Meijaard and Sheil 2007c), in the disciplines of ecology and conservation biology there are There are several reasons why this ongoing several concepts and theories of fundamental erosion should be halted and why plants and importance to the understanding of tropical animal species should be saved for the future. forest biodiversity and its preservation (see First, they represent an irreplaceable resource Appendix 1 for a description of and discussion for humanity, providing the foods, medicines about some conservation biology concepts and and raw materials necessary to sustain life. theories). Second, access to a rich natural world and a diversity of species is a quality of life that It is vital that knowledge of ecological adds to human harmony and wellbeing. It is a conditions and interactions is taken into source of inspiration for art, music and other account when environmental guidelines for cultural forms. Third, many people agree that forestry are formulated (Lindenmayer et plants and animals are in need of respect since al. 2006). Doubtless there remains a very they are forms of life and there is no way to great deal to discover and reveal regarding recreate a lost species. the biodiversity of the tropical rainforests. However, there is already adequate knowledge The traditional method of preserving for high-quality biodiversity guidelines and biodiversity in tropical forests has been to set advice to be formulated. Optimally, such aside areas for conservation and, according guidelines should be integrated into and be an to FAO statistics, about 11% of the world’s clear part of the instructions that cover each forest area is in protected areas as classified step in the forestry cycle: planning, logging, by IUCN; in South and South East Asia, this maintenance and follow-ups. proportion is close to 20% (FAO 2005). Strictly protected areas are never likely to be large enough to conserve all species (Fimbel et al. 2001), and many of the existing protected Instruments for areas (e.g. in Sumatra or Borneo) are illegally Sustainable Forest logged or encroached by cash crops, thereby losing their original biodiversity value (Curran Management et al. 2004). Forest areas maintained for A number of international organizations have timber production represent therefore an provided the impetus for the development opportunity for biodiversity conservation if and adoption of improved national codes of protected for alternative land uses (Meijaard practice (CoPs) for timber harvesting and and Sheil 2007b, also see Asner et al. 2006 forest unit management across South East for a discussion of what happens when this Asia. Some of these CoPs contain biodiversity does not occur), both because a large part of guidelines. Foremost amongst these the populations of forest species inevitably organizations is the Food and Agriculture depend on the composition and dynamics of Organization of the United Nations (FAO), such forests and because properly managed through its regional office in Bangkok, which production forests also play an important role has been pivotal in supporting national CoPs in supporting and connecting protected areas. through the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC) (FAO 1999). The International Tropical There are already promising examples of Timber Organization (ITTO) has also been forestry guidelines in South East Asia in which active since the early 1990s in promoting C&I consideration is given to environmental for sustainable forest management. conditions (e.g. Klassen 2005). Nevertheless, there is a need to further develop these guidelines for biodiversity. Actual ‘best 1 The APFC provides extensive support to countries practices’ appear insufficient to ensure in the region by developing regional guidelines for that logging damage to forest biodiversity is best management practices and by building capacity adequately minimised because they largely for the implementation of these guidelines at the ignore recent advances in conservation biology national and local levels. Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia

Codes of Practice (Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission 2006). To The APFC has taken a leadership role in date, only four ASEAN countries have produced supporting the formulation of COPs for a national CoP: Cambodia (1999), Indonesia forest harvesting in the region. The principal (2000), Myanmar (2000) and Lao PDR (2005). effort focused on the development and Vietnam is currently developing national CoPs implementation of a regional Code of Practice for forests and plantations respectively (Asia- for Forest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific (FAO Pacific Forestry Commission 2006). 1999). This CoP provides practical guidance for moving toward sustainable forest management, The stated aim of the Indonesian CoP, with particular emphasis on timber harvesting Principles and Practices for Forest Harvesting in natural forests. Associated activities have in Indonesia, for example, is to provide included awareness raising, garnering of guidelines or regulations on harvesting timber political support, information exchange, in natural production forests (Ministry of training, and development and implementation Forestry of Indonesia 2000). Principles and of national CoPs. Most major timber harvesting Practices for Forest Harvesting in Indonesia countries in the region have developed, or concentrates on ‘what should be done’ rather are working towards, the establishment of than ‘how to do the work’. The ‘how to’ is the national COPs and the application of reduced- mechanism by which the actions described in impact logging (RIL). Political support for the the document are actually implemented in the process was enhanced by formal Association of field and involves, for example, RIL guidelines South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) endorsement and silvicultural prescriptions for various of a Regional CoP in 2001. forest types. The Principles and Practices for Forest Harvesting in Indonesia should be Forest management CoPs are usually developed implemented by: (1) developing Guidelines for within the context of umbrella legislation that Implementing Reduced Environmental Impact enables the establishment of rules, standards, Logging (RIL); (2) providing training for all and a planning, approval and permitting those to be involved, from manager to machine system. CoPs are generally formulated at three operator; and (3) managing effectively in order levels. The first level is a set of national rules to: maintain future resource-use options, or regulations, linked to forest legislation, maintain biodiversity and regeneration setting broad management direction and processes, and ensure that economic returns laying out those forest management practices are maximized while protecting environmental that apply nationwide. The second level is a and social values. set of legal forest standards for each major forest zone, establishing long-term forest and Using the Indonesian CoP as an example it can ecosystem management objectives for the be seen that there is reference to ecological zone and the nature and rates of acceptable and biodiversity aspects. Under ‘Operational use. Both rules and standards are legally Planning’ there is a discussion about identifying enforceable mandatory requirements. The areas within production forests that should be third level of a CoP is generally a set of excluded from harvesting because of their planning and operational guidelines providing (ecologically) sensitive nature. The guidelines direction to the forest management unit (FMU) stress the importance of maintaining or concession planning process. biodiversity and soil and water quality, and that conservation of biodiversity is dependent A recent appraisal of the CoP uptake in on the maintenance of habitat, enhancement ASEAN countries shows that development and of opportunities for re-colonization of logged- implementation have not yet been universally over areas and by linking areas excluded from successful across the region, for a number of harvesting to allow genetic interchange. This reasons including the fact that national CoPs may be achieved by: have not been sufficiently flexible to cater • setting aside reserves within production to differences in local physical and social areas large enough to maintain viable conditions, and because in several countries populations of plants and animals; political instability, weak law enforcement, • retaining areas of unlogged forest in illegal logging and trade, and the increased order to maintain habitat diversity. These demand from wood-processing industries have areas should connect patches of forest as hampered the implementation of national CoPs corridors which will not be logged; CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

• retaining habitat trees for wildlife in for governments to define specific forestry production areas where appropriate; regulations regarding specific aspects of • protecting rare and endangered species biodiversity management in concessions. and communities in production areas by modifying harvesting regimes or maintaining Criteria and Indicators sections of unlogged forest; One of the key global strategies for the • securing representation of forest types to promotion of sustainable forest management be adequately preserved in conservation (SFM) is to develop and implement C&I forests; for SFM as a means of benchmarking and • creating databases on the distribution of measuring progress towards specific and plants and animal species within forest holistic objectives. Within the Asia-Pacific areas; this is also useful for benchmarking region this process is well established in a purposes. number of countries. The ITTO pioneered the development of criteria for SFM, with its Exclusion areas are areas excluded from harvest. member countries endorsing ITTO Criteria for Exclusion areas may be declared protected Sustainable Tropical Forest Management in areas under any national or provincial statutes; 1992. The ITTO C&I principles and indicators areas of cultural importance; declared areas of were used as the basis for the Malaysian and ecological or scientific importance; areas that Indonesian forest certification schemes, and exceed specified altitude or slope limits; and used in the initial development of the Forest areas specified under legislation or regulations Stewardship Council (FSC) principles and for local community land use practices, criteria (Bennett 2004). including the protection of village/town water supply catchments. In 2006, IUCN (the World Conservation Union) produced draft guidelines which were In the CoP for Indonesia the primary effects intended to update and replace the 1993 ITTO of logging on biodiversity are addressed to a Guidelines for the Conservation of Biological certain extent, but the secondary effects are Diversity in Tropical Production Forests (ITTO not. 1993; IUCN 2006). The production of these updated guidelines by IUCN coincided with the Primary effects include but are not limited to: production of ITTO’s own updated C&I (ITTO • direct destruction of species or their habitat 2005). The 2006 IUCN guidelines are intended that occur in, on or under harvested trees; to complement other ITTO guidelines covering • a reduction in food resources resulting different aspects of the management of tro from the removal of biomass; pical forests. However, they relate only to the • fragmentation of once-contiguous forest ITTO guidelines that were produced between landscapes; 1998 and 2002, and thus these IUCN guidelines • disturbance; do not yet take into account changes that • canopy fragmentation; and appear in the 2005 ITTO guidelines. The two • damming of rivers and streams. sets of guidelines are largely complementary. The difference, according to IUCN (2006), is Secondary effects include that ‘existing ITTO Guidelines aim to promote • increased hunting pressure in concessions the overall improvement of the management as a result of improved access to remote of natural tropical forests, plantations, parts of the forest and better links between restored and rehabilitated forests and fire forests and markets, as well as the presence prone forests and they all address issues of of more people in the forest; importance for biodiversity conservation. • increased run off leading to river siltation; However, they do not specifically focus on and biodiversity. The present Guidelines are • increased soil compaction and erosion. therefore intended to bring together in one place those specific actions that are needed to Thus, the CoP addresses wildlife issues in improve biodiversity conservation in tropical general terms but falls short in translating production forests.’ Table 1 compares the these into clear practical guidelines on ITTO and IUCN biodiversity guidelines against how to address biodiversity issues in timber the biodiversity recommendations made in concessions. It does, however, provide a basis Life after Logging (Meijaard et al. 2005). Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia

Table 1. ITTO C&I for Biodiversity and IUCN Biodiversity Guidelines compared with Life after Logging biodiversity guidelines (Meijaard et al. 2005) ITTO C&I for IUCN Recommendations/aspects to be considered Life after Biodiversity Biodiversity by concessions Logging 1993 & 2006 Guidelines 2006 Planning before logging Survey and impact assessment Yes Yes Yes Conservation planning Yes Yes Yes Operational planning Yes Yes Yes Maintaining landscape connectivity and Yes Yes Yes watershed protection Minimising damage during logging and related operations Roads and infrastructure Yes No Yes Protecting reserved areas Yes Yes Yes Minimizing damage in production areas Yes Yes Yes Maintaining habitat complexity and diversity Yes Yes Yes Keeping keystone resources Yes Yes No Post-logging operations Yes No Yes Minimising indirect impacts and threats Hunting and extraction Yes No Yes Fire Yes No Yes Exotic and invasive species Yes No No Domestic animals Yes No No Traffic Yes No No Pollution Yes No No Logging and conservation for local people Develop forest practices that honour local rights Yes Yes Yes Implementation and vigilance Monitoring Yes Yes Yes Legal aspects, and implementation and control Yes Yes Yes Awareness and training Yes Yes Yes Species-specific suggestions Provide management recommendation on a Yes No No species-by-species basis Recommendations for government planning The need for a wildlife master plan Yes No Yes Land tenure agreement Yes Yes Yes Fragmentation Yes Yes Yes Hunting and fishing Yes No Yes Law enforcement Yes No Yes Effective implementation Yes Yes Yes

Criterion 5 of the ITTO 2005 C&I deals with incorporated in recommended actions 8–17 of biological diversity. Under this criterion there is the ITTO Policy Development Series No 5 (ITTO specific mention of procedures for biodiversity 1993), which were produced in 1993. These conservation in tropical production forests: guidelines, however, are phrased in relatively ‘Management measures in production forests general terms. Many of the guidelines have by can make an important contribution to the now been incorporated into national forest conservation of biodiversity by contributing management guidelines, at least in those to forest quality and making conservation in countries were such guidelines exist (see neighbouring protected areas more effective.’ specific country sections (Appendix 2) for The document refers to detailed guidelines details). 10 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

The IUCN 2006 guidelines focus on measures recommendations. Unfortunately, concession that favour biodiversity. They are based managers and policy developers are unlikely on the recognition that there is no ‘single to develop specific regulations unless these best way’ of managing forests. IUCN uses are spelled out in detail by another entity. ‘Ecosystem Approach Principles’ as adopted For instance, a (hypothetical) guideline by the Convention on Biodiversity in 2000, ‘to minimize the barrier functions of roads which state that all situations are different to animal dispersal’ could be significantly and that there are multiple ways of managing strengthened by stipulating that ‘main roads forests, all of which can be considered should have narrow sections every 50 m where sustainable and all of which have impacts road width is a maximum 7.5 m and tree on biodiversity. The Ecosystem Approach canopies meet overhead’. The development of Principles themselves take as their starting such detailed guidelines requires collaboration point the notion that biodiversity conservation between forest practitioners (‘Is such a approaches have to be a matter of societal regulation feasible and safe?’), researchers choice and that decisions should be devolved (‘Would such a regulation indeed benefit to local stakeholders to the extent that this animal dispersal?’), and government (‘Would is possible. It is for these reasons that in the government be willing to translate the developing the guidelines IUCN has attempted recommendation into legislation?’). to distinguish two levels of intervention: 1. General approaches to forest management Overall, the IUCN Principles, Guidelines and that will have wide application in ensuring that Recommended Actions (IUCN 2006) are com biodiversity values are maintained and should plete and provide a good basis for developing be universally adopted, and 2. A much broader more specific management regulations. set of technical suggestions that managers and However, they share one weakness with most decision makers might draw upon in designing other forestry guidelines in having little to say locally applicable guidelines, CoPs, regulations on community issues. The IUCN 2006 document and silvicultural practices. is a useful guide. It offers important suggestions, especially on integrated data management The IUCN Principles, Guidelines and (databases etc.), legislation development, and Recommended Actions (IUCN 2006) specifically the development of partnerships, in addition assign the main responsibility for any of to other recommended actions mentioned their recommended actions as follows: (1) above. The main role of these guidelines is government forest and environment agencies, likely to be a political one. By persuading ITTO (2) specialized biodiversity organizations, member countries to agree to the generally international NGOs, research institutes etc., phrased guidelines a platform is created on (3) local NGOs, civil society and community which more detailed commitments can be organizations, (4) forest managers, enforced at the national level. concessionaires etc., and (5) educational and technical training institutions. This is helpful as Reduced Impact Logging it allows the development of clear plans with RIL consists of technologies and practices responsibility assigned to those institutions that are designed to minimize environmental that are most capable or likely to address impacts associated with industrial timber the recommended actions. Unfortunately, harvesting operations (Sist et al. 1998; although the recommended actions are fairly Tropical Forest Foundation 2006). RIL is part of detailed, many of them are phrased in rather a shift in forestry methods worldwide towards vague terms and leave potential users with promoting sustainable forest management. In the question of how these actions should order to standardize the definition, application be implemented. The guidelines therefore and verification of RIL, the Tropical Forest fall short of their goal to provide technical Foundation is now in the process of developing suggestions to managers and decision makers a detailed set of C&I applicable to the South that would allow them to develop locally East Asia situation (Tropical Forest Foundation applicable management regulations. It would 2006). be useful to combine the more detailed recommendations provided by Meijaard et Biodiversity considerations do not yet figure al. (2005) with the broader IUCN guidelines greatly in RIL recommendations, which focus where there are gaps in specific management on minimising damage to residual stock, Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 11

regeneration, soil properties and water and management that guarantee a certain level courses. In the Indonesian/Malaysian situation, of management performance, by enhancing RIL recommendations that explicitly mention marketing opportunities for products the environment are: pre-harvest planning from sustainably managed forests, and by of roads, skid trails, and landings to provide promoting public education about improved access to the harvest area and to the individual forest management, for both producers and trees scheduled for harvest while minimizing consumers. In some parts of the world, the soil disturbance and protecting streams and FSC system has helped to develop national waterways with properly engineered crossings; standards through national and regional working and the development of written environmental groups which build consensus amongst a wide and operational standards to guide planning range of people and organizations involved and operational activities and the integration in forest management and conservation. For of these standards into the company structure governments certification is a mechanism for (Tropical Forest Foundation 2006)). RIL also improving SFM, whilst also improving national recommends marking, recording and mapping image. of protected species, but only of tree species. The RIL guidelines also recommend the There are seven certification schemes currently identification and mapping of ecologically in existence. The WWF’s Global Forest Trade and sensitive sites such as special wetland habitats, Network website (www.forestandtradeasia. cave habitats and nesting trees during the org) presents a good description of the various 100% inventory. systems, however only three are of relevance to South East Asia. The most widely accepted The recent debate about the adequacy of and used of all international certification RIL as a tool to minimize damage to residual schemes is that developed by the FSC in 1993. stands is a good example of the need to Currently, within South East Asia, only three consider forest ecology issues before making countries have FSC-certified natural forests: generic recommendations. While it is always Indonesia (four private concessions covering environmentally beneficial to minimize 739,216 ha); Lao PDR (one private concession unnecessary damage, more intensive and one community forest covering 44,985 silviculture should not be discouraged in ha); and Malaysia (one private mixed forest of tropical forests in which regeneration and 4,147 ha, and one public concession of 55,083 growth of commercially valuable timber species ha). Thailand and Vietnam have two and one requires such treatments (Frederickson and certified plantations respectively. Putz 2003). Sist and Brown (2004), in answer to Frederickson and Putz (2003), argue that ‘… Only two countries in the region have tropical forest silviculture for the sustainable developed and implemented their own management of its resources is much more national certification schemes. Indonesia was complex than the manipulation of gap size... very quick off the starting blocks in 1992 when Recent research has shown that RIL techniques it established the Indonesian Ecolabelling are necessary for sustainable harvesting but Institute (Lembaga Ekolabel Indonesia LEI). not sufficient on their own to guarantee that This was followed in 1998 by Malaysia, which it occurs (especially when based solely on created the Malaysian Tropical Timber Council minimum diameter felling limits).’ The reality (MTTC). In Myanmar, a Timber Certification is likely to lie between the two and to depend Committee is in the process of developing a largely on the interaction between the ecology, National Certification Scheme, although there dynamics and harvesting regime of the forest is no concrete information about its status. types under consideration. Forest Stewardship Council Certification The FSC is an independent, non-profit, non- Catalysed by increasing deforestation in government organization that provides tropical forests, forest certification emerged in standard setting and accreditation services the early 1990s as an instrument for promoting for companies and organizations interested in sustainable forest management. Certification responsible forestry. The FSC forest management was envisaged as a market-driven mechanism standards are based on 10 Principles of Forest that promoted sustainable forest management Stewardship (see www.fsc.org for a complete by establishing standards for forest practices list). The FSC supports the development of 12 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

national standards that implement their and natural resource planning and advocacy. principles and associated criteria at the local The concept is also being used by companies level. FSC also provides Chain of Custody (CoC) establishing precautionary purchasing standards for manufacturers and processors of policies and in the discussions and policies forest products. of government agencies. FSC has identified the need for widely available and consistent The FSC system has a number of principles guidance in defining, identifying and managing that are relevant to wildlife conservation and HCVFs. The HCVF toolkit developed by management. Principle 9 on the Maintenance ProForest (Jennings et al. 2003) provides a of High Conservation Value (HCV) Forests has framework that can be used by standard- been designed to ensure the conservation of setting groups and others to define the HCVs critical sites and habitats in accord with a within their country, and gives guidelines to coarse filter approach to wildlife conservation forest managers on how to identify, manage and management (Bennett 2004). This is and monitor HCVFs. In the absence of national supplemented by Principle 7 on general standards, the toolkit can also be used directly forest management planning with criteria to identify and manage HCVFs. that require environmental safeguards based on environmental assessments, plans for Definitions of HCV have been changed many the identification and protection of rare, times, either to adapt them to the local threatened and endangered species, and maps situation or in attempts to improve them. describing the forest resource base including Different sources have been consulted to gain protected areas. Criterion 6.2 states that an understanding of the different versions of ‘inappropriate hunting, fishing, trapping and the ProForest methodology, general toolkits collecting shall be controlled’, however there (Jennings et al. 2003), a toolkit adapted for is little guidance on what actually constitutes use in Indonesia (ProForest/Smartwood 2003), ‘inappropriate’. and the Lao PDR draft guidelines on HCV/ HCVF assessment (SUFORD 2006). The Nature It should be noted that there has been some Conservancy East Kalimantan Programme also strong criticism of the FSC system and process produced a practioners’ guide to managing (Counsell & Loraas 2002). In Indonesia, there HCVF in Indonesia, with special reference to has been criticism of the certificates awarded: East Kalimantan (Meijaard et al. 2006b). in particular, criticisms of a concession in Riau Province included the allegation that the Indonesian Ecolabelling Institute concession was converting (clearing) forest The Indonesian Ecolabelling Institute (LEI) is an when its certificate was awarded. There independent foundation which was developed have also been criticisms of the Malaysian by an independent working group of forest Timber Certification Council (MTCC) system in NGOs and academics. It was envisaged, at Malaysia in relation to indigenous rights and least in part, as a means for the Indonesian tenure, and in Lao PDR criticisms are related environment movement to ameliorate the to CoC issues, amongst other matters. worst effects of Indonesia’s destructive large-scale logging concession system (Down High Conservation Value Forests to Earth 2001). LEI developed its own set of The concept of HCVs was added to the FSC C&I, based on the ITTO guidelines for SFM. In forest management principles in the late 1990s Indonesia, companies have a choice between as Principle 9 and deserves special mention either FSC or LEI certification. However, LEI here. HCVs include environmental and social does not yet have international recognition, values that are considered to be of outstanding which means that it has less prestige than significance or critical importance. Examples FSC in the international market place. The may include concentrations of endangered systems are different: for example, in relation species, protection of a stream that is the sole to the plantation forestry sector: companies source of water to a local community, or a site with plantations established on land that was with special religious significance. still forested after 1994 do not qualify for FSC

Although first defined by FSC, the HCV forest (HCVF) concept is increasingly being used by 2 http://www.fsc.org/en/about/policy_standards/ other initiatives for mapping, conservation princ_criteria Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 13

certification but are eligible for certification for production. Wildlife is affected in many under LEI. ways as a result of logging, depending on the intensity and frequency of the logging, however Malaysian Timber Certification Council the most insidious problems for wildlife are The MTCC was created in October 1998. the secondary effects of logging, most notably The Council grew out of a joint initiative by the dramatic increase in hunting and human the Malaysian Ministry of Primary Industries presence in the forest (Bennett 2000). This is and the then Malaysian Timber Industry because more people, both workers as well as Development Council, now known as the outsiders, have access to the forest through Malaysian Timber Council. The MTCC is an increased points of access. These problems are independent organization established to reflected in FSC principles 6.2 and 6.3, which develop and operate a voluntary national state that, ‘Safeguards shall exist which protect timber certification scheme in Malaysia in order rare, threatened and endangered species to provide independent assessments of forest and their habitats (e.g. nesting and feeding management practices as well as to meet the areas). Conservation zones and protected demand for certified timber products. areas shall be established, appropriate to scale and intensity of forest management and The MTCC timber certification scheme began the uniqueness of the affected resources. operation in October 2001 using a phased Inappropriate hunting, fishing, trapping and approach. The standard currently used for collecting shall be controlled…Ecological assessing FMUs for the purpose of certification functions and values shall be maintained is the Malaysian Criteria and Indicators for intact, enhanced, or restored, including: a) Forest Management Certification – MC&I forest regeneration and succession; b) genetic, (2002). The MC&I (2002) are a result of the species and ecosystem diversity; c) natural collaboration between the MTCC and the FSC cycles that affect the productivity of the that was initiated in 1999. Since the beginning forest ecosystem.’ Bennett (2000, 2004) and of 2006, the MTCC Certificate has been awarded Schulte-Herbrüggen and Davies (2006) provide to nine FMUs covering an area of 4,730,774 ha. a good critique of certification schemes and The list of Principles and Criteria is identical wildlife conservation. to that of the FSC. Further details on the MTCC system can be found at www.mtcc.com.my. Actual logging practices Forest Certification and Biodiversity in humid rainforests of One of the deficiencies of certification in terms of wildlife conservation and management is that Indonesia and Vietnam certification is a site-based tool, which means that the role of certification in influencing the Indonesia wider landscape beyond the one concession is Forestry in Indonesia is carried out under limited. The range of one species is not fixed a system of concessions; this system was to a lone certified forest in an area surrounded established in 1970 by Government Regulation by uncertified forests. This is particularly true No.21/1970 and forms the basis for the in areas where logging concessions may be management of natural forests in Indonesia. small in size, therefore governments should not Under the Concession System, private sector rely heavily on the image of certified forests companies are allocated felling rights to as the key to SFM and forget that overall, an area of natural forest for a fixed period appropriate, land-use planning is the key to (generally 20 years). Concessionaires harvest managing forested landscapes sustainably and timber under a forest management plan which maintaining biodiversity. establishes an Annual Allowable Cut, the silvicultural system to be used, a minimum Most criteria related to biodiversity are diameter felling limit and the felling cycle. concerned with protecting sites important for flora and fauna but do not take into account The concession system has evolved over the wider affects of logging on wildlife, such the past 35 years. Additional regulations as hunting and fragmentation, across the FMU. and decrees have been added in response In reality, protected areas within the FMU will to changing circumstances in the forest always be small compared to the area allocated industry and in world markets, the evolution 14 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

of development objectives under each Five- and staffed by forestry-educated personnel Year Plan (Repelita), problems of forest who understand the science and practice of management supervision, experience gained silviculture. and lessons learned. As a result, the number and complexity of concession regulations and The TPTI system takes the view that thinning decrees has made enforcement difficult for activities will accelerate the growth of the Ministry of Forestry and compliance a individuals of selected commercial species complicated process for the concessionaires by removing their competitors. The system (Gray and Hadi 1989). specifies two general types of thinning activities: liberation felling and thinning. Both Modifications to the silvicultural system activities entail the removal of non-commercial in Indonesia have been developed over and poor quality commercial competitors to time. The first logging system (Indonesian ensure that potential crop trees are available Selective Logging – Tebang Pilih Indonesia, for the next felling cycle. This can be done by TPI), introduced in the 1970s, was replaced either felling or poisoning. in 1993 by the Indonesian Selective Logging and Planting System (Tebang Pilih dan Tanam Since the concept of reduced impact logging Indonesia, TPTI). (RIL) was introduced and implemented in some forest concessions several years ago, there In the TPTI system, all trees with a diameter has been some criticism of the thinning and at breast height (dbh) greater than 50 cm liberation treatments prescribed under TPTI. (Production Forests) or 60 cm (Limited Thinning operations appear not to be necessary Production Forests) may be felled. The system when RIL is well implemented. Responding to is based on a fixed 35-year felling cycle. these issues, the Ministry of Forestry has issued Management activities during this period a decree, SK No. 274/VI-PHA/2001, stipulating can be divided into three main groups: pre- that all timber companies in Indonesia must harvest, harvest and post-harvest activities, implement RIL in their concessions (see Table as detailed in Table 2. 3 for comparison).

Under the TPTI system, each forest concession More recently, scientists (Sist et al. 2002, 2003) is obliged to establish a department of have shown that for RIL to be effective there silviculture and a separate department of needs to be a limit to the number of trees to logging. The department of silviculture be felled per hectare. This recommendation should be sufficiently supplied with facilities, now forms part of an improvement made to funds and infrastructure, and should be led the TPTI by means of a recent decree by the

Table 2. Management activities during a 35-year felling cycle No. Activity Timing (year) 1. Organization of working area Et-3 Pre-harvest 2. Forest inventory before logging Et-2 Pre-harvest 3. Forest opening Et-1 Pre-harvest 4. Tree felling (commercial species) Et0 Harvest 5. Liberation Et+1 Post-harvest 6 Inventory of residual stand Et+1 Post-harvest 7. Production of seedlings Et+2 Post-harvest 8. Enrichment planting Et+2 Post-harvest 9. Maintenance/tending Et+3 Post-harvest 10. Advanced tending Post-harvest Liberation Et+4 Thinning Et+9 Et+14 Et+19 11. Forest protection and research Continual Post-harvest Et = Harvest Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 15

Table 3. Comparison of 1993 TPTI and 2001 RIL decrees Element TPTI Decree RIL Decree No. 151/Kpts/IV-BPHH/1993 No. 274/VI-PHA/2001 Management commitment Not specifically mentioned Emphasized but without (Standard Operational further detail of what kinds of Procedure, Standard and activities should be carried out System) Forest inventory before Detailed procedures for forest Refers to forest inventory in logging (including vine inventory mentioned TPTI (without mentioning cutting) cutting vines) Topography and tree mapping Tree mapping is required Both activities are described as but there is no mention of a very important requirements topographical map with appropriate operational scale Skid trail planning Mentioned in general only Emphasized as very important Skid trail location Not mentioned Suggested Establishing skid trail before Not mentioned Suggested felling Tree felling Only general mention about Directional felling suggested better ways of felling trees Skidding Mentioned in general only The importance of reducing damage by implementing proper skidding and using winches are discussed Skid trail deactivation Not mentioned Suggested Monitoring of post-harvesting Post-harvest monitoring No detail given – more activities described in systematic detail emphasis placed on the need for 100% logged-over forest for evaluation and monitoring (inventory of residual stand)

Directorate General of Forest Development in of Decree No. 388/HDBT, which involves Indonesia stating that concession companies 599 State Forest Enterprises (SFEs), each are required to apply low-impact harvesting controlling its own economic activities. techniques in mixed dipterocarp forests, and • The Ministry of Forestry directly manages must limit extraction rates to 8 trees/ha ≥ 60 128 forest business units (69 SFEs, 20 cm dbh (Forest Liaison Bureau 2002). forest product processing factories, 12 forest product business companies, 6 Vietnam seed companies and 17 forest service Unlike in Indonesia, the forestry sector in enterprises) Vietnam is organized as state-owned public • Provincial People’s Committees directly enterprises to which a State Forest is assigned. manage 471 forest business units (343 SFEs, After the Vietnam-America war, forest policy 81 forest product processing enterprises, 32 focused on production, and in the 1990s forest product companies, 1 seed company Vietnam was second only to Thailand as the and 14 forest service enterprises). premier wood-exporting country in South East Asia, exports going mainly to the EU and A revised law on Forest Protection and Japanese markets. Concern about long-term Development (No. 29/2004/QH11) was sustainability resulted in reduced logging adopted by the National Assembly in 2004 quotas and a move towards more community- and came into force in April 2005. Forests in based forest management, manifested in the Vietnam are divided into three categories: (i) 1993 Land Law and the Forest Protection Law special-use forest, (ii) protection forest, and of 1999 (Sterling et al. 2006). (iii) production forest. The SFEs are under the supervision of the Ministry of Agriculture Since October 1993, the management of the and Rural Development (MARD) and Provincial forestry sector has operated under the terms Committees. They are now undergoing some 16 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

restructuring according to their type of forest The government also issued Decision No. resources (production or protection forest). 186/2006/QD-TTg on the Regulation of Forest Timber exploitation is regulated by MARD Management. This concerns the management, Decree No. 40/2005/QD-BNN, issued on 7 protection, development and use of special- July 2005, which states that the provincial use forests, protection forests and production Forestry Departments should submit all forests, including land areas with and without necessary documentation relating to their forests which have been assigned, leased or plans for harvesting all the natural forests in planned for forestry purposes by the state. their province to the MARD for agreement. According to this Decision, which comprises The provincial Forestry Departments then 5 chapters and 43 articles, forest owners design the harvest and production plans for may carry out ecotourism business activities, each of the SFEs. The intensity of harvesting lease forest environment or utilize land-use is decided according to the estimated forest rights and the economic value of biodiversity stock, as follows: resources and landscapes of special-use forests to enter into joint ventures with others to carry Estimated stock (m3/ha) Range of felling out ecotourism investment activities therein. intensity (%) Investment projects on ecotourism activities 91–150 18–23 in special-use forests must be formulated and 151–200 24–28 submitted to competent state agencies for 201–300 29–33 approval. >300 34–38 In the recently announced National Forest The minimum felling diameter varies Strategy for the years 2006–2020 production according to the timber group (there are eight aspects are again given increasing weight. One timber groups; group 1 includes very hard goal is that the forestry sector’s contribution ‘ironwoods’). to the national gross domestic product should at least double by 2020, from 1% to Timber group Minimum felling diameter limit 2–3% (Government of Vietnam 2007). Forestry 1–2 45 cm management should increasingly be allocated 3–6 40 cm to other interest groups beside the state, 7–8 30 cm such as private enterprises, communities, cooperatives, households and individuals. The With regard to threatened species, the strategy also envisages that responsibility for Government of Vietnam issued Decree No. forest protection and conservation rests not 32/2006/ND-CP on 30 March 2006 (replacing only on local authorities and law enforcement a decree issued 10 years earlier) providing for agencies but increasingly also on forest owners, the management of endangered, precious and local managers and local users (Government of rare plants and animals from Vietnam’s forests. Vietnam 2007). This decree divides endangered, precious and rare forest plants and animals into two groups Overall, RIL remains a new idea for Vietnam; (species in group I are those strictly banned from there is still no legislation supporting RIL in exploitation and use for commercial purposes; the country. It is noteworthy that in the new species in group II are those with restricted National Forest Strategy neither the term exploitation or use for commercial purposes). ‘reduced-impact logging’ nor RIL is mentioned It is prohibited to exploit, hunt, trap, catch, (Government of Vietnam 2007). In the recent cage, slaughter, transport, process, advertise, past the Vietnamese forestry sector was trade in, use, store, import and export involved in a project supported by FAO to endangered, precious and rare forest animals train people working in Provincial Forestry in contravention of the legal provisions. The Departments and Forest Enterprises in RIL. decree also specifies the conditions and permits The idea was to try to apply RIL in some SFEs required for exploitation, transportation, as a model, hoping that suitable regulations storing, processing and trading of endangered, relating to RIL would subsequently be issued precious and rare forest plants and animals for wider application in Vietnam. To date, exploited from nature and products thereof, only Reduced Impact Logging Guidelines for and provides for the rights and obligations of Indonesia (Elias et al. 2001), translated into forest owners toward special-use forests and Vietnamese, provides a uniform set of minimum the said plants and animals. standards for logging practices and explains Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 17

the mechanism by which the standards can be their concessions; this must include the applied in the field. responsibility for addressing and confronting threats to the forest and its wildlife. This is not a minor responsibility, and it poses questions that managers may not feel well equipped Recommendations for to answer. Guidance – on identifying and forest managers, with dealing with the main priorities – is scarce. It is not possible to make rules and regulations special emphasis on that cover all eventualities. Management Indonesia and Vietnam will always involve dealing with conflicting priorities, local insights or innovations. The aim of the recommendations is to ensure A clear vision is needed. To ensure that a high, profitable yield of timber while at forest biodiversity is managed according to the same time to creating and maintaining ecological principles, the primary goals are: good conditions for the rich and invaluable flora and fauna of South East Asian forest 1. to maintain large, well-connected forest landscapes. Thus the recommendations made landscapes (including unlogged areas) are examples of multi-purpose use of the containing as complete as possible a range forest resource. Examples are provided from of local forest types, and to maintain the one country, Indonesia, where large-scale and key landscape elements of the landscape highly mechanised logging is practised in some and the wildlife resources within it; concessions, and another, Vietnam, where 2. to identify the major threats to forest forest management is generally less intense wildlife in this landscape and take steps and less technically advanced. The reason to address them. for choosing Indonesia and Vietnam was not only that they demonstrate contrasting Habitat heterogeneity and structural diversity forestry practices but also that research are amongst the most important factors activities are ongoing in Indonesia and that determining species-rich communities in funding opportunities exist in both countries. natural forest settings, and the maintenance Moreover, Indonesia and Vietnam both manage of these factors is important. Interventions forestry systems in a way that is practised may also be directed towards conserving in other countries in the region, hence the specific resources or features (e.g., food recommendations should be of interest in a trees, lianas, salt licks, caves, clean rivers) wider geographical context. These are the first of importance for certain taxa. Such recommendations of their kind, and future measures are relevant in the identification improvements are likely and also necessary of larger areas that might be excluded from as awareness of biodiversity issues increases, any harvesting, and in the designation of research develops and the suggestions made harvesting zones. Except when considered are tested in practice. relevant to the purpose, classic RIL concepts and procedures covered in other sources, such It is essential that government officials or as planned skid trails and directional felling, forest managers are already knowledgeable are not included (see Elias et al. (2001) for a about basic reduced-impact logging (RIL) clear and practical guide to RIL based on the practices before they embark on more Indonesian Selective Logging and Planting complicated issues such as biodiversity System (TPTI), or Dykstra and Heinrich (1996) adjustments and landscape approaches to for more generic recommendations). sustainable forest use. This is unfortunately not yet the case in Indonesia or Vietnam, although The following recommendations should be new societal or market (certification) demands viewed as biodiversity-friendly additions have definitely raised awareness among to, and as added support for, current RIL government officials and forest managers practices. We rate each of the management about the need to use more environmentally recommendations as either ‘mandatory’ friendly practices such as RIL. (included or to be included in the law), ‘strongly recommended’ (generally Forest managers have certain rights to remove requested by certification bodies) or timber, but they also have responsibility for ‘recommended’. 18 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

Minimising direct threats and inventory. Forest inventories (or forest surveys) logging damage are generally designed to provide a reasonably precise evaluation of the standing stock, the Before granting logging rights commercial volume and the advanced growth The obligation to conduct an Environmental stock (the trees that will constitute the next Impact Assessment (EIA) has been compulsory harvest). In the Vietnam Forestry Development in Vietnam since the promulgation of the Law Strategy 2006–2020 the need to improve forest on Environmental Protection in 1994, but this planning and inventory is stressed (Government obligation appears not to be reflected in the of Vietnam 2007). If they are carried out to a forestry law or in actual forestry practices, reasonable technical standard and used as a probably because most forest enterprises have genuine input to defining management options been established for many years (often since and alternate choices, these surveys can before the law of 1994). The carrying out of make a major contribution towards promoting EIAs should, however, be considered seriously conservation. They must, however, take in view of the new afforestation or forestry into account additional biodiversity-related projects in the country. information and address the status of locally important species (especially non-timber An EIA (or AMDAL in Indonesia) is normally forest products). requested under various regulations in Indonesia that are the responsibility of the 02. During forest inventories, special attention Environmental Impact Assessment Agency should be given to the distribution of and (BAPPEDAL). There is detailed legislation threats to species that are: laying down procedures for ‘Integrated/ a. Protected by national laws (mandatory); Multisectoral Businesses or Activities’, i.e. b. Given a high conservation status by major developmental projects which involve the World Conservation Union (IUCN) several sectoral interests, and, therefore, the (mandatory); c. Much affected by logging and associated competence of several ministries (including effects – e.g. species that occur exclusively the Ministry of Forestry). For such projects, in undisturbed forests or streams (strongly the EIA process involves the input of sectoral recommended); ministries as well as provincial governments, d. Much used by, or significant to, local and prescribes a comprehensive procedure communities (mandatory). for appraisal at the national and regional We strongly advocate a clear link between the levels. Of course, as in many other developing collection of such data and the management countries, problems remain with the actual activities that are based on them. Currently, implementation of these EIA provisions, and many data are collected as a bureaucratic task reports of EIA procedures being viewed as whereby reports and records must exist but do obstructive to development and therefore not necessarily need to be incorporated into circumvented are not uncommon. forest management planning and are therefore ignored. As one environmentalist put it, it should be as inconceivable to undertake a major forestry As our aim is not only to improve the operation without an EIA, whatever its form, ‘persistence’ of logging- and fragmentation- as to pull down the Taj Mahal in order to build sensitive plants and animals in logged- a road. over forests but also to make practical recommendations, we favour an emphasis 01. An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on spatial planning in which different should be carried out, preferably by an alternatives are clearly anticipated, so that independent third party, before a forestry the consequences can be recognised and operator is granted the right to operate on a weighed appropriately. Planning should allow given area, either concession or state forest for remedial actions to be taken in degraded (mandatory). areas and a comprehensive consideration of neighbouring lands and the threats that arise Inventory, survey and planning prior to from them. For example, firebreaks may be logging considered more important in some locations In Indonesia and Vietnam, all logging-related than the edge effect that they might create. In activities should be preceded by a forest some cases, forest edges might be identified as Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 19

a preferred niche for a specific valued species. This is essential in order to prevent the All such factors would have to be considered ‘protected area’ from being moved around the and weighed up. Plans could then be assessed concession and thereby being logged, while as to whether they have explicitly balanced still being protected on paper. Flexibility should spatial integrity against other considerations, be allowed in order to avoid asking operators including the more generalised preferences to mark areas still very remote from any of distant stakeholders. Once a plan is agreed field operation; such areas should, however, upon, it becomes a statement of what can be be delineated on maps and marked when verified. No abstract indices are necessary. operations approach.

At a minimum, the planning process should 06. Planning dispersed annual felling coupes ensure that known rare, unusual or sensitive throughout the forest can help facilitate habitats and species receive due attention. regeneration and permits the migration of The process will be checked to identify wildlife disturbed by logging. It does, however, which individuals and agencies contributed make road planning, supervision and oversight information to the plan and whether key more complicated and should be considered expertise, including local knowledge, was on a case-by-case basis (recommended). omitted. An assessment would also seek evidence that both management and biological 07. Planning procedures should allow an or societal concerns have influenced choices assessment of which sensitive or important (e.g., Given the choice of options A, B and C, species are priorities in any particular forest C was selected because…). Such specific and area, and how their long-term survival can locally relevant statements lend themselves and should be safeguarded. Such procedures to direct assessment, as is already practised need to be periodically reviewed and amended at the operational scale in several millions of according to new information and the hectares of Congo Basin forests (Nasi and Forni predicted risks for particular species (strongly 2003). recommended). This should allow habitats of protected or 03. Any logging should be preceded by carefully sensitive species to be managed in a way that designed management planning that includes prohibits activities detrimental to their survival silvicultural and logging rules, engineering (note that this does not necessarily imply that data, demarcation of production and protection logging is prohibited in these habitats). areas, hydrography and road network. This planning exercise should be carried out 08. The occurrence of sensitive or important sufficiently prior to logging (6 months for main species and their key habitat requirements infrastructure networks, 2 months for skid (e.g. particular grazing areas, salt springs, trails). Logging maps, to be useful, should be etc.) should be recorded on a database at scales larger than 1:10000 and have at least and a Geographical Information System 60–70% accuracy (mandatory). (recommended).

04. Areas planned for different uses should be 09. Some forests (e.g. High Conservation clearly marked on maps, signs should be Value Forests – HCVFs) may be assigned a established that clearly indicate the status of compulsory biodiversity goal related to the and the activities that are or are not allowed in specific values of their particular location (e.g. a forest blocks, and physical boundaries should certain concession could have a relatively high be established in the field (mandatory). number of a specific rare species) and their However, the latter might not be practical in management plans would then be required the case of buffer zones along streams given to address threats relevant to these HCVs the large number of such streams. When (recommended). the establishment of physical boundaries is impractical, clear instructions should be given 10. If the conservation of certain species is to machine operators. planned, species-specific management, expert guidance, local knowledge and 05. Each area designated for protection needs to ecological research, together with how these be clearly delineated on the logging maps of management interactions affect the protection each concession and clearly marked on the of other species, must be considered prior to ground (mandatory). logging (strongly recommended). 20 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

Maintaining connectivity Vietnam, there is an a priori partitioning of As explained by conservation biology basics state forests into various functional types, one (see Appendix 1), maintaining corridors of of which pertains to watershed protection and interior forest should have positive effects on where logging is prohibited, but there is no the fauna (Marcot et al. 2001). Many species provision for the protection of watercourses in that respond negatively to fragmentation areas designated for production. There is also – and thus could benefit from the presence of a strong tendency to use valley bottoms to site corridors – are largely confined to undisturbed infrastructure (landings and roads). forest (Lovejoy et al. 1986; Laurance 1991; Stouffer and Bierregaard 1995; Bierregaard In Vietnam most rivers are less than 10 m and Stouffer 1997). Many forest-dependent wide and regulations regarding buffer strips birds (Bierregaard et al. 1992) and mammals are lacking. However, protection forests are (Laurance 1990; Goosem 1997) have been often gazetted based on river or watershed shown to avoid even narrow (50–100 m protection criteria. wide) clearings, especially if the clearing is maintained as open habitat (Stouffer and 12. Riparian buffers of variable widths, based on Bierregaard 1995; Malcolm and Ray 2000). maximum river width for two or more months of the year, must be maintained (mandatory). 11. A minimum percentage of the forest (e.g. 10%) should be designated for protection as Sist et al. (1998) recommend variable buffers, a network of connected unlogged patches that as follows could serve as refuges or as sources of species Stream or river Buffer on each side for re-colonising the surrounding logged-over width (m) (m) areas (strongly recommended). >40 100 These areas excluded from logging can 21–40 40 include areas where logging is not practicable, 11–20 25 compulsory protection areas (e.g. ‘gene pool’ 1–10 10 areas in Indonesia; watershed protection forests <1 None in Vietnam) and riparian buffers, but should contain a sample of all existing ecosystems Flexibility is needed, however, as in some within the geographical boundaries. We cases maintaining 10-m buffers on each side of recommend retaining a connected protected 1-m to 10-m wide streams would imply a halt to area network based on two elements: reserved operations. In such areas, practical guidelines areas and linking corridors. All these corridors could be as follows: and reserved areas should be mapped and o maintain buffers only for rivers more than maintained as previously stated. 10 m wide, o ensure directional felling to avoid debris Note that in Vietnam, the very small size (as blocking the smaller streams. little as 9000 ha) of some forests managed by Exceptions must also be made for essential state enterprises makes the application of such road crossings, but such crossings should a rule largely irrelevant. In one case, the state adhere to minimum standards. forest is 41 500 ha, 29 000 ha of which are designated for protection following criteria set The maintenance of such riparian protection by the administration. In such a case asking for zones with sufficient forest buffer on either the exclusion of more parts of the area left for side will provide a valuable network of production appears unrealistic. relatively undisturbed forest maintaining connectivity across the landscape, especially In Indonesia, current regulations require the through altitudinal gradients. establishment of logging exclusion zones (riparian buffers) to protect streams, rivers A recommendation on aerial connectivity and other water bodies. How these regulations has been removed because practitioners should be applied is, however, far from clear considered it largely superfluous. It might be as there is considerable inconsistency between worth considering adding a recommendation different guidelines on river and stream buffer about facilitating the ability of wildlife to zones and how they are to be applied. In cross roads (use of tunnels, hollow stems). Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 21

This point is, however, relatively minor in the who cuts an unusable log will not be paid for context of tropical forest logging. the log (recommended).

Maintaining habitat complexity and Note that large hollow individuals of some diversity species (e.g. Shorea laevis in Kalimantan) are The need to maintain habitat complexity sometimes used to create crossings. and diversity is also shown in the empirical observations on conservation biology (see 17. If endangered pitcher plant habitats are Appendix 1): a structurally complex ecosystem identified, the larger habitat should be given is invariably more diverse than a simpler one. special consideration (recommended).

13. Identify critical habitats or habitat features that It is important to maintain stand structures should be protected in the forest whenever that allow the continued generation of dead possible (strongly recommended). wood in a full range of sizes. Large, old and To prevent this becoming an excessive burden dead standing trees provide dead wood and on the concession it might be agreed that only suitable sites for hole and crevice-nesting birds a certain number of such sites or individuals and mammals (e.g. Styring and Hussin 2004a). need to be protected on a surface area basis Rotting tree stumps are used by species such (e.g. up to five stems and two sites per ha). as bats, squirrels, Sun Bear Ursus malayanus, trogons, forest kingfishers and forest bee- 14. Maintain an adequate number of mother eaters (Lambert and Collar 2002). trees (at least one) of commercial species per hectare to ensure potential regeneration of 18. Large, old or dead standing trees and rotting important commercial species (mandatory). tree stumps that are not placed on access roads, below an area where other cut trees Arboreal water is very important to a number have fallen, or which do not pose a risk to of species. In both Vietnam and Indonesia, key workers should be left in place (strongly sources of arboreal water are pitcher plants recommended). and hollows in certain tree species. While it is clearly difficult to plan logging around such Rocky outcrops and caves provide nesting micro-habitat features, the maintenance of and roosting spaces for a variety of species, large stems and the marking of pitcher plants including reptiles, birds (raptors, swifts) to avoid damage is proposed. Hollow trees also and small mammals, and provide refuge provide cavities of importance to vertebrates against predators (Bernard 2004). Limestone that use them for breeding, nesting and food landscapes in Vietnam cover extensive storage. In Vietnam, hollow trees are often areas, especially in the north. The forests places to find colonies of the stingless bees on limestone have a high number of plant commonly harvested by local populations. species, including many endemic species, due According to logging company experts, if the to their unusual, varied topography and soil hollow area is less than 25% of the cross- conditions, causing a high habitat variation. section of the area of the stem the log can be One example of an endemic tree species is used by the industry. In well managed logging the Golden Vietnamese Cypress Xanthocyparis operations, trees suspected to be hollow are vietnamensis, which was discovered as late as tested prior to felling (hit with a hammer 2002 (Sterling et al. 2006). to listen to the sound made or poked with a chainsaw). 19. In areas where rocky outcrops (often limestone or sandstone) occur, mining of outcrops should 15. Large hollow trees should be retained whenever be avoided as much as possible and any possible (strongly recommended). mining should be carefully regulated if it cannot be prevented (strongly recommended). Note that these retained trees can also act as mother trees if they belong to commercially 20. If a cave provides habitat for protected and/or harvested species. rare and endangered species, prohibiting entry into caves and elimination of road building and 16. Incentives should be in place to avoid skidding in the vicinity should be considered. unnecessary felling of hollow trees: a worker If the caves are a source of birds’ nests, they 22 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

should be protected as no-logging zones, in Euphorbiaceae, Anacardiaceae and Saraca collaboration with local stakeholders (strongly dives (Tan & Drake 2001). recommended). 25. Retain as many large fruiting trees as possible, 21. Wallows and pools over 3 m wide and sites of particularly those that fruit throughout the year permanent or near-permanent water should be (Leighton and Leighton 1983; Lambert 1991) avoided by skid trails (recommended). and may be critically important for canopy This will also increase operators’ safety as frugivores during lean periods (strongly these sites are generally unstable. recommended).

22. ‘Salt springs’, saline soils and sites with clays 26. Conserving the mid canopy structure by eaten by animals (located and incorporated applying RIL techniques to minimise incidental in advance planning) should not be disturbed tree damage is a good strategy for conserving (strongly recommended). a large number of palms, Annonaceae, Myristicaceae and Lauraceae (strongly 23. Liana or vine cutting before felling, a classic recommended). RIL recommendation, should only be considered on a tree-to-tree basis (strongly Figs (Ficus spp.) are especially important for recommended). wildlife as they provide fruit throughout the The advantages (potentially reduced damage) year and fulfil vital nutritional needs (see should be weighed against the disadvantages O’Brien et al. 1998). (reduced diversity and fruit availability). 27. Efforts should be made to conserve as many figs 24. Ideally, logs should be de-barked in situ before as possible, regardless of age (mandatory). skidding (Nykvist et al. 1994) to keep vital nutrients in the system (recommended). 28. Fruit-tree groves, old fruit gardens and abandoned villages are recognised by local Practical procedures need to be developed; people as good hunting sites and provide these will depend on the context and, resources for frugivores. Such sites should especially, on the size of the logs. In Indonesia, be protected from logging and road building where logs can be quite large, de-barking is (strongly recommended). carried out on the landing site after skidding. These areas are also generally of cultural In Vietnam, where logs are generally smaller importance for local people (see section on and are cut into 4-m pieces before skidding, conservation for local people). de-barking is generally done in the forest. 29. There is a wealth of indigenous knowledge Keeping keystone resources regarding tree species that are important Maintaining an adequate supply of food for maintaining wildlife populations. Such throughout the year is a necessary condition local knowledge should be evaluated for maintaining a healthy forest fauna in and incorporated as much as possible the production forest. Especially important into concession management (strongly fruit resources in Indonesian and Vietnamese recommended). rainforests include figs, palms, Anacardiaceae (e.g. Dracontomelon spp.), Euphorbiaceae Minimising damage linked to (mainly Baccaurea spp.), Guttiferae (Garcinia infrastructure spp.), Sapindaceae (Dimocarpus spp., Nephelium spp.), various Fagaceae, Myrtaceae 30. Permanent logging camps, when needed, and many woody climbers, particularly should be strategically located in the forest, as Annonaceae, and less or non-seasonally fruiting far away as practical from logging exclusion species such as understorey Rubiaceae, gingers zones, especially those intended to benefit and (often) swamp area vegetation. The bark wildlife (strongly recommended). of some gum or sap-producing trees is also However, experience in Indonesia shows that important as a food source for slow lorises. In a properly managed camp near a protected Vietnam, the endemic slow loris Nyctibecus area can help in environmental education pygmaeus has been observed feeding on and awareness raising among staff and their the sap of Sapindus sp., Vernicia montana, relatives. Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 23

In Indonesia concessions can be very large should be 7.5 m for major haul roads and 5 m (several >100 000 ha), which necessitates for minor roads (strongly recommended). extensive and permanent logging camps. In Indonesia (and Malysia) ‘matahari felling’ In Vietnam, in contrast, production forests is the practice of pushing over all the edge are small (5–20 000 ha) and logging camps trees to allow the road surface to dry in direct are temporary and maintained usually for less sunlight. This practice, generally carried out than a year. with a bulldozer, often results in overall road width well in excess of 50 m. This practice 31. Roads should be built outside riparian buffer does not exist in Vietnam. zones and roads crossing reserved areas should be the exception not the norm (strongly 34. Halt the current ‘matahari felling’ practices recommended). (strongly recommended).

32. Roads, including feeder roads, should be 35. On steep terrain, mid slope roads should be as planned carefully and constructed in a way narrow as possible, but it is recommended that that minimizes canopy damage and erosion occasional wider sections be built to allow for (mandatory). Elias et al. (2001) and Dykstra traffic crossing and to be used as temporary and Heinrich (1996) provide more detailed log landings (strongly recommended). guidance by road type: 36. Skid trails must be designed to be as short and o Road gradients should generally be less narrow as possible, ideally following contours than 10% (<6°). When other disturbance is (strongly recommended) and should not be being avoided slopes of up to 20% (<12°) graded. can be tolerated, but never exceeded, The construction of skid trails should avoid for distances not greater than 500 m felling tall trees that would otherwise be left. (recommended). They should avoid steep areas, ravines, o On level ground a planned ‘herring-bone’ swamps and unstable ground and minimize layout of the roads and skid trails, and the number of stream crossings. Trail slopes regular placement of log landing sites should not exceed 45% except in cases of (Johns et al. 1996) reduces damage to very steep terrain and for short distances. If remaining vegetation and increases harvest a trail crosses a stream, a bridge or culvert efficiency (recommended) should be constructed. Roots, branches and o Road design should minimize earthmoving vegetation should be retained on the skid trail as much as possible. When unavoidable, as much as possible (DFID 1999). The use of earthmoving must be done by bulldozers these harvesting residues in areas with much over short distances only and by dump mechanical traffic will reduce soil compaction trucks and loaders for longer distances and aid forest regeneration (Brearley et al. (strongly recommended) 2003). Bulldozers or skidders with narrow o On steep terrain, roads should be designed blades should be used in skidding operations. to follow ridges or be carefully designed at mid slope level following contour lines 37. Log landings should be sited in relatively flat when ridges are impracticable or have areas (with a slope of <10% or <6°) or on hill special conservation value. Roads should tops, away from streams and watercourses, not be built in valley bottoms or along and outside protection zones (mandatory). watercourses. (strongly recommended) As suggested above, traffic crossing areas on mid slope roads can also be used as landings, In Vietnam, roads are often built in valley thereby removing the need to cause additional bottoms, for ease, and the adoption of disturbance in the area. This also implies some new, more environmentally sound road- drastic changes in the way forest enterprises building models will need a serious change in operate in Vietnam, where such infrastructure approach. is generally located near valley bottoms.

33. Roads should be as narrow as it is practically 38. Construction of feeder roads and skid possible, depending on terrain. Dykstra and trails should be done in dry weather and Heinrich (1996) and Mason and Thiollay (2001) only shortly before felling starts (strongly suggest that the maximum clearing width recommended). 24 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

Good quality water is essential for humans a. No trees to be felled within exclusion areas living downstream, and many amphibians, and their buffer zones (mandatory); fish, some reptiles, birds and vertebrates such b. Machine access is prohibited, except where as otters depend on clear water to breed or planned roads cross the area. All such feed. Proper drainage systems that feed into roads and watercourse crossings must vegetated areas and well constructed and well be well engineered and streams carefully maintained bridges and culverts are important protected (strongly recommended); in keeping streams clear. c. No earthworks or spoil from earthworks is to fall within the exclusion areas (strongly 39. Bridge construction should allow floodwater recommended); to pass without damaging the structure. d. No logging debris is to be pushed into the Abutments should be well anchored to prevent exclusion areas, particularly into water them from being washed away (strongly courses (strongly recommended); recommended). e. Trees should be felled away from buffer See Elias et al. (2001) for details. zones and watercourses (strongly recommended). 40. Roads and landings must be shaped so that water runs off into the vegetation and not Reducing incidental damage will generally directly into main watercourses; silt traps and lessen the impact of logging on vertebrates. flumes should be installed where they are Forest damage along tractor skid trails and needed (strongly recommended). loading or landing sites should be reduced This is best achieved by diverting drain out- as much as possible. Heavily damaged areas flows into surrounding vegetation at least 50 m are usually colonized first by vines and later above a main watercourse (Elias et al. 2001). by pioneer tree species that are generally not a good food resource for frugivores and that 41. Drainage culverts should be installed to hamper forest regeneration. Most arboreal facilitate water flow and cleaned regularly mammals are affected by large gaps in the (strongly recommended). canopy (see Putz et al. 2001 for a review), This will also facilitate crossings by terrestrial and maintaining a relatively intact and animal species (see, e.g. Clevenger et al. 2001) interconnected canopy/mid canopy would and add to the biodiversity-friendly aspects of benefit these species. Experiments in East concession management. Kalimantan have demonstrated that logging damage can be significantly reduced if RIL 42. All roads and skid trails should be engineered techniques are used below a felling intensity to drain effectively; berms (raised ridges) must of 10 trees/ha (Sist et al. 2003). A spacing not be created on the sides as they prevent of at least 35 m between felled trees would from water draining off the track (strongly theoretically achieve this density. Further work recommended). is required, however, to determine whether such a rule can be reliably and practicably 43. Ponds caused by improper roads or trail applied in the field. crossings, or other site engineering impacting local drainage, should be avoided (strongly 45. Minimum diameter felling limits are not enough recommended). to prevent overharvesting and ensure RIL In some cases, however, such artificial ponds efficiency. There should be an upper ceiling for might have some use as water tanks for fire harvesting intensity (mandatory). protection or as recreational areas for fishing. For hill dipterocarp forests in Indonesia, we If old enough, they might also gain some recommend, following Sist et al. (2003), limiting interesting biodiversity value, harbouring a harvesting to less than 10 commercial trees/ha specific fauna and flora. This should, however, within a limited dbh range, which permits the not be an excuse for inadequate road design. use of lighter machinery and should not be a significant production constraint. Very large Minimising stand damage during trees are often difficult to fell and extract without logging and related operations splitting or damaging non-target trees; they are usually reproductive, can serve as seed trees, 44. Planned reserved areas and linking corridors and are more likely to be rotten or hollow than must be managed as follows (after Elias et al. smaller trees. 2001): Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 25

In Vietnam, the situation is different as an upper might otherwise remain unlogged remains limit of harvest is established as a percentage uncertain. of the standing stock. Studies are needed, however, to measure to what extent these 49. Plan different activities for dry and wet weather rules really prevent over-harvesting. The exact periods to minimize erosion and soil compaction dbh or standing volume percentage range (strongly recommended). should be determined depending on species Extraction should not take place during wet traits, forest structure, terrain and available periods in areas that are particularly sensitive processing facilities. to disturbance (Pringle and Benstead 2001), and ground skidding should be avoided during Specifying the best configuration of directional very wet periods (Mason and Putz 2001). felling involves more than ease of skidding and winching or reduction in residual damage, and 50. When timber is dragged out, bulldozers or choices remain debateable. Dispersed gaps skidders should normally move with their blades have the advantage that felled trees will not up (Malcolm and Ray 2000), so no slash piles be tangled (Johns et al. 1996), and that the are created and disruption of the forest floor is resulting openings will be relatively small, but less severe (strongly recommended). felling so that crowns fall on top of each other (or into existing gaps) can reduce the total 51. Operating slope limits should ideally reflect local amount of canopy damage (Malcolm and Ray knowledge and conditions. Experts suggest a 2000), although such large multi-tree gaps are maximum slope of 50% (<27°) for felling and a in general undesirable. skid trail gradient maximum of 35% (<20°) up to 40% (<22°) under especially favourable soil 46. Commercial trees should be felled in the conditions only (recommended). direction of least damage to the residual stand (strongly recommended). 52. On very steep terrain, winches should be Decisions on felling direction need to be used as much as possible to drag timber taken on a case-by-case basis, depending on towards larger skid trails from where they terrain and local conservation or management are further transported by skidders (strongly objectives. recommended).

It is important to keep soil and forest 53. Heavy machinery used in road building (e.g. floor disturbance to a minimum as many the Caterpillar D7) should not be used in invertebrates, reptiles and amphibians use skidding operations as it causes unnecessary the soil as a refuge (Fimbel et al. 2001) and damage and its operational costs are higher as forest regeneration is generally severely than those of lighter machinery (strongly hampered by soil compaction and topsoil recommended). disturbance. 54. Skidders should reverse out of skid trails, and 47. In areas of very shallow soils or patches of teams should explore extraction routes on foot white sandy soils, it would be advisable to rather than from the cab (mandatory). refrain from felling trees regardless of the economic benefits of the logs as the land is 55. Low-impact extraction methods that can generally unable to recover vegetation of any considerably reduce soil compaction, erosion value (Chunkao 1978) (recommended). and damage to non-harvested vegetation should be explored (recommended). 48. The use of skylines can be considered in These methods include extraction by draught especially sensitive areas: for instance, if animals (e.g. buffalo in Northern Vietnam), a rare, easily disturbed key species occurs lighter machinery (agricultural tractors) or (recommended). machinery with broad rubber tyres. This technique is more expensive than ground skidding on all but the most difficult terrain Post-logging operations (Aulerich et al. 1974 in Pinard et al. 2000). The The closure of roads in order to restrict potential risks/benefits ratio for biodiversity access to forest areas by vehicles and reduce need also to be carefully assessed as the pressure (mainly related to hunting) is often conservation value of opening up areas that suggested as a post-logging operation. This 26 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

recommendation, although fairly logical, is protecting the much-degraded sites from nevertheless difficult to apply in most cases erosion is important. There should be because of the importance of forest roads for systematic post-logging rehabilitation of log the people living in remote forested places. landings and stream crossings – primarily to Nevertheless it would seem possible to close reduce soil erosion. In cases where roads or some roads on a temporary basis or even landings will not be used in future harvest to completely close minor roads that have cycles, effort needs to be made to re-forest no economic or practical values for local them. Such rehabilitation of deforested or development. severely degraded land can serve a useful conservation purpose (e.g. Goosem and 56. After an annual felling coupe is finished, Tucker 1995; Dunn 2004). This is especially access to some roads should be barred (even likely when such rehabilitation makes use of temporarily) so that animals can migrate a variety of native tree species that are both undisturbed and human pressure is reduced of value to the timber industry and to wildlife, (strongly recommended). and increases connections between original forest areas, or serves to buffer forest edges. 57. If and when roads are no longer in use they should be closed to avoid entry by vehicles 60. Top soil deposits on quarries and landings (Mason and Thiollay 2001) (strongly should be redistributed over the entire area recommended). (recommended). One should note, however, that this might be In Indonesia, the TPTI system prescribes difficult to implement and that use of a cover slashing of ground vegetation to speed up crop might be needed to avoid topsoil runoff. regeneration. We argue that this is generally worse than the logging itself as the extreme 61. Rehabilitation with replanting, if needed, should terrain in hill dipterocarp forests means that be carried out continuously as harvesting logging is patchy. Ground-tending crews, based on each landing is completed, rather however, work on foot and slash everything, than waiting until the whole compartment has which removes a great deal of vegetation from been worked over (strongly recommended). the forest and is perceived by local people as excessively damaging to many valued non- 62. Areas with no remaining tree cover should timber resources (Sheil et al. 2003a, b). be replanted with local species and mimic This almost certainly has a negative impact a natural re-colonization as far as possible on many terrestrial animal species (see, for (mandatory). instance, Bernard 2004). In theory, operators can be fined for not slashing ground vegetation In Kalimantan (Indonesia) this might include as prescribed, however in practice this activity a succession of cover crops (preferably is already ignored in many concessions. Leguminosae) followed by vigorous pioneer species such as Trema spp. or Peronema 58. Understorey slashing practices, where they canescens able to persist and grow in bright exist, should be carefully reviewed and open conditions, followed again by native tree abandoned when not specifically required for species that are important for wildlife (Parkia safety or forest regeneration (mandatory). spp., Baccaurea spp., Nephelium spp., Ficus spp., Mangifera spp. and Pithecellobium spp.) 59. Placing cross-drainage on very compacted or for timber and wildlife (Tetramarista glabra, areas will ensure proper drainage of these Meliosma sumatrana, Artocarpus spp., Aglaia areas (strongly recommended). spp., Dysoxylum spp., Durio spp.). Another option (practised by the Sumalindo Company) Rehabilitation of areas severely degraded by is to plant domesticated fruit trees (durian, logging operations (log landings, feeder roads, jackfruit) after the cover crop. quarries, etc.) is one of the measures aimed at a) reducing soil erosion and sedimentation In Vietnam, potential species that could and b) maintaining or increasing vegetation be used are Canarium album, Talauma diversity for wildlife conservation purposes. gioi, Michelia mediocris and Cinnamomum If forests are well managed large-scale obtusifolium (Central Highlands and North) reforestation should be unnecessary, but and some dipterocarp species (South). A list Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 27

of species (containing both exotic and local Suggestions (modified from Bennett and species) suitable to be planted is defined by the Robinson 2000 and Fimbel et al. 2001) for Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development how to curtail unsustainable hunting in forest (MARD) according to nine ecological zones, concessions include: although local species should be favoured as much as possible. 63. Hunting of protected species must be prohibited, and sanctions should be imposed on staff by Minimising indirect impacts and the company independent of possible official threats legal action against poachers. Staff at all levels should be informed of the species that Hunting and extraction are protected or subject to trade restrictions Hunting, associated with logging, places (mandatory). additional pressures on wildlife and other components of biodiversity. There need to be 64. Commercial hunting by employees should be clear regulations concerning wildlife hunting forbidden throughout the concession, even for and trading in the forest area gazetted for common species (mandatory). logging. Zone boundaries and meanings 65. Prohibit and enforce bans on trade in all wildlife must be clearly identified on the ground and and animal parts, particularly of protected, rare, recognised by all local actors. Similarly, all endemic, endangered, threatened, vulnerable, regulations and local agreements concerning or slowly reproducing species within, from and the use and protection of species or sites must to production forests (mandatory). be known by all resource users, who should be guided by, or seek to enforce, them. It must 66. If subsistence hunting is to continue by be noted, however, that logging companies employees, especially in the case of local do not have direct control of local people indigenous people, clear procedures and living in the area and that prohibiting hunting checks are required to ensure that the process for local people can be somewhat conflictual, is not abused (strongly recommended). even unethical. However, the presence of the company should, at least, not increase the 67. Zones where hunting or trapping is forbidden actual levels of hunting. The following applies should be established within the forest mainly to Indonesia, where subsistence (mandatory). hunting by locals and commercial hunting is These zones can be fixed for the whole felling still widespread in forests newly opened by cycle or rotate from time to time and may or logging. In Vietnam, the problem appears less may not overlap with the network of areas acute because of the very strict regulations reserved from logging. on firearms and the fact that the common fauna is already largely extinct, leaving only 68. The use of electric shocks, bombs and poison protected species to hunt and risking high in fishing is destructive to many components of penalties. Nevertheless, wildlife consumption the aquatic ecosystem and thus kills many more and trade are considered a very serious animals than are actually collected. These non- threat to Vietnamese biodiversity, ranked as specific fishing techniques should be stopped more critical than logging (Anonymous 2005). and sanctions imposed on employees involved Protected species are poached (especially (mandatory). the group of rare wild bovid species present in the remote mountainous areas), but these 69. Negotiate and establish exclusive hunting rights illegal activities do not appear to be strictly for the original inhabitants of certain areas. This linked to logging operations. Commonly could limit the impact of commercial hunting traded wildlife species include wild pigs by outsiders. Such controls can be based on Sus spp., sambar deer Cervus unicolor, traditional claims (adat in Kalimantan) and bears and primates (Anonymous 2005). councils but with written documents in which The illegal trade in wildlife meat within rights and responsibilities are clearly defined Vietnam was estimated in 2002 at 3 million (recommended). tons, an economic value three times larger than the budget of Vietnam’s chief wildlife Note that this recommendation appears enforcement body, i.e. the Forest Protection sensitive in the Vietnamese context where the Department (Sterling et al. 2006). government considers that the law should be 28 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

the same for all and that such rights could be al. 2002). Smoke also has a severe impact on considered as privileges based on ethnicity people and the environment. This is especially and therefore not permitted. true in the drier parts of Borneo where drought and fires have the ability to destroy large 70. Logging companies’ and contractors’ vehicles areas of selectively logged forest (Leighton should be barred from carrying wildlife, thereby and Wirawan 1986; Woods 1989) as well as in ensuring that they cannot be used for the peat swamp forest areas (Page et al. 2002). In wild meat or pet trade. Sanctions should be Vietnam, people seem much more sensitive to imposed on offending drivers (mandatory). the issue of forest fires and most employees of state bodies (including forest enterprises 71. Staff and relatives should be instructed or research organisations) are required to regarding the importance and use of wildlife undertake fire fighting training. Arson is also resources in the concession. Staff should not rare because it is very severely punished. feel free to collect whatever they wish from the forest and should be strictly regulated It is nevertheless important that a fire in terms of all wildlife collection (strongly management strategy is in place and that the recommended). human and financial resources are available to implement this immediately. At a monitoring Bennett (2002) and Lee (2000) argue that a level, satellite-based early warning systems reduction in hunting pressure on tropical wildlife detecting active fires (hot spots) and dryness is more likely if people have alternative sources indices provide valuable information for forest of protein. They suggest that companies could managers (Hoffmann et al. 1999). A number of be required to subsidise and import meat and/ these systems are semi-operational in Indonesia or to encourage small-scale localised farming (Dennis 1999). In theory, such systems provide (chickens, pigs or fish). They could assist in fire managers with the necessary information the development of farming programmes, to carry out hazard reduction and removal, although the cultural acceptance of domestic establishment of fire breaks to protect valuable sources of protein as opposed to wildlife resources, and up-to-date fire situation remains an obstacle in many locations. Access information during an active fire emergency. to and subsidy of technological improvements However there are still major challenges to in storing meat (freezing and refrigeration) can building institutional infrastructure for fire also help decrease waste but also potentially management, in both the public and private increases the risk of storage of wild meat for sector, and there is also the problem of lack commercial purposes. However, the threat to of instantaneous communication with remote wild species potentially posed by domestic sites (Dennis et al. 2005). livestock, particularly through disease and cross-breeding, should be noted. Special care 73. There is a need for trained fire fighters to be must be taken not to release domesticated on call at the forest management unit or district pigs or ‘Bali cattle’ (domesticated Banteng), level, and for at least one trained manager who which may interbreed with the remaining wild monitors fires and coordinates fire fighting and populations of Bearded Pig Sus barbatus or prevention activities during periods of threat in Banteng Bos javanicus. each concession (strongly recommended).

72. Logging companies should ensure adequate 74. Establishing working relationships with local protein supplies for all staff and workers communities who traditionally use fire for using the most appropriate solutions (import, agricultural activities or for attracting wildlife farming…), thereby removing the need for near logging concessions would further help them to hunt (strongly recommended). reduce the risk of unwanted fires in the vicinity of forest areas (strongly recommended). Fire In Indonesia, recent major fires, such as those Van Nieuwstadt et al. (2001, 2002) showed in 1997–98 that devastated large areas of that the current practice of salvage harvesting forest in East Kalimantan (Siegert et al. 2001), in dipterocarp forests needs to be revised. In show the considerable damage that fires can Indonesia, concession holders cannot normally cause to forests and wildlife, especially when re-cut harvested forest areas without waiting coupled with poor logging practices (Nasi et the statutory period (35 years according to Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 29

the TPTI system). However, fire removes this them, and how to combat them (strongly restriction, and allows further felling at little recommended). cost. Rejmanek (1999), for example, provided such a scheme for screening high-risk woody exotics. 75. Perverse incentives that encourage arson must Frequent consultation of the Global Invasive be removed and regulations about salvage Species Program Website (http://www.gisp. logging after fires should be carefully designed org/) will also provide useful information. to avoid both such perverse incentives and the waste of residual timber (mandatory). 78. Reforestation programmes should avoid exotic species as far as is practicable – if exotics must Exotic and invasive species be used, species must be selected with care The uncontrolled spread of exotic invasive and the results should be monitored (strongly species is a problem affecting all forest recommended). ecosystems, with profound potential impacts See also recommendation 62. on biodiversity, ecosystem processes and services, and even global climate. The problem Measures are needed to ensure minimal transfer is already severe in some forested areas, and of soil and other potentially infected material just starting in others as increases in trade, between sites. A general recommendation tourism and other factors accelerate the is to seek region-wide control regarding the rates both of introduction and of successful import and movements of live soil, plants and establishment of new species. Prevention of animals – and associated hygiene regulations. alien species problems is possible, particularly Many useful templates for such regulations if pathways of introduction are understood exist, with Australia providing very detailed and effective preventative measures and prescriptions. rapid-detection surveillance systems are initiated. If invasions are detected early 79. All vehicles brought in from outside the enough, eradication may be an option. Failing concession area need to be washed down that, there exist long-term management to remove weed seed and cuttings of exotic approaches, in particular classic biological species (recommended). control, which may mitigate the impacts of invasive alien species. Beyond technology, Implementation of these recommendations community participation, effective policy requires increased awareness of the issues development and international cooperation at the community, local government and all have roles to play in protecting forests concession levels. from damage by invasive alien species. Though exotic invasion after logging does not 80. Producing well targeted extension materials appear to be a major problem in Vietnam, about the risks of spreading harmful organisms since usual felling intensity is relatively low may make a significant contribution (strongly and native species regenerate, the Global recommended). Invasive Species Database (http://www.issg. org/database/welcome/) records 25 invasive Domestic animals species in natural forests in Vietnam. The As already noted in the section on hunting, same database records 44 invasive species for domestic animals such as cattle, dogs and cats Indonesian forests. can be major threats to native wildlife, either directly (e.g. May and Norton 1996; Clarke and 76. Logging concessionaires should monitor the Pacin 2002) or indirectly as sources of disease. spread of exotic species in their area and Knapen (1997) reported a rinderpest epidemic actively remove them before they become a that killed a large proportion of the cattle problem for wildlife and forest regeneration. population of Southeast Borneo between 1871 Species and genera known to have caused and 1872 before spreading to the Bearded Pig problems elsewhere should be actively guarded population, which it affected in areas as far against (strongly recommended). afield as the Upper Kahayan and Kapuas Rivers in Central Kalimantan. In 1878, rinderpest 77. An institution (national agency, NGO, struck once more, again hitting the cattle cooperative…) should publish and update lists population first and later killing pigs in large of invasive exotic species, how to recognise numbers. Another epidemic was reported 30 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

by Nieuwenhuis (1907, Vol. 1, p. 196), who in most certification schemes. It is necessary mentioned that during his journey through to state first that the forest management in central Borneo in 1894 pigs were rare because such a case is accountable only for its own both the wild and domestic pig populations operation and cannot be accountable for had been killed off by an epidemic in central pollution occurring upstream (such as the use Borneo in 1888 and 1889. The spread of rabies of mercury in gold panning). and distemper from domestic dogs to wildlife as well as of various avian diseases spread by Refuse from camp and workshop areas should be domestic fowl is an additional threat to native removed, and all solid waste should be placed in species (e.g. Butler et al. 2004). a refuse pit and buried (Elias et al. 2001). This is important, as local people often scavenge 81. Prohibit free-ranging pets and livestock in for improperly disposed refuse (especially forest areas. In order to minimize risk of car batteries) exposing themselves to serious disease transmission to and from native health risks. Rubbish should never be thrown species, domestic cattle, goats, pigs and into watercourses. chickens should confined, preferably penned, in specific areas and not be allowed to run free 84. All refuse, including rubbish, solid waste, oils (recommended). and chemicals, if no longer suitable for re- use, should be disposed in an environmentally Traffic friendly manner at off-site locations (strongly Stringent regulations for road use will reduce recommended). the number of accidents and injuries and would also limit illegal hunting and timber 85. Used oils, batteries and other potentially extraction. These regulations could include harmful but recyclable chemicals should be closure of roads to non-essential traffic at recycled in the company’s facilities or, if such night, checkpoints to monitor wildlife and the do not exist, transported out of the forest to timber trade, prohibition of foot traffic on existing facilities (strongly recommended). roads, and prohibition of transport of hunting weapons, traps, snares, etc. on forest roads. 86. The use of herbicides must be restricted to silvicultural treatments under strictly controlled 82. Manned booths with security guards should conditions so as to avoid contamination of the be established at the main entry points to the environment (mandatory). concession area (mandatory). If vehicles are seen that have entered without a 87. The use of toxic chemicals in the vicinity of water permit from the appropriate authority: (1) drivers courses is strictly prohibited (mandatory). should be requested to leave immediately, (2) staff who manned the booth should be 88. Wood preservatives should be utilized with reprimanded, and (3) the management authority appropriate techniques to protect the health of should be notified (Muziol et al. 2000). the worker and the environment (mandatory).

83. Traffic needs to be regulated and speed limits Logging and conservation for local should be imposed, not only to reduce road kills people of wildlife but also accidents (recommended). Logging operations should seek common See also recommendations 56, 57 and 70. ground with local people as a basis for developing conservation activities outside Forest roads are public in Vietnam so official strictly protected areas. Some of these ideas traffic rules need to be followed. In Indonesia have already been noted elsewhere (e.g. the roads are private and thus have (or may protecting salt-licks, clean water and valued not have) their own rules and regulations. wildlife resources; see Sheil 2003a, b for East Kalimantan). The following recommendations Pollution are worth noting. They appear much more Although not necessarily very high on the relevant for Indonesia, where indigenous conservation agenda, pollution problems people live in forest concessions, than in created by the existence of an industrial logging Vietnam, with its system of gazetted State operation in an area should not be neglected Forests, but some recommendations might and are generally taken into consideration apply to areas where ethnic minorities live. Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 31

89. Consultation with communities who access threats? Are these reflected in pre-emptive the concession is required to both guide and monitoring? inform management (mandatory). 2. What proportion of the responsible parties knows the agreed rules and 90. It is necessary to identify and clearly protect responsibilities? sites with local heritage values or other 3. How many times have rules been enforced, local significance (grave sites, old villages, over time? What has happened as a result? sacred locations, etc.) from logging (strongly 4. What are the estimated amounts of illegal recommended). hunting produce found by spot checks in local areas (number or weight of animals 91. Ensure that the legal and practical mechanisms found per day)? are in place for local communities to be involved 5. What is the percentage of forest workers in decision making about and management who have affordable alternative sources of of natural resources in their area (strongly protein? recommended). 6. What are the numbers of tools, trophies, or This must be done so that the necessary other items associated with illegal hunting checks and balances are in place to activities found in inappropriate locations prevent overexploitation. Co-management per head of population? or collaborative management partnerships between local communities and technical/ Qualitative assessments (i.e. spot checks) will scientific advisors (government or non- probably often suffice to identify whether or not government) may ensure this. there is a serious problem with commercialised hunting. The verifiers and milestones would 92. Areas with a high abundance of important relate to specific knowledge of the rules and products (even if legal rights are unclear) agreements, evidence of capacity and efforts such as bamboo, rattan, eagle-tree or gaharu to enforce them, and a search for evidence (Aquilaria spp.), birdnest caves, etc. should regarding implementation. There may be be identified with the help of local people and good reasons for monitoring selected wildlife protected (strongly recommended). populations directly, as sometimes proposed (e.g. Stork et al. 1997), but this needs to be 93. Species of great importance to local the result of careful deliberation. Indirect people should be granted special status monitoring may be more efficient. under government regulations and not be harvested except by locals for their own use Monitoring of management interventions is (mandatory). recommended, as is the monitoring of changes in indices of wildlife abundance, when this 94. The cultural needs of local communities need to can guide management – perhaps with outside be assessed and incorporated into management assistance to ensure expert guidance and plans (strongly recommended). evaluation. The specific criteria for this could For example, in East Kalimantan Dayak tribes be stated in a local management plan and have a cultural need for hornbill feathers (Sheil a CoP (i.e. what will be done and how). We et al. 2003c). believe that this two-pronged approach would provide a solid foundation for improving logging Implementation and vigilance practices and making them more compatible with wildlife conservation (Sheil et al. 2004). Monitoring Regarding monitoring, Sheil et al. (2004) 95. Monitoring procedures following the suggested an initial emphasis on conventions, above philosophy should be put in place, laws and locally negotiated rules. The purpose implemented and have their results fed into of monitoring programmes should then be to forest management activities (strongly check that these regulations are accepted and recommended). are implemented. A basis for local verifiers could include: 96. All concession staff and actors working within the concession should recognise and understand 1. What are the current major threats in the all company regulations concerning their vicinity? What are the most likely future activities. All top and middle-range managers 32 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

should know and understand existing local and misunderstood and even abused. It is necessary national regulations (mandatory). to build awareness and understanding of RIL and its links to sustainable forest management and 97. The activities of staff involved in logging should biodiversity conservation among all personnel be constantly supervised at different levels. involved in harvesting and creating roads or This should include production supervisors, trails in the forest, especially key individuals block inspectors, and felling and skidding such as chainsaw operators, tree inventory foremen (strongly recommended). and marking teams, harvesting and roading supervisors, log extraction and roading crews, 98. Contractual clauses should be used to machine operators, and log scalers. Note specify that violation of regulations may that such training would be highly beneficial result in penalties and dismissal (strongly for forestry officials and other civil servants recommended). who are supposed to monitor logging company practices; however this is beyond the control 99. To minimize corruption and maximize of forest managers. efficiency, law enforcers should not be paid directly by the logging concessions (strongly 102. Regular and well structured training of company recommended). staff should be carried out in the following To provide funding for monitoring by the topics: chainsaw operation, directional felling national administration, private companies and vine cutting; planning, construction and could, for example, be required to post a bond, rehabilitation of roads, water crossings, landings paid to the appropriate government ministry, and skid trails; supervision (mandatory). for an amount indexed to the area of forest to be exploited that year (Wilkie et al. 2001). 103. Staff, especially field supervisors, should also be trained in biodiversity-related issues This point is relevant for Indonesia but not (strongly recommended). for Vietnam, where forest enterprises are Such training should address: protected state-run, in contrast to Indonesia where they status of species and other legal aspects of are private. In Vietnam the inspectors who hunting and trade (including awareness and supervise logging are paid by directly by the knowledge of law enforcement authorities government, not by the concessions. and mechanisms), procedures to apply when protected species are in the direct vicinity of 100. Means of enforcement should be built into a felling site, biodiversity concepts, tree and company regulations and backed by official animal identification, etc. guidelines (strongly recommended). There should be a combination of self-policing 104. The production of simple but precise educational with checks by appropriate authorities; ideally and public information materials that can these would include trained and authorized be disseminated through official channels, biologists. Other stakeholders (community schools, traders, etc. should be considered to representatives, NGOs, etc.) should be given raise awareness about biodiversity concerns opportunities to be involved in verification. among staff and their relatives (strongly recommended). 101. Forestry certification audits must be carried out by independent third-party accredited organisations as a means of assessing practices and gauging success (strongly References recommended). Anonymous. 2005. Vietnam Environment Monitor 2005. Biodiversity. World Bank, World Bank in Vietnam, Awareness and training Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Current poor harvesting and infrastructure- Vietnam and Embassy of Sweden, World Bank building practices are mainly the result of Office, Hanoi, Vietnam. lack of knowledge, supervision and incentives Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission. 2006. Taking of both logging company employees and the Stock: Assessing the Progress in Developing and Implementing Codes of Practice for Forest Harvesting government officials supposed to monitor in ASEAN Member Countries. Association of South them. We note also that a lack of clarity has East Asian Nations and FAO, Bangkok, p. 50. allowed many rules and laws to be ignored, Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 33

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Use London, London. of Amazonian forest fragments by understory Sheil, D., Liswanti, N., Basuki, I., Wan, M., van insectivorous birds. Ecology 76: 2429-2445. Heist, M., Samsoedin, I., Kartawinata, K., Styring, A.R. and Hussin, M.H. 2004. Effects of logging Rukmiyati and Agung, M. 2003a. Prioritas lokal dan on woodpeckers in Malaysian rainforest: the keanekaragaman hayati dalam lansekap hutan: apa relationship between resource availability and yang penting menurut masyarakat? Jurnal Hutan woodpecker abundance. Journal of Tropical Ecology Indonesia (Indonesia Forest Journal) Edisi Agustus 20: 495-504. (August) – 4-p pull-out special. SUFORD. 2006. Review of ProForest HCVF methodology Sheil, D., Liswanti, M. van Heist, Basuki, I., Syaefuddin, and its application in Lao PDR with the view of Samsoedin, I., Rukmiyati and Agung, M. 2003b. further simplification, p. 39. Sustainable Forestry Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 37

and Rural Development Project. Co-operation Ward, J.P. & Kanowski, P.J. 1985. Implementing control between Governments of Lao PDR, Finland and of harvesting operations in north Queensland World Bank, Vientiane, Lao PDR. rainforests. In: Shepherd, K.R. and Richter, H.V. Tan C. L. & Drake J. H. 2001. Evidence of tree (eds.) Managing the tropical forest. Proceedings gouging and exudate eating in Pygmy slow lorises of a workshop held at Gympie, Australia, 11 July (Nycticebus pygmaeus). Folia Primatologica 72: – 12 August 1983, 165-186. Development Studies 37-39. Centre, Australian National University, Canberra. Tropical Forest Foundation. 2006. Management Wilkie, D.S., Sidle, J.G, Boundzanga, G.C., Auzel, P. Considerations for Successful Implementation and Blake, S. 2001. Defaunation, not deforestation: of Reduced Impact Logging. TFF, ITTO, MOF and Commercial logging and market hunting in Northern APHI, Jakarta, Indonesia. Congo. In: Fimbel, R.F., Grajal, A. and Robinson, Van Nieuwstadt, M.G.L., Sheil, D. and Kartawinata, K. J.G. (eds.) The cutting edge: Conserving wildlife 2001. The ecological consequences of logging in in logged tropical forest, 375-399. Columbia the burned forests of East Kalimantan, Indonesia. University Press, New York. Conservation Biology 15: 1183-1186. Woods, P. 1989. Effects of logging, drought, and fire Van Nieuwstadt, M.G.L., Kartawinata, K. and Sheil, on structure and composition of tropical forests in D. 2002. Konsekuensi ekologis pembalakan dalam Sabah, Malaysia. Biotropica 21: 290-298. kawasan hutan yang terbakar di Kalimantan Wyatt-Smith, J. and Foenander, E.C. 1962. Damage Timur. Jurnal Hutan Indonesia (Indonesian Forest to regeneration as a result of logging. Malaysian Journal), August 2002: 1-4. Forester 25: 40–44. 38 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

Appendix 1 Some conservation biology concepts and theories relevant to South East Asian rainforest

Forests, flora and fauna hotspots – Indo-Burma, Sundaland, Wallacea and the Philippines – together cover the whole Biodiversity hotspots area of South East Asia (Myers et al. 2000) The biodiversity of tropical rainforests is very (Figure 1.1). rich: it is estimated that originally, before the heavy impact of humans, they covered 6–7% of The importance of production the global land area and supported 50% of all forests to biodiversity plant and animal species (Primack and Corlett 2005). Tropical rainforests occur on all three Protected areas versus production equatorial continents – Asia, South America forests and Africa – and they form one of the most The traditional method for preserving distinct biomes (vegetation units) of the earth. biodiversity has been to set aside areas for Tropical rainforests are found in areas with conservation. According to UN Food and very high rainfall and temperature distributed Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics, about more or less evenly over the year, and they are 11% of the world’s forest area is in protected tall, evergreen and evenly dense. The South areas as classified by the World Conservation East Asian rainforest is found from Burma in Union (IUCN). In South and South East Asia, the west to New Guinea in the east and from this proportion is 20% (FAO 2005). Thus, the Philippines in the north to Indonesia in the even if the area of protected forest were to south. This region is exceptional in hosting 4 increase in the future, it would still represent out of a total of 25 global hotspots, i.e. areas a fairly small proportion of all the forestland with very high proportions of endemic species in these two regions. For biodiversity to be (species which are confined to one area) and conserved, the production forests will always very high rates of habitat loss. These four be very important, and it will be necessary to

South East Asia

Figure 1.1. Four of the world’s 25 hotspots, i.e. areas with exceptionally high biodiversity that are suffering from heavy human impact, are found in South East Asia (Modified from Myers et al. 2000) Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 39

consider biodiversity very carefully in logging Production forests are not only of importance and management activities. Further, it seems to the long-term survival of different species clear that protected areas, e.g. in Borneo, are but also play a critical role in providing various being illegally logged and degraded and thus ecosystem goods and services for humans such are losing their biodiversity value (Curran et as wood, clean water, pollinators, carbon al. 2004). storage and non-timber forest products such as fruits and construction material. Most forests in tropical countries, and in other parts of the world, will be actively managed Four different roles for the matrix in the future, hence a large proportion of the The matrix for forested landscapes plays populations of forest species will inevitably different roles in biodiversity conservation depend on the composition and dynamics of (Lindenmayer and Franklin 2002): such managed forests. The production forests that act as habitat for species also have an a) Supporting populations important role to play in supporting and The matrix hosts numerous species, many connecting protected areas. The presence of of them in large populations. The quality of high quality production forests may greatly the managed forests determines the species enhance the probability of reproduction, composition. The further from the original, dispersal and survival of a number of species unmanaged state, the less the probability otherwise at risk of extinction. of survival for species dependent on the characteristics of natural forests. Large Unprotected forests – the matrix populations are advantageous for long- Today there is an increasing focus on the term survival since they decrease the risk of importance of unprotected areas (or the extinction in single catastrophic events and ‘matrix’, a term used in conservation biology), usually also ensure high levels of genetic and on the interaction between reserve and variation. Protected areas, especially if off-reserve areas. It is widely acknowledged they are small, may have large fluctuations that a forest area cannot be viewed in in species populations as a result of random isolation but that there is a need to consider events. Inflow of individuals, and with them the whole forest landscape with its different genes, from the matrix may help to counteract forest types, stages of maturity, and degrees local extinctions and to increase the viability and types of management (Figure 1.2). of populations.

Quality of production forest (the denser the Protected forest pattern, the higher the quality)

Figure 1.2. In the forest landscape there is an interaction between the quality of the matrix and the size of the protected forest. In order to maintain a high level of biodiversity, the quality of the matrix needs to be high when the protected area is small. With large areas of protected forests, the need to consider biodiversity in production forests decreases 40 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

b. Regulating movement skidding and road construction can seriously The movement of individuals between existing impact aquatic systems. subpopulations and also to new sites is of fundamental importance to the long-term Critical factors for the preservation persistence of species in forest landscapes. of biodiversity Moist and wet tropical forest landscapes are usually not subjected to large catastrophic Environmental conditions disturbances as are the fire-prone landscapes The biodiversity of tropical rainforests of drier areas. Thus, many tropical rainforest represents a gigantic range of life forms. Each species have adapted to large, contiguous species has specific, unique requirements that tracts of forest and may have difficulty in need to be fulfilled if it is to persist and have adjusting their movement patterns when a viable population in the long term. These forests are cleared or partially felled. The requirements operate on different scales, e.g. composition of the matrix might enhance or immediately around a tree, in a stand of some seriously hinder the movement and dispersal hectares in which forestry operations are of species. Large cleared areas might totally conducted, or over a much larger area, e.g. preclude movement for some species, but if in the large landscapes of forest concessions, corridors which connect forest patches are covering hundreds or even thousands of square retained, this could suffice for the dispersal of kilometres. At these large levels, forest many of the species. planning is a key issue.

c. Buffering sensitive areas and reserves The environmental conditions that need to When forests are cleared, the environmental be fulfilled in order for species to exist can conditions change not only in the area felled be divided into different categories: site of but also on the edges of the surrounding occupancy/nesting, food/nutrients, water, forests. The degree of change depends on shelter, reproduction and dispersal (Table the type and intensity of felling, and on the 1.1). shape and size of the logged-over area. The effects are climatic, e.g. there are changes Dispersal can be taken as an example of a in radiation, temperature and air humidity. process that is of fundamental importance to However, interactions between organisms the abundance and distribution of species. As are also affected, e.g. predation is known to an example, plant dispersal has two phases, increase in edge zones. If biodiversity concerns 1) the movement of propagules (seeds, are taken into account during logging, the spores) from a source to a new site, 2) the contrasts between logged areas and reserves establishment and early development at the and other sensitive areas might be reduced. new site (Figure 1.3). The effectiveness of small set-aside areas might be increased if logging is less intense in Dispersal mode and capacity vary enormously their edge zones. between the different organisms. Some, such as plants with large quantities of frequently d. Maintaining the integrity of aquatic systems Water bodies are very important components in forest landscapes and occur in widely different sizes, from large lakes and rivers to small pools and wallows. Watersheds are drained through intricate networks of watercourses of different sizes. When forest landscapes are logged, the form and function of these networks may be severely altered. Habitats with and near water are of special importance to many plant and animal species PHASE 1 movement PHASE 2 establishment since they offer a more moist and humid environment than do the surrounding forests. Figure 1.3. The two-step process of dispersal Animals gather close to water, and live in for a plant, illustrated with the spread of a tree water and in the riparian zone. Felling, species by seed from one site to another Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 41

Table 1.1. Conditions that are required for the long-term persistence of plant and animal species, with examples Condition Examples for plants Examples for animals Occupancy/nesting site Tree stems – orchids (epiphytes) Tree crowns – monkeys Leaves – bryophytes and lichens Large trees – hornbills (epiphylls) Hollow trees – owls Riversides – hydrophilic (water- loving) plants Food/nutrients Uptake from soil. Mycorrhiza Vegetation for herbivores, prey (symbiosis with fungus in for carnivores, carcasses for which the plant provides the scavengers fungus with carbohydrates and the fungus provides the plant with nutrients. Parasitism. Saprophytism (dead material) Water Groundwater for ground-living Lakes, watersheds, pools, herbs, rainfall for epiphytes. wallows Shelter Presence of dense and dark tree Protection from predators, e.g. canopy for shade-demanding dense vegetation, large tree plants crowns, hollow trees Reproduction Production of viable seeds/ Production of healthy off-spring spores that are able to establish that will survive and in due and grow, and in due course course reproduce reproduce Dispersal Wind, water, animals that carry Environments that allow seeds or spores (passively or movement to new sites. For actively) many rainforest animals this often implies the presence of large tracts of unspoilt forest produced wind-borne seeds, may disperse between these two cases. If a species is rare very widely. Others, such as arboreal animals and dispersal-limited, it is important to save that never leave tree-crowns, are restricted the actual sites where it occurs, which means to existing forest patches. It has been claimed that forest management must be undertaken that species that have evolved over a long time very carefully or avoided altogether, i.e. areas under stable environmental conditions can be are set aside. If a species is substrate/habitat- expected to have lower dispersal capacity limited but has good dispersal capacity, than species that have evolved in changing, the preservation of key factors might be dynamic landscapes (Fahrig 1990). incorporated into forest management, such as leaving nest trees and food resources. Species may be limited in their movement to and establishment at new sites in two ways. Landscape properties They may be dispersal-limited, which means Almost all species are not only dependent on that they are hindered by producing only the conditions in their immediate surroundings few seeds/individuals or that their capacity but also are impacted by events and conditions to move is restricted. They may also be in a larger context. This is most evident for substrate/habitat-limited, which means that mobile species, such as most animals, but they cannot establish themselves in new is also important for plants. Pollination and environments because of a lack of suitable dispersal are often mediated by animals, substrate or habitat, even though they can and their populations are often regulated by disperse easily. An example is the hornbill, processes that take place on a large scale. A which has no problem in moving to new sites major assumption in conservation models at but which cannot establish itself if there is a landscape level is that species are promoted lack of fruit and nest trees. For conservation if their sites (patches) are connected. The purposes it is very important to differentiate landscape can be viewed as a mosaic with 42 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

production forests, the patches to the set- Patch aside areas and the corridors to connecting Matrix links between the protected areas.

Metapopulation dynamics is an important concept, mainly in conservation biology science and also in practical biodiversity Corridor conservation (Hanski 1999). A metapopulation is a ‘population of populations’, i.e. in a local Figure 1.4. Landscapes can be divided into population there are many subpopulations components of patches, corridors and matrix (patches), with some contact between them. (Forman 1995) There is constant change in a metapopulation, with dispersal between and extinction within subpopulations (Figure 1.5). Metapopulation col models study only one species at a time, and col they are often used to assess the extinction ext ext risk of a species in a landscape.

Conservation applications of the metapo col pulation theory imply that biodiversity ext planning needs to be performed at such large scales that there are several subpopulations of a species within a target area. Information col on the dispersal capacity, extinction risks and colonization abilities in patches needs to be taken into account. Figure 1.5. In a metapopulation there are Fragmentation and the importance of extinctions (ext) and colonizations (col) in habitat size subpopulations (patches) and dispersal Fragmentation means that large contiguous between them (arrows). Some patches are areas of habitat are transformed into a smaller occupied (grey) and some are empty (white) number of patches (Figure 1.6). Fragmentation due to local extinctions causes a reduction in the total amount of habitat, an increase in number of habitat three components, i) patches with more-or-less patches, a decrease in the sizes of habitat homogenous conditions that are suitable for a patches and an increase in the isolation of species, ii) corridors that are linear patches patches. The generally held view among of the same type, and iii) matrix, i.e. areas conservation biologists today is that isolation that are not suitable or are suboptimal for the between patches is negative for many species species (Figure 1.4). In forest conservation but that reduction in habitat poses an even biology, the matrix is often equivalent to the more severe threat (Fahrig 2003), however in

Figure 1.6. Fragmentation is the transformation of continuous habitat into a smaller number of patches, i.e. the development from left to right Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 43

order to maintain the rainforest vertebrate Care should be taken when using the concept fauna, for example, it is also very important of extinction debt in an uncritical manner since to retain a contiguous forest (Meijaard et al. it most probably depends largely on the overall 2005). quality of the landscape, not least the state of the matrix surrounding the fragmented area. Fragmentation is often discussed in relation to extinction threshold, i.e. a threshold level of References the habitat below which a population cannot sustain itself. It has been suggested that the Curran, L.M., Trigg, S.N., McDonald, A.K., Astiani, D., threshold has been reached when only 20–30% Hardiono, Y.M., Siregar, P., Caniago, I. and Kasischke, of a habitat remains in the landscape (Flather E. 2004. Lowland forest loss in protected areas of and Bevers 2002). As a general rule, species Indonesian Borneo. Science 303: 1000-1003. Fahrig, L. 1990. Interactive effects of disturbance and number increases with area in a non-linear dispersal on individual selection and population manner. This species-area curve is one of the stability. Comments on Theoretical Biology 1: 275- most important and consistent relationships in 299. ecology (Figure 1.7). Fahrig, L. 2003. Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 34: 487-515. Species FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the number United Nations). 2005. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005. Progress towards sustainable forest management. FAO Forestry Paper No. 147. FAO, Rome. Flather, C.H. and Bevers, M. 2002. Patchy reaction- diffusion and population abundance: the relative importance of habitat amount and arrangement. American Naturalist 159: 40-56. Forman, R.T. 1995. Land mosaics: The ecology of landscapes and regions. Cambridge University Press, New York and Cambridge. Hanski, I. 1999. Metapopulation ecology. Oxford Area University Press, Oxford. Hanski, I. and Ovaskainen, O. 2002. Extinction debt at Figure 1.7. One of the most fundamental extinction threshold. Conservation Biology 16: 666- principles in ecology is that species number 673. increases with area in a non-linear manner Lindenmayer, D.B. and Franklin, J.F. 2002. Conserving forest biodiversity. A comprehensive multiscaled approach. Island Press, Washington, D.C. From the species–area rule it follows that if an Meijaard, E., Sheil, D., Nasi, R., Augeri, D., Rosenbaum, area is reduced in size there will be a more- B., Iskandar, D., Setyawati, T., Lammertink, M., or-less predictable decrease in the number of Rachmatika, I., Wong, A., et al. 2005. Life after species it can hold. Some species react very Logging. Reconciling wildlife conservation and slowly to habitat change, however, and may production forestry in Indonesian Borneo. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and not become extinct until many years after UNESCO, Jakarta. fragmentation begins. This time delay is called Myers, N., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., de an ‘extinction debt’ (Tillman et al. 1994), Fonseca, G.A.B. and Kent, J. 2000. Biodiversity i.e. the number of species that are expected hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: eventually to become extinct as result of 853-858. irreversible past changes in the habitat. The Primack, R. and Corlett, R. 2005. Tropical Rain Forests. extinction debt is considered to be especially An Ecological and Biogeographical Comparison. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, USA. large in communities where many species are Tillman, D., May, R.M., Lehman, C.L. and Nowak, M.A., rare, and for such species the time delay can 1994. Habitat destruction and the extinction debt. be very long (Hanski and Ovaskainen 2002). Nature 371: 65-66. 44 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

Appendix 2 National guidelines for sustainable forest management and biodiversity considerations in South East Asia

Introduction PDR against recommendations made in Life In Appendix 2, forest management in the after Logging (Meijaard et al. 2005, 2007a, following countries is discussed briefly: Brunei b, c; Sheil and Meijaard 2005). However, all Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, the countries named in the first paragraph Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, above are discussed because advances in Thailand, Timor-Leste and Vietnam. This is forest management or SFM are possible followed by a discussion of efforts being made signs of an opportunity for biodiversity to towards sustainable forest management (SFM) be given consideration in production forest and the extent to which environmental and management. biodiversity guidelines are covered within the SFM approach. Guidelines relevant to SFM in The history of forest management and the general and biodiversity in particular as well current status of SFM vary considerably across the as information relating to certification in each countries. Several countries, namely Indonesia, country are detailed in Table 2.1. Malaysia and Myanmar, have a long tradition of forest policy development, and management of Many of the countries in South East Asia do not forest resources spans decades. The National yet have drafts or even official guidelines for Forest Policy of Malaysia was adopted by the biodiversity to be given consideration in logging National Forestry Council in 1977. The forest concessions. Only in Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao policy in Indonesia was derived from Article PDR, Malaysia and Vietnam has there been 33 of the Indonesian Constitution of 1945 and any concrete action relating to biodiversity Forestry Act No. 5 in 1967, which was replaced in logging concessions, and this ranges from by Forestry Act No. 41 in 1999. Myanmar has the actual production of guidelines, in the an even longer history of forest policy, starting case of Cambodia and Malaysia, to the Forest with the Burma Forest Act in 1902, which was Stewardship Council (FSC) certification of repealed in 1992 by the State Law and Order production forests, in Indonesia and Lao PDR. Restoration Council. In Cambodia, Lao PDR and Table 2.2 scores biodiversity management Vietnam, forest policies have been formulated guidelines from Cambodia, reduced-impact more recently and the new state of Timor-Leste logging (RIL) guidelines from Indonesia, and is just beginning the process of developing its biodiversity monitoring guidelines from Lao forest policy. Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 45

2005, et al. et al.) . 2006b). et al Specific Guidelines for Biodiversity No specific guidelines Biodiversity Conservation Guidelines for Managed Forests, 2000 (MAFF, WCS input) 1. Life after Logging (Meijaard and Indonesian version (Meijaard 2006a). 2. Practitioners guide to managing High Conservation Value Forest in Indonesia (Meijaard 1. Guidelines and Procedures for Biodiversity Monitoring in Production Forest Areas 2006 (SUFORD) 2. HCVF Toolkit for LAO PDR (only draft SUFORD) 1 International Certification Scheme None None FSC Natural Forest (4) Planted Forest (1) FSC Natural Forest (2) National Certification Scheme None None Indonesian Ecolabelling Institute – LEI None National Forest Policy. Brunei Selection Felling System. Five Star Approach to Excellence. Basic Guidelines for Logging in Mixed Dipterocarp Forest Cambodian Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting, July 1999. Cambodian Forest Law (Revised 2000 Sub-Decree on TPTI Selective Felling and Planting System, 1989. RIL Guidelines for Indonesia, 2003, various technical manuals by National Code of Timber Harvesting Practices in Lao, 2005. Prime Minister Decree No. 59 dated 22/5/2002 re: Sustainable Guidelines for SFM (2000) containing Forest Forest Concession Management Planning Manual for SFM 2001. Sustainable Forest Management Plans (SFMP). Field Guide to RIL in Cambodia, 1999. (undated). Concession Management). Concession Management Planning Systems; Construction Guidelines for Forest Engineering Works; Special Area Management; Biodiversity Conservation Guidelines for Managed Forests; Guidelines for Socio-Economic Surveys of Communities Surrounding Forest Concession Areas; Guidelines for Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA). TFF/MOF/ITTO. EIA (AMDAL) required. Principles and Practices of Timber Harvesting in Indonesia, 2000. Criteria and Indicators of Natural Production Forest Utilisation, 2002 Management of Production Forest Areas. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. National Guidelines Country SFM SFM Initiative Brunei Darussalam Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Table 2.1. SFM initiatives on a country-by-country basis on a country-by-country initiatives 2.1. SFM Table 46 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al. Specific Guidelines for Biodiversity 1. Sarawak Wildlife Plan 1996. None found None found Not applicable None 1. HCVF Toolkit 2. Biodiversity Guidelines (SLU, CIFOR, FSIV, Sida) 1 International Certification Scheme FSC Natural Forest (1) Mix Planted/ Natural Forest (1) Planted Forest (1) None None Not applicable FSC Planted Forest (2) None FSC Planted Forest (1) National Certification Scheme Malaysian Timber Certification Council (MTCC) Timber Certification Committee set up but no details None Not applicable None None None Selective Management System (SMS). Model Forests. Code of Practice for Harvesting Natural Inland Forest, Myanmar Selection System (MSS) dates back to 1856. National Code of Timber Harvesting Practices in Myanmar, 2000. Myanmar C&I (undated). Drafting CoP. RIL Guidelines for Vietnam 2003. Vietnam C&I. Code of Forest Harvesting Mangrove Forest, Peninsular Guidelines for RIL in Peninsular Malaysia, 2003. RIL Guidelines, Sabah Forestry, 1999. Guidelines/Procedures on Reduced and Low Impact Harvesting The Manual of Silviculture for the Permanent Forest Estate RIL Operation Guide Book Specifically for Crawler Tractor Use, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Guidelines for Logging Procedures for Identifying and Demarcating Sensitive Areas Guidelines for Forest Road Layout and Construction, Sarawak, Wildlife Conservation Enactment, Sabah, 1997. Biodiversity Enactment, Sabah, 2000. Peninsular Malaysia, 1997. Malaysia, 1997. Systems, Sarawak, 1999. Sarawak, 1999. Sabah, 2001. and Forest Clearance Activities, Sabah, 2002. the Protection of Soil and Water, Sarawak, 1999. 1999. 1. 1 1. 2. 3. 2. 3. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 12. 13. 14. 15. National Guidelines CoP not yet published. Philippines Selective Logging System. Not applicable. None found. In process of developing forest policy. Country SFM SFM Initiative Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Timor - Leste Vietnam List from FSC website, accessed October 2006 http://www.fsc.org/keepout/en/content_areas/92/1/files/ABU_REP_70_2006_10_05_FSC_certified_forests.pdf 1 Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 47

Table 2.2. Forest management guidelines for biodiversity conservation by country scored against Life after Logging guidelines (Meijaard et al. 2005) Cambodia Lao PDR Indonesia Biodiversity recommendations for Biodiversity Guidelines for Codes of production forest managers Conservation Biodiversity Practice/RIL Guidelines Monitoring1 Planning before logging Ecological survey and impact assessment *** * NA Conservation planning *** * NA Operational planning *** ** NA Maintaining landscape connectivity and *** ** NA watershed protection Specific biodiversity surveys *** NM ** Minimizing damage during logging and related operations Roads and infrastructure *** ** NA Protecting reserved areas *** ** NA Minimizing damage in production areas *** ** NA Maintaining habitat complexity and diversity *** ** NA Keeping keystone resources *** * ** Post-logging operations *** * NA Minimizing indirect impacts and threats Hunting and extraction ** * *** Fire NM ** NM Exotic and invasive species * NM NM Domestic animals NM NM NA Traffic * NM NA Pollution * * NA Logging and conservation for local people *** *** NA Develop forest practices that honour local *** *** NA rights Implementation and vigilance *** Monitoring *** ** *** Legal aspects, and implementation and *** ** control Awareness and training ** *** *** Species-specific suggestions Provide management recommendation on a * NM NA species-by-species basis Recommendations for government planning The need for a wildlife master plan *** NM NA Land tenure agreement * * NA Fragmentation *** NM NA Hunting and fishing *** NM NA Law enforcement *** NM *** Effective implementation ** NM NA Explanation of key: *** - well covered; ** - adequately covered; * - briefly mentioned; NM – not mentioned; NA – not applicable. 1. These guidelines relate only to biodiversity monitoring. 48 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

post-logging assessment of the timber stand. Brunei Darussalam Trees to be cut and harvested and remaining trees that constitute the next timber crop are Not ITTO Member. Not Asia Pacific Forestry marked. Woody climbers are removed if they Commission member. Not signatory to pose competition or if they are likely to hamper Convention on Biological Diversity. logging operations. The size of commercial species harvested is governed by a set of diameter limits. At the same time, undesirable Background trees are cut in order to liberate the selected Brunei Darussalam is a relatively small residual crop trees from competition. About country, covering only 576 000 ha, but 78% of 10 years after logging, silvicultural treatments its land area is covered in tropical rainforest, are applied until the end of the felling cycle. ranging from mangrove, freshwater swamp The application of enrichment planting in and peatswamp forests to tropical heath, understocked areas and openings created mixed dipterocarp and montane forests. The during logging operations is an important remaining areas are plantation and secondary component of the system. forests. There is very little threat to the forests and biodiversity of Brunei. The country Private sector harvesting of commercial enjoys a high standard of living through its and obligatory timber is permitted by the significant oil reserves and, with a relatively Government of Brunei under the supervision low population density, pressure on forest of the Forestry Department. Harvesting is resources is very low. The export of timber based on a quota system, which is subject is banned, and very limited logging activities to periodic review. At present, logging is harvest only to meet local needs. The country limited to 100 000 m3 per annum, and is has a significant protected areas network with strictly confined to meeting local needs for around 20% of the total land area under some wood products. Consequently, the bulk of form of protection. The National Forest Policy Brunei’s consumption of wood products is emphasizes environmental conservation and met by imports. Harvesting in Brunei’s forests protection, taking into account the need to is carried out almost exclusively under the conserve and maintain the nation’s biodiversity Brunei Selection Felling System. heritage. This policy also addresses the need to protect water catchments and to prevent Sustainable Forest Management erosion and flooding. The absence of real pressure on Brunei’s forests, and the strong role government plays Forest Management in their management, means few special Forest management in Brunei is largely carried initiatives have been required to promote out or closely monitored by the Department of sustainable forest management by the private Forestry. The department places considerable sector. Pursuit of the vision of Five Star emphasis on its planning systems. All forests in Excellence in tropical forestry has propelled Brunei are managed in accordance with formal, the Forestry Department to identify several nationally approved management plans. Around priority areas for action, including the need 65% of Brunei’s forests are designated as for a survey of forest reserves in order to production forests and are managed according develop additional protective legislation and to appropriate management plans, which to improve silvicultural efforts in natural incorporate stringent harvesting regulations. forests. A particularly important objective is Other forest areas are managed for a variety the implementation of full forest and wildlife of conservation, protection and recreational inventories. purposes. Biodiversity and Sustainable Forest Four principal silvicultural systems have been Management utilized in Brunei during the past century. Apart from general statements about Since 1986, a modification of the Selective sustainable forest management and Management System (SMS) practiced in conservation of biological diversity, no specific Malaysia has replaced the Malayan Uniform guidelines were encountered which addressed System. This system, known as the Brunei the issue of biodiversity considerations within Selection Felling System, involves pre- and logging areas. It is assumed that logging Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 49

standards are fairly high and that operating little Internet information on sustainable procedures in Malaysia have been taken as a forest management in Brunei beyond general precedent. information available on the FAO Forestry website. As Brunei is not a member of the Information Sources International Tropical Timber Organization The majority of this information was collected (ITTO) or the Asia Pacific Forestry Commission from the country profile information on the (APFC) these usually good sources of UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) information were not available. No individuals Forestry website (FAO 2006a). Unlike many were contacted in relation to forestry in other countries in this review, there was Brunei. 50 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

category include Eld’s Deer Cervus eldi, Cambodia Banteng Bos javanicus (Figure 2.1), Jungle Cat Felis chaus, Bengal Florican Houbaropsis ITTO Member. Member of Asia Pacific bengalensis, Eastern Sarus Crane Grus Forestry Commission. Has acceded to the antigone, Giant Ibis Thaumatibis gigantea, Convention on Biological Diversity. Greater Adjutant Leptoptilos dubius and Siamese Crocodile Crocodylus siamensis (DFW 2002).

Background Forest Management The extent of forest is estimated by FAO Prior to the early 1990s, the forests of at 9.33 million ha (FAO 2005) whereas the Cambodia were managed in a relatively Forestry Administration (FA) of the Ministry conservative manner, felling was mainly of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) carried out manually using axes and extraction estimates 11.1 million ha (ITTO 2006). by buffalo or elephant. Subsequent political Cambodia’s lowland tropical moist forest developments caused this system to disappear; covers the northeastern part of the country in the mid 1990s, the Government of Cambodia bordering Laos and Thailand, and is dominated awarded 30–40 timber concessions totalling an by Dipterocarpaceae. Medium-altitude closed area of 7 million ha to a range of Cambodian and forest is found in the hilly country around the foreign-owned companies (Global Witness 2005), Gulf of Thailand and east of the Mekong River. and timber harvesting became mechanized. Closed deciduous forests and open forests are mixed and found in the northwestern part of There have been many international efforts to the country. Deforestation and illegal logging assist Cambodia to improve forest management are a serious problem and are having a major (Hinrichs & Mckenzie 2004). Since 1998, the impact on efforts towards sustainable forest Forest Authority, and its predecessor, the management (SFM) (ITTO 2006). Directorate of Forestry and Wildlife, have developed a broad set of regulations and Cambodia is not a global biodiversity ‘hotspot’ guidelines to control and safeguard forest and for most biological groups it is not rich in management practice in concession areas, species, has fairly low rates of endemism and with funds and technical support from FAO, is relatively low in geographic diversity (DFW Asian Development Bank (ADB), the World Bank 2002). However, Cambodia is exceptionally and several bilateral donors (see Table 2.1 for important for some specific components of a list of guidelines available). The World Bank faunal biodiversity that have become extinct funded a Forest Concession Management and or greatly reduced in other countries of the Control Pilot Project (FCMCPP) to help resolve region. A few examples of animals in this controversial issues in concession management and public consultation; this report received some criticism (Global Witness 2005).

In 2000 the government conducted a review of all forest concessionaires to determine whether they were acting in compliance with their contracts and with Cambodian law (Kollert et al. 2000). The review recommended that new contracts and management plans should be drawn up, and that, in the interim, a moratorium on harvesting should be imposed. As a result of this review, 22 forest concessions covering an area of 3 million ha were terminated (Kollert et al. 2000). Sustainable Forest Management Cambodia has no shortage of recent guidelines Figure 2.1. Male Banteng Bos javanicus at relating to SFM, as seen in Table 2.1, and has water hole. Photo: courtesy WCS Cambodia the largest selection of guidelines pertaining Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 51

to SFM of any country assessed in this study. compartment and coupe), discuss the different The set of guidelines for SFM were created levels of biodiversity management, and with assistance from the World Bank’s FCMCPP. identify key tasks at each level, which again These guidelines may be perceived as more reduces confusion for the prospective forest of a burden than a blessing as they are more manager (see Table 2.3, below). likely to lead to confusion than to clarification for any forest manager seeking guidance. As can be seen in Table 2.2, these guidelines Amongst these guidelines is the only set of are very comprehensive and amply cover most national guidelines that relate specifically to of the recommendations suggested by Meijaard biodiversity conservation within production et al. (2005) in Life after Logging. Starting at forests in South East Asia. the regional scale, the guidelines stress the importance of viewing the forest management Another instrument directed at achieving SFM unit (FMU) as part of the wider landscape is the Cambodian Code of Practice for Forest and its constituent parts. They also introduce Harvesting, which was made official policy on 26 the concept of the Biodiversity Conservation July 1999. A Model Forest Concession Agreement Network to create: ‘a continuously-connected was also developed in collaboration with the Biodiversity Conservation Network (BCN) World Bank and ADB technical assistance, as a within the natural forest estate and individual framework for dialogue between the Forestry FMUs providing ecological linkages through the Administration, concessionaires and other landscape’ (DFW 2002). However, there are no stakeholders (DFW et al. 2001). However, very specific recommendations for how this may be little has come of this. done, although it is obvious that this is a multi- stakeholder type of task that would require The Biodiversity Conservation significant cooperation and coordination Guidelines between government departments, local The Biodiversity Conservation Guidelines communities and other FMUs. A single FMU (BCGs) were initially prepared in 1998, by a manager would need considerable will short-term World Bank mission to the FCMCPP, and guidance to attempt to carry out this and were incorporated without modification recommendation. into the Guidelines for Sustainable Forest Management published in 2001 (Hinrichs & The level of conservation planning guidance Mckenzie 2004). In addition, in June 2002 within the FMU is fairly detailed, especially for the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), aspects such as keystone species, as seen in the in conjunction with the FA, World Bank following text: ‘A major focus of biodiversity and Samling Ltd., held a workshop on conservation at the stand level will be the Biodiversity Conservation in Concession protection and retention of specific ‘keystone’ Forests in Cambodia, which has helped some ecological species and features. This will be concessionaires. Guidance on biodiversity achieved through identifying features such conservation is also provided in other forest as pollinating species (such as insects, bats, management guidelines such as Forest primates, birds, etc); seed-dispersing species Function Zonation, and also in Guidelines for (such as bats, birds, civets, mongooses, Special Area Management, which forms part primates, elephants, pigs etc); cavity- of the SFM Guidelines. Finally, biodiversity excavating species (such as woodpeckers, assessment and impact mitigation are also key parakeets, bears etc); ‘wallowing’ species components of the Environmental and Social (such as wild cattle, pig, elephant, large deer, Impact Assessment (ESIA). etc) that create waterholes used by many other animals; and predators that regulate The BCGs provide a logical conceptual herbivore populations (such as cats, wild dog, orientation for the concession planner, raptors, other carnivores, etc); topographic reviewing the relevance of biodiversity to features; mineral licks; riparian communities forestry concessions, the general principles and wetlands; small springs, moist depressions of forest biodiversity management, key and wallow; rock outcrops; and ridge tops.’ characteristics of Cambodian biodiversity, and the legal framework for its protection. The foundation of successful biodiversity The guidelines are presented in a nested conservation within an FMU is undoubtedly the hierarchical format (regional, concession, quality of ecological surveys and planning that 52 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

are carried out prior to logging. These surveys Special Case Study: Pioneering identify important habitats and species for Wildlife Conservation in Managed protection, and provide a baseline for future Forests in Cambodia monitoring of the impact of concession Between 2000 and 2002, the WCS Cambodia management on fauna and flora. However, the Program, SL International (Samling), and BCGs do not provide any detailed guidelines on the Department of Forestry and Wildlife how this should be achieved. This is a specialist (DFW) had a collaborative programme for task and requires considerable training and biodiversity conservation, focusing on wildlife, knowledge. Concessionaires are directed to on the Samling Forestry Concession, focusing use the IUCN/The Nature Conservancy (TNC) in Keo Seima District, in Mondulkiri Province rapid appraisal methods, but no source is (Poole 2002). WCS previously had a successful given in order to enable them to locate this collaboration with Samling in Sarawak. information. It would be more helpful to suggest that if the concessionaires do not have WCS identified hunting of wildlife as the major qualified staff, which is most likely, they seek threat to biodiversity conservation within guidance from conservation organizations, the Samling concession area for a number of such as WCS in Cambodia, that have previously key reasons (Poole 2002). First, hunting by formed partnerships with concessions in outsiders had major implications for the food Sarawak and Cambodia with the objective of security of local ethnic communities whose carrying out biological surveys (see below). main source of protein was from Red Muntjac Muntiacus muntjak and Wild Pig Sus barbatus. The issue of hunting is particularly well Second, it was found that populations of key covered in the guidelines. WCS Cambodia pollinators and dispersers, such as fruit bats, Program provided detailed input to an earlier hornbills and primates, which are essential in version of the guidelines, which were clearly order to ensure forest regeneration and long- deficient in this area. Hunting is mentioned at term SFM, were reduced as a result of hunting the FMU, compartment and coupe level (see pressure. In addition, it was found that illegal Table 2.1). There is an absolute ban on hunting, hunting went hand-in-hand with other illegal purchasing or transporting of all wildlife by practices such as collecting large amounts of company employees and their families, and the NTFPs. Finally, field surveys by WCS confirmed concessionaire is obliged to ensure that a good that the concession was important for globally alternative source of protein is supplied to threatened bird and mammal species. company employees. Company vehicles are to be routinely checked to ensure that they are not Unfortunately, Samling was one of the transporting wildlife, and the company should concessions ‘frozen’ in 2002, but up until check that local communities are hunting non- that point WCS, Samling International, DFW, protected species sustainably. Roads no longer and MAFF had made the following concrete in use should be closed so they cannot be progress: used by hunters. A detailed assessment should be made of the hunting trends in the area, • WCS and Samling had entered into a formal working with local communities, concession agreement on collaboration and the input of staff and local authorities, and focusing wildlife and habitat data and conservation on who is hunting what species, where, at recommendations into the Environmental what levels and for what purpose or market; and Social Impact Assessment component local markets are to be checked for wildlife of Samling’s Forest Management Plan trade. In addition to these recommendations, submitted to the government in September the guidelines call for regular patrolling and 2001; and law enforcement. Again, these guidelines • Samling had issued an order to all camp cover most issues connected with hunting employees, contractors and security staff, but actual guidance on implementation is banning all hunting and trade in wildlife lacking for some aspects, such as monitoring. or their parts. Non-residents and outsiders Regarding law enforcement, cooperation and were also to be actively discouraged from coordination with the Department of Forestry hunting or trading. An exception was made and Wildlife/police is critical. However, again, for local communities, who could hunt there is an opportunity for collaboration with for domestic consumption only. Any one conservation NGOs. Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 53

contravening this order would be dealt the support of ITTO; however this needs to be with severely by the company’s disciplinary followed up as a number of the C&I have not board. Fresh domestic meat is supplied to been fulfilled (ITTO 2006). all camps. Current Situation Follow-up recommendations were as follows: Officially all concessions are ‘frozen’ asa i) conduct a socio-economic survey of wildlife result of a long-running dispute over royalty hunting and consumption patterns, rates, and no one is quite sure of the current ii) WCS, the Cambodian Timber Industry status of the guidelines (Joe Walston (WCS) Association (CTIA), and DFW should hold personal communication). WCS worked with an internal workshop to promote wildlife Samling until 2002, when the concession was conservation in Cambodian concession ‘frozen’, therefore little is happening with the management; and implementation of SFM and there is no progress iii) evaluate and monitor populations of Focal with regard to the biodiversity guidelines. Key Species (Poole 2002). Information Sources Forest Certification and Criteria Of all countries within the scope of this study, and Indicators most of the material relevant to biodiversity Forest certification and labelling schemes management within logging concessions was have not yet been introduced in Cambodia. found for Cambodia. A good selection of Cambodia has prepared a report on Criteria material was found on the Internet, however and Indicators (C&I) for sustainable forest the majority of the material was generously management of natural tropical forests with provided by Joe Walston of WCS. 54 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

Table 2.3. Summary of Biodiversity Conservation Guidelines for Cambodia (DFW 2002)

2.1. Biodiversity Considerations at the PROVINCIAL LEVEL Issues • Incremental, unplanned loss of natural forest land, often the result of unsanctioned and illegal forest conversion activities, e.g. for agriculture, timber exploitation and settlement. • Loss of biodiversity through the conversion of habitats of regional importance (i.e. wetlands, old-growth forests, etc.). • Loss of connectivity between protected areas, and general habitat fragmentation. Management Measures • Rationalize land allocation by linking it to real assessments of land capability. • Slow the process of land, forest and water degradation. • Improve the prosperity and security of local communities. • Conserve important plant and animal biodiversity. Monitoring • Environmental Condition Monitoring (national and regional scale (1:100 000 – 1:250 000), regularly updated (every 5 years), land use/land cover/ land administration maps). • Compliance Monitoring (a regime of regular inspections and surveillance by government staff to curtail illegal land and resource use activities).

2.2 Biodiversity Conservation at the SUB-REGIONAL OR FOREST MANAGEMENT UNIT LEVEL Issues • The need to balance sustainable forest commodity production with the maintenance of ecological services, biodiversity and forest landscape stability. • Planning will have to look at both internal and regional levels in its compartment designations and management prescriptions. • Almost invariably the FMU will contain land and biodiversity resources of significant cultural, subsistence and economic value to local communities. Management Measures • Designate major ecological, watershed, traditional-use and stream protection compartments and their interconnection in a biodiversity conservation network (BCN). • Maintain a near-natural range of age classes, forest stand composition and structure, and spatial distribution of important plant communities within the production forest compartments. • Protect wildlife to maintain a full, natural composition of species at ecologically-functioning levels. Components of • Establishment of an Ecological Baseline. Management Plan (15 yrs) • Forest Zoning: Delineation of Compartments and a BCN. to achieve Management • Selection of Rotation Age and a Silvicultural System. Measures • Calculation of the Annual Allowable Cut (AAC). Monitoring • Environmental Condition Monitoring (measure forest change, biodiversity surveys). • Compliance Monitoring (harvest compliance, community relations, intensity of NTFP harvest, check illegal harvesting and hunting). Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 55

2.3. Biodiversity Conservation at the COMPARTMENT LEVEL Issues • Environmental degradation (particular of aquatic ecosystems) due to poor road building and stream-crossing practices. • Habitat fragmentation due to excessive road clearing widths and road densities. • Increased hunting of wildlife and exploitation of plant resources as a result of increased forest access. • Loss of forest structure and composition and introduction of exotic species due to inappropriate silvicultural practices. Management Measures • The concession must establish and enforce a total ban on the hunting, capture, consumption, transportation and trade of wildlife by its subcontractors and all its employees. • Roads and skid trails should be permanently closed as soon as possible after logging (with the exception of those providing essential access for local communities) by erecting vehicle barriers and removing bridges and culverts. • Recognizing the importance of wildlife as a protein source for local indigenous peoples, government and FMU staff should cooperate with local communities in the development of sustainable, community-based wildlife management programmes. • Hunting of wildlife and the harvest of traditional non-wood forest products by outside commercial interests should be prohibited and strictly enforced by regular foot and road patrols. Monitoring • Environmental Condition Monitoring (pre- and post-harvesting forest stand and vegetation surveys; monitor the status of wildlife and plant species). • Compliance Monitoring (access development and silvicultural plans checked; control any hunting by employees; check local markets for bush meat, illegally harvested forest products). 2.4. Biodiversity conservation at the FOREST COUPE AND BLOCK LEVELS Issues • Limiting soil and site disturbance. • Ensuring that annual coupe boundaries respect higher-level forest management unit zoning. • Ensuring that the size of openings is consistent with silvicultural and ecological objectives. • Protecting and retaining stand-level biodiversity values, especially identified ‘ecological keystones’. Management Measures • Prepare annual harvesting plans in accordance with compartment-level objectives and codes of best forest practice prescriptions that emphasize ‘reduced-impact logging’ techniques. • Plan for post-harvesting site rehabilitation. • Consider biodiversity at the coupe and block levels to focus on maintaining stand structure and vegetation species composition, and identify and protect ‘keystone’ ecological features (plant species and plant materials; animal species and the conditions necessary for their survival; and topographic features [mineral licks, springs, wallows etc.]). Monitoring • Compliance Monitoring (approved harvesting plans and permits are being followed; check for signs of hunting and other illegal activities). 56 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

Indonesia – Indo-Malaya, Oceania, and Australia – meet: resulting in a mixture of species with very ITTO member. Asia Pacific Forestry different evolutionary backgrounds. Commission member. Has ratified Convention on Biological Diversity. In biogeographic terms, the Indonesian island arc is traditionally referred to as the Malay Archipelago (Wallace 1876). It is a highly fragmented region consisting of >18 000 Background islands varying in size from a few hectares to some of the largest islands in the world. This Forest cover estimates vary from 105 million fragmentation has led to complex patterns of ha (FAO 2005) to 93 million ha as estimated species diversity, much of which remains to be by the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry using 2005 satellite imagery (Ministry of Forestry of discovered. Indonesia 2006). About 88% of forest cover is classified as tropical moist forest (ITTO 2006). Forest Management There has been a rapid loss of forest cover In Indonesia, forest harvesting is based on a in the last 40 years; the average annual loss well-established concession system whereby between 1990 and 2000 was an estimated 1.3 private concessions are granted to private million ha (1.2%) (FAO 2005). or state companies. Under the concession management system, each concessionaire is All of Indonesia’s natural forests are owned and required to prepare an Annual Management administered by the state and are designated Plan that covers production, marketing, as forestland (whether or not forest remains). equipment usage, road network development The total area of forestland according to and maintenance, and silvicultural activities latest reports is 133.6 million ha and this is on the logged areas, as well as community divided into conservation forest (20 million development. The concessionaire is also ha), protection forest (31.6 million ha) and required to submit a 5-year management production forest (59.2 million ha) (Ministry plan, as well as an overall plan that covers of Forestry of Indonesia 2006). The remaining the duration of the concession tenure, and area is designated as conversion forest (22 a comprehensive Environmental Impact million ha), and special function (7000 ha) Assessment Report for the entire concession (Ministry of Forestry of Indonesia 2006). area. Management plans must show progress However, in reality the decline in the forest in post-logging silvicultural activities to industry since the mid 1990s has seen the total ensure the sustainability of the forest for the area under forest concessions declining from a next harvesting rotation. Particular attention high of over 60 million ha to +/-25 million ha, is paid to the number of commercial species with a corresponding decline in the number of standing in post-harvest inventories. Failure concession licences from +/-570 to a current to file adequate plans is punishable by limiting number of around 250, of which fewer than 100 the following year’s production targets of the are considered to be active (Klassen 2006). violating concessionaire.

The lowland dipterocarp forests of Indonesia The dominant TPTI (selective felling system) are where most logging takes place, and these has been applied to management of the forests area globally renowned for their high natural forests since 1969. This system species richness and endemism. Indonesia is requires concession holders to manage on a one of the most species-rich areas in the world 35-year felling cycle (mangroves, by contrast, (e.g., Myers et al. 2000), with its terrestrial are managed on a 45-year cycle). No tree biodiversity being considered the second less than 50 cm in diameter may be felled highest of any country in the world (Stone for timber. At least 25 commercially valuable 1997). This species richness is primarily the trees with diameters between 20 cm and 30 result of the region’s dynamic geological past cm must remain per hectare after logging, and (Holloway and Hall 1998), and relatively stable enrichment planting is specifically required environmental conditions, which resulted in after harvesting. Seedling stock may come many speciation opportunities (e.g. Whitmore from either nurseries or from dense natural 1987). Indonesia is also the only place on regeneration elsewhere in the forest. Each earth where three biogeographic realms concession is divided into 35 blocks, and only Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 57

one block may be harvested per year. The forest area and high biodiversity as well as Ministry of Forestry sets an allowable annual long history of conservation NGO involvement cut that is based on the felling cycle and the in the country. However, as of December 2006, area under concession. A minimum of 700 ha 739 216 ha of natural forest have been certified within each concession area is required to be by FSC, two in East Kalimantan, one in Central protected as a conservation area. Kalimantan and one in Riau.

Sustainable Forest Management A number of conservation NGOs are working Indonesia demonstrates its commitment to collaboratively with logging concessions, establishing SFM through its membership such as The Nature Conservancy (TNC) in East of many international organizations and its Kalimantan. Activities by TNC have included adherence to all relevant major international (High Conservation Value Forest) HCVF conventions. The Ministry of Forestry has assessments for logging concessions (Meijaard developed laws and regulations on SFM. For et al. 2006b), developing techniques for instance in, April 1993, the Minister of Forestry biological surveys within logging concessions, issued a decree (No. 252/Kpts-II/1993) on the training company staff in identification of Criteria and Indicators for the Sustainable birds and mammals, and hunting surveys. Management of Natural Production Forests for application at the national level. This was Since 1993, CIFOR has been conducting long- followed by the decree (No. 208/Kpts/IV- term research in a 48 000-ha logging concession Set/1993) of the Director General for Forest managed by a state-owned company, in Utilization concerning Technical Guidance on Malinau, East Kalimantan. Wildlife monitoring Criteria and Indicators for management at the studies began in the late 1990s with baseline concession level. biological studies carried out in collaboration with WCS Indonesia. More recent surveys have Indonesia has operated as task manager for included camera-trapping. Based on CIFOR’s the FAO Asia Pacific Forestry Commission in experience in Malinau and work carried out by developing the Asia Pacific Code of Practice for other researchers in Borneo, the publication Forest Harvesting and has organized related Life after Logging was produced (Meijaard training tours and workshops. A national code et al. 2005). This book synthesizes a vast has also been prepared and a guidebook, amount of research in the area of wildlife and Principles and Practices of Forest Harvesting logging and provides a guide to biodiversity in Indonesia, was published in 2000 (Ministry of considerations in logging concessions, including Forestry of Indonesia 2000). RIL continues to be species-specific guidelines. An Indonesian- promoted and has involved the establishment language version of the book has recently been of RIL demonstration sites and the publication published, which makes its recommendations of a technical procedures manual and training available to a much wider audience of material (Elias et al. 2001) and five manuals practitioners (Meijaard et al. 2006a). by the Tropical Forest Foundation in Jakarta (Tropical Forest Foundation 2006). Since 1996, Information Sources around 100 forest concessionaires have been Internet sources such as the Indonesian trained in RIL techniques. Ministry of Forestry, FAO and ITTO websites provided useful background information on Biodiversity Considerations SFM. Grahame Applegate generously provided No specific biodiversity guidelines have been Codes of Practice documents for Indonesia and produced for Indonesia, despite its large other related information on RIL.

Figure 2.2. Aerial view of FSC-certified production forest, East Kalimantan. Photo: Ed Pollard 58 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

Lao People’s Democratic Forest Management The government’s principal forestry agency is Republic the Department of Forestry, housed within the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. The state owns all land, including forestland, though land- Not ITTO member. Asia Pacific Forestry use and management rights are devolved to Commission member. Has acceded to communities. Basic forestry policy and guidelines Convention on Biological Diversity. were formulated only in 1989.

All production forests, both natural forests and Background forest plantations, are required in principle, but Lao PDR retains a relatively high proportion of not always in reality, to be managed according to forests – about 16 million ha, which is almost 70% forest management plans derived from the results of its area (FAO 2006b), but there are conflicting of research carried out in the country and the figures for forest cover and it has been reported region. There are no management plan guidelines that as little as 41.5% remains forested (ICEM and no requirements to prepare them prior to 2003), half of which is degraded forest (World Bank allocation of harvesting quotas. There are basic 2001). The dominant evergreen forest types are operational management plans for harvesting, and dry or semi-evergreen forests and hill evergreen logging quotas for each province are worked out forests. The dominant deciduous forest types are based on assumptions that in some cases have yet mixed deciduous. The mountainous terrain is a to be adequately validated. Annual quotas are not barrier to commercial logging, with only 24% of set systematically and do not necessarily reflect the land below 5% slope and a good 70% over 20% forest management objectives. (ICEM 2003). Two and a half million hectares are designated as production forests, however these In 1991 concerns over unsustainable logging are not mapped, criteria for their designation practices and corruption led to a Presidential have not been published, and logging is not Decree banning logging. The full ban was, however, confined to these areas. Forests with potential relatively short-lived. The country stopped issuing for commercial production might actually total concessions for forest harvesting in 1994, but more than 5.6 million ha. Deforestation is logging is still permitted in areas designated occurring at a rate of 0.6–0.8% per year (World to become hydroelectric reservoirs, irrigation Bank 2001). reservoirs, transmission pylons, electricity lines and other infrastructural and rural development Lao PDR, Cambodia and Vietnam comprise the projects. Commercial forest harvesting in Lao PDR Indo-Malayan biodiversity hotspot. Species new is carried out almost exclusively by state-owned to science are still being discovered here, such enterprises such as the Bolisat Phattana Khet as the mammal shown in Figure 2.3, below, a Phoudoi (BPKP), a company founded and owned specimen of which was discovered by WCS in by the Ministry of Defence, or by joint ventures 2005 in a village market. associated with these companies.

Between 1996 and 2000 a project funded by the World Bank and the Government of Finland set up a series of Village Forestry Associations (VFAs) in Savannahkhet and Khammouane Provinces. The project, part of the Forest Management and Conservation Programme (FOMACOP), aimed to develop a model of ‘village forestry’, through which villagers would log the forests and receive a share of the income from the timber. The villagers organize themselves into VFAs, conduct participatory planning with other villages, demarcate boundaries, prepare village land-use plans, conduct forest inventories, prepare forest management plans, enter into an agreement Figure 2.3. Kha-nyou (Laonastes aenigmamus) – with the government to manage the forests, and a new species. Modified from Robert Timmins, prepare annual operation plans approved by the WCS relevant government authorities. Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 59

Sustainable Forest Management Biodiversity Considerations A positive step towards SFM was taken in 2002 A proposal for official guidelines on how to with Decree 59/PM/2002 on the Sustainable monitor biodiversity values relevant for managing Management of Production Forest Areas. production forest areas in Lao PDR was prepared Guidelines on the Control of Timber Production in 2006 (SUFORD 2006). These guidelines (see were published in May 2006 (Jonsson 2006), and Table 2.2) were precipitated by a review of this, in theory, should go a long way to improving HCVF assessments which were carried out in a situation in which there were no standards two production forest areas (PFAs) (SUFORD or guidelines for roading, landing locations, 2006). The authors felt that the HCVF Toolkit felling or extraction. There are few incentives for Lao PDR was unnecessarily complicated and for either efficient harvesting operations or difficult to interpret; they therefore proposed supervisory or monitoring procedures to ensure a set of guidelines: Guidelines and Procedures compliance with regulations and specifications. for Biodiversity Monitoring in Production Forest A National Code of Timber Harvesting Practice Areas. These guidelines remain in a draft state was drafted in mid 1997 and published in 2005 and the authors are sceptical that they will ever (Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission 2006). been taken up by the government.

The World Bank reported in 2001 that Lao forestry The objectives state, ‘Biodiversity monitoring is poorly equipped for the challenge of providing in PFAs are to provide relevant input for sustainable resource management and that the planning and implementation of Sustainable industry is in ‘disarray’ (TRP 2000; World Bank Forest Management that include integration 2001). Currently, there is major overcapacity of biodiversity aspects.’ The scope states, in the log-processing sector, and owners are ‘Biodiversity monitoring in PFAs is carried out actively seeking new timber resources (World and repeated yearly to gather, analyze and Bank 2001). While the government is aware of present data on biodiversity trends, ensuring this trend and is moving to address the situation, that biodiversity is not negatively impacted the level of exploitation and the dynamics of by the direct interventions (harvesting) or the forest production sector are not sustainable by indirect interventions (hunting/increased at the present time. agricultural encroachment) as result of management decisions taken on any level (from In an attempt to help the government resolve village to central level).’ this dire situation the Sustainable Forestry and Rural Development (SUFORD) Project (which The guidelines recommend that annual superseded FOMACOMP) is trying to institute biodiversity surveys are carried out in the PFAs nation-wide systematic forest management in by staff from the Division of Forest Resource natural production forests in order to alleviate Conservation from the Department of Forestry. rural poverty, protect biodiversity and enhance There are detailed requirements about who the contribution of forestry to the development should be in the team, the equipment required, of national and local economies in a sustainable and the need for forward budget planning to manner. The project recognizes the importance allocate funds for the activity. of multiple-use forestry which combines production aspects at the same time as The SUFORD team has also carried out baseline protecting the forests’ environmental functions biodiversity surveys in six PFAs (Poulsen et al. and biological diversity. The existing diversity of 2005, 2006). These surveys were carried out as flora and fauna has to be maintained as part of preparation for HCVF assessments. the forest management principles and therefore forms a biodiversity consideration in inventory Information Sources and planning, forest operations and harvesting. Dr. Michael Poulsen was very helpful in providing There are two FSC-certified forests in Lao, relevant documents on his biodiversity surveys totalling an area of 44 985 ha: one is a communal carried out for the SUFORD project. He also forest, the other is private. This is a positive answered general questions on issues pertaining development for SFM in Lao PDR with respect to SFM in Lao PDR. Otherwise information to helping the government improve forest was gleaned from the Internet, FAO and ITTO management practices in some areas. However, websites. there has been some recent criticism of these certifications with regard to Chain of Custody. 60 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

Since the 1950s, the development and Malaysia implementation of forest management working plans has been mandatory. Each forest ITTO member. Asia Pacific Forestry concession area or FMU, whether inside or Commission member. Has ratified outside the PFE and including protected areas, Convention on Biological Diversity. must have a Forest Management Plan that includes prescriptions for RIL, rehabilitation, wildlife management, forest biodiversity Background conservation, and environmental mitigation; Malaysia is a federation of 13 states, 11 in results of Pre-felling and Post-felling Forest the Malay Peninsula (West Malaysia) and 2 Inventories; records of enrichment planting; on Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak). Lowland and records of planting of rattan and forest evergreen tropical rainforest, dominated fruit trees. by Diptercarpaceae, is the principal forest formation on dry land at low altitudes in SMS operates on a 25–30 year felling cycle Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak. The with an expected net out put of 30–40 m³ per forest extent in 2005 was almost 21 million hectare. The minimum felling diameter at ha, covering almost 64% of the land area (FAO breast height (dbh) prescribed for dipterocarp 2006b). Deforestation rates were 0.4% between species is 50 cm. The felling limit for non- 1990 and 2000, and rose to 0.7% between 2000 dipterocarp species should not be less than and 2005 (FAO 2006b). 45 cm dbh, while the residual stocks should incorporate at least 32 sound commercial trees Forest Management per hectare with a diameter class of 30–45 cm. Peninsular Malaysia has a long history of Similar systems are practised in Sabah and careful forest management, and conservation Sarawak. The modified MUS and SMS promote of its extremely rich biological reserves is well RIL, with an emphasis on reducing residual developed (Collins et al. 1991). Peninsular damage to future crop trees. Environmental Malaysia has had a Forest Department for impact assessments are required for logging over 100 years. The Forest Departments of areas greater than 500 ha. the peninsula and the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak are independent. Major Sustainable Forest Management logging at high intensity started in the 1950s Efforts are also taken by the Forestry using the monocyclic Malayan Uniform System Departments to enhance in situ conservation (MUS), which has now been replaced by the of biological diversity during forest harvesting Selection Management System (SMS), which within the production forests of the PFE. includes polycyclic logging. Environmental protection and forest conservation measures such as subscribing The National Forest Policy clearly differentiates to approved forest harvesting guidelines and between a Permanent Forest Estate (PFE), forest road specifications, as well as leaving to be maintained and managed as forest in behind buffer zones to protect the water perpetuity, and State Land Forest, areas outside resources and minimize soil erosion, are the PFE often termed Conversion Forests. In also indicative of conservation efforts (ITTO the past, State Land Forests were designated 2006). for eventual clearing to meet demands for additional land for agricultural, urban or other In Sabah, the State Government has non-forest purposes. More recently, efforts are implemented a system of Sustainable Forest being made to incorporate these into the PFE. Management Licence Agreements (SFMLAs) as All forest land in Malaysia is state-owned. a means of SFM. Private sector organizations The National Forest Policy specifies that sign SFMLAs to manage forests in accordance productivity in the PFE be optimized through with SFM principles for 100 years. SFMLA sound regeneration and rehabilitation holders are expected to prepare long-term programmes compatible with environmental management plans, employ ecologically requirements, and that the conservation and friendly harvesting techniques, and undertake protection of the forests’ biological diversity, enrichment planting, forest rehabilitation and water, soil, and sustainable productivity silviculture. SFMLA holders are not permitted potential should also be provided for. to extract timber from their concession until Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 61

they have complied with all the conditions of government policy. The Master Plan was co- the licence. To date, however, most licence written by staff from WCS and the Sarawak holders have not been able to meet the Forestry Department. Its two core themes stringent guidelines or to fulfil the licence were control of unsustainable hunting, and conditions. conserving wildlife in different land categories. The implementation of this plan has included Harvesting in Malaysia is largely mechanized legislative changes incorporating a total legal with roads and skid trails built. Yarding is ban on sales of wildlife taken from the wild, generally done using tractors and skidders, regulations to control hunting in logging although cable yarding systems are used in concessions, and controlling modern hunting locations where roading options are limited. technologies. Implementation involved state- Malaysia is, however, implementing a large wide conservation education and enforcement number of innovative projects designed programmes, formal training for government to develop better techniques for RIL. staff, the creation of important new protected These include, for example, the testing of areas, and reductions in sales of shotgun helicopter logging in Sarawak (under an ITTO- cartridges. The results have been an increase funded Sarawak Model Forest Management in protected areas, and a decline in wildlife Area project implemented by the Sarawak trade (Bennett 2004). Factors contributing Forestry Department in partnership with to successful implementation of the Master Sarawak Timber Association). This project is Plan include: long-term field research and in- developing a variety of measures to encourage depth local knowledge; its being requested, efforts towards SFM, including airborne video supported throughout, and formally approved recording and mapping, computer-aided by the most senior government decision road building and design, and comparative makers; its being user-friendly and specific, studies of RIL logging, helicopter logging and including having timetables for action by conventional logging (ITTO 2006). specific agencies; and the rural population’s understanding the need for, and its support Forest management practices in Malaysia are for, the conservation measures proposed. presently in the process of a paradigm shift from sustained timber yield management to WCS, Samling Group and the sustainable forest ecosystem management. Sarawak Forest Department Malaysia is relatively advanced in this respect Since 2001 WCS has been working in the compared to other Asian countries (ITTO Upper Baram area with the Sarawak Forest 2006). The country has prepared national- Department and Samling Corporation on a level C&I for SFM, developed a domestic forest project designed to implement the Master management certification system (MTCC), Plan for Wildlife in Sarawak – in particular, the and has a relatively robust forest regulatory legal restrictions on the trade in wildlife – and and monitoring system. MTCC certificates for to work with local communities to reduce natural production forests are held for 4 730 hunting pressure on wildlife in the logging 774 ha; only 55 949 ha are outside Peninsular concession. This has involved conservation Malaysia, and in Sarawak they are held by education for local communities and logging the Samling Corporation. The Sabah Forestry company staff, enforcement operations in the Department holds an FSC certificate for its 55 logging camps, and regular wildlife surveys 683-ha Deramakot forest reserve. Nonetheless, and hunting interviews to assess wildlife the country recognizes that, in the future, the populations and hunting patterns. The Samling majority of harvesting will be carried out in concession is certified under the MTCC scheme regenerated logged-over forests. Hence, more as RIL techniques have been utilized in the intensive and prudent forest management concession. The logging company contributes practices will have to be applied to assessing to the cost of the biodiversity surveys. the current growing stock of logged forests and to ensuring their productivity and sustainability Deramakot, Sabah (ITTO 2006). The Sabah Forestry Department started to implement SFM in 1989, in collaboration with Biodiversity the German Agency for Technical Co-operation In 1997, the Sarawak Government adopted A (GTZ). The Deramakot Forest Reserve Master Plan for Wildlife in Sarawak as official (approximately 55 000 ha of logged-over forest) 62 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

in central eastern Sabah has been designated Ecological Research, Kyoto University, to an SFM Model Forest. SFM in Deramakot Forest investigate forest disturbance and recovery. Reserve has also been certified by the FSC as Biodiversity studies are conducted within a well managed forest. Deramakot is managed both programmes and thus such information in accordance with the principles of sustained will provide a more comprehensive picture yield and multiple-use forest management. of RIL and biodiversity. See Sabah Forestry RIL and Skyline logging techniques have Department website (http://www.forest. been researched and implemented there. At sabah.gov.my) and the Deramakot SFM Model present, two major research programmes are Forest website (http://www.deramakot. investigating the impact of forest harvesting sabah.gov.my) for more information. and forest disturbance in Deramakot. The programme on forest harvesting focuses on Information Sources the effect of different diameter felling limits Further information needs to be sought on and different degrees of slope on the flora the existence of guidelines for biodiversity and fauna. This programme is funded by the planning and monitoring in production forest Federal Government of Malaysia. The second areas in both Sarawak (Samling/WCS) and programme is being conducted in collaboration Sabah (Deramakot Model Forest/Sabah with a consortium led by the Centre for Forestry). Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 63

for logging, elephants assist by dragging logs Myanmar from stump to wider drag paths or clearings just outside the extraction area. Further ITTO member. Asia Pacific Forestry hauling or skidding is done by wheel loaders Commission member. Has not ratified onto timber hauling trucks. Convention on Biological Diversity The Forest Policy of 1995 lays out the basic following conditions for the protection of forests and biodiversity: production should Background be sustainable; it should satisfy basic needs; Myanmar holds more than half of mainland there should be institutional strengthening South East Asia’s closed forests. Most of and improvements in efficiency; forestry Myanmar’s undisturbed closed-canopy forests should be participatory; and public awareness are located in the mountains that ring the should be raised. Conservation objectives country. Peripheral to the Central Dry Zone emphasized include the protection of soils, are extensive mixed deciduous forests that are water catchments, ecosystems, biodiversity, of great economic importance as the source genetic resources, scenic reserves and of teakwood. The teak forests are surrounded national heritage sites. The policy plans for a by a fringe of moist evergreen forests and participatory approach to forest management evergreen mountain forests. Myanmar holds with an emphasis on people’s participation 70% of the world’s remaining teak forests. in forestry, wildlife and nature conservation The exploitation of the teak forests dates activities, as well as in establishing plantations back to 1856 (WRI 1998) (see Figure 2.4). The and increasing incomes through the use of total land area of Myanmar is 65 755 000 ha, community and agroforestry systems (U Khin of which 49% is recorded as forested (FAO Zaw 2003). 2006b). Deforestation rates for the past five years stand at 1.4% per annum (FAO 2006b). Sustainable Forest Management Although there are major challenges facing Forest Management the implementation of SFM, such as the Forest management is the remit of two limitation on resources and funding, recent main governmental institutions: the Forestry developments in terms of SFM include the Department, which undertakes conservation following (ITTO 2006): and management of forests, and the Myanma Timber Enterprise (MTE) which undertakes • Identification of C&I for SFM based on the extraction and utilization of the forests. ITTO initiative. Timber extraction follows the Myanma • Formulation and documentation of national Selection System (MSS). There is a National forest programmes. Code of Forest Harvesting Practice (2000) • Updating and reformulation of forest which is in the process of being implemented management plans covering the whole (see Table 2.1). country. • Establishment of model forests using a MTE employs a combination of animal and partnership approach. mechanical power for timber extraction • Formulation of National Code of Practice work (U Khin Zaw 2003). Animal skidding for Forest Harvesting in Myanmar (U Khin has proven to be the most economical and Zaw 2003). The Code was completed in environmentally friendly method of extraction 2000 and is now being disseminated to as it avoids the need to construct costly and national staff for implementation. easily eroded roads in forest or up steep, hilly terrain. Moreover animal skidding prevents In 1998, Myanmar set up a Timber Certification the possible destruction of valuable unfelled Committee with a mandate to develop trees. Stumping (felling and logging) and a national timber certification process. skidding are undertaken mainly by elephants, Myanmar has also established a National Code and in some flat areas water buffaloes are of Forest Harvesting Practices. The country used. MTE uses about 3000 elephants for its has established two model forests, Oktwin work, and 650 pairs of water buffalo are used and Pauk Khaung Model Forests, in the Bago for dragging. When mechanical power is used Yoma region. The Forest Department has co- 64 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

operated with the Japanese International 2003). The Global Witness report contains a Forestry Promotion and Cooperation Centre very thorough description of the theory and and the Japan Overseas Forestry Consultants reality of logging in Myanmar (Global Witness Association in managing these forests. 2003). As the country is effectively ‘closed’ Myanmar is also participating in a regional there are no markets for sustainably produced Implementation of Model Forest Approach timber, which means that existing markets are for SFM project. In the late 1990s, 62 forest interested only in low-cost timber which in management plans, covering forests of the turn means that producers tend to maximize entire country, were developed (ITTO 2006). short-term profits at the expense of long-term However, there are many reports that the forest investment in SFM. management system in Myanmar is far from sustainable (Global Witness 2003). As stated Biodiversity by Global Witness, ‘Burma is the epitome of No examples of biodiversity guidelines were unrealized potential, a country rich in natural found. BirdLife International is working in resources and social capital, yet poor.’ In 1999– Myanmar on the identification of Important 2000, the volume of Burma’s official recorded Bird Areas (IBAs), but was not contacted with timber exports totalled 806 000 m3, whilst regard to this report. during the same period importing countries recorded approximately 1.72 million m3, which Information Sources suggests illegal exports of 914 000 m3 (Global As the country is effectively closed it has been Witness 2003). Logging has led to environmental quite difficult to collect credible information. destruction, particularly in Kachin State where Will Duckworth, WCS, kindly provided some Chinese logging companies have clear cut comments on the situation. Follow-up with vast swathes of virgin forest (Global Witness BirdLife International would be prudent. Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 65

In the past, access to forest resources has The Philippines mostly been through licence agreements or permits operated mainly in large-scale ITTO Member. Asia Pacific Forestry operations involving thousands of hectares of Commission member. Has ratified forest land (ITTO 2006). Since 1993, specific Convention on Biological Diversity. forest management planning by private sector concessionaires has been carried out under Industrial Forest Management Agreements (legislated under Department Administrative Background Order No. 60, 1993). The various forms of Since the 1970s, the rapid depletion of timber community-based forest management (CBFM) stocks has triggered a shift in emphasis also require the preparation of management from timber harvesting and utilization, to plans. Forests under the Integrated Social protection, development and rehabilitation Forestry Programme (ISFP) are managed of forest lands (ITTO 2006). In the Philippines, under a Certificate of Stewardship Contract. Department Administrative Order No. 24 Production-sharing contracts for plantation (1991) prohibited logging in old growth forests forests managed under Forest Land and on slopes with gradients greater than 50%. Management Agreements (FLMAs) provide Logging is still permissible, however, in some for leasehold agreements, with specified second-growth natural forests. reforestation targets. As of October 1996, all people-oriented forestry programmes Forest Management were integrated and unified under the CBFM Forest management in the Philippines programme. By mid 1999 almost 4 million ha emphasizes multiple uses of forest lands (ITTO were covered by CBFM tenurial instruments. 2006). Management recognizes that forests serve production, conservation and protection Silvicultural interventions in the Philippines purposes. The specific forest management are predominantly carried out utilizing three goals encapsulated in the Master Plan for distinct management systems (ITTO 2006). Forestry Development reflect an emphasis on The Philippines Selective Logging System is conservation and social equity. The Master a polycyclic system, under which extensive Plan outlines general goals of conserving forest natural management is applied to residual ecosystems and genetic resources, while at dipterocarp forest. The system specifies the same time meeting people’s needs for that trees with a dbh greater than 60 cm be forestry products in a sustainable manner, and harvested, while 20–25 undamaged trees per promoting the country’s overall goals of social hectare with dbh in the range 36–60 cm remain justice based on principles of equity. Forest to provide the next crop. The system is expected management is also required to encompass to operate in felling cycles of around 40 years, proper land management practices to ensure though in practice the cycle is generally 30 protection of land against degradation, years – or sometimes less. Loggers are required including desertification, soil erosion, floods to implement Timber Stand Improvement (TSI) and other ecological calamities. Upland measures after harvest, although TSI measures watersheds are required to be managed to are regularly omitted from logging operations. facilitate the production of food, clean water, TSI is the post-logging phase of the system and energy and other basic needs. Forests are generally comprises refining and liberation. also expected to contribute to employment Refining involves climber cutting and girdling objectives and growth in national and local of over-mature and defective trees. Liberation economies. eliminates competing vegetation.

Forest management planning is envisaged to An intensive natural management system, be strongly consultative, with NGOs, private similar to the Malayan Uniform System, is also sector organizations, communities and other applied to dipterocarp forests. This system beneficiaries involved in participatory planning operates on a 60–80 year rotation and involves with national, regional and provincial planning removing the overstorey in a series of two or groups, and the Community, Environment and three harvesting operations over a period of Natural Resources Forestry Planning Group. 10 years. The canopy is gradually opened up, 66 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

and finally cleared, to induce regeneration. forestland resources (ITTO 2006). The system Silvicultural treatments are applied 10 years emphasizes the importance of a holistic after the final harvest, followed by two and systematic approach to forest land thinning operations at 20-year intervals. management. Under Executive Order No. 263, the management of CBFM areas must be Department Administrative Order No. 24 (1991) consistent with overall strategies for district prohibits logging in the old growth forests and regional development. Government policy and on slopes with gradients greater than envisages community-based approaches to 50%. An FAO study on the efficacy of imposing ensure sustainable, effective and efficient logging bans concludes that the Philippines is management of forest lands by empowered local continuing to struggle to implement logging communities with strong, viable community bans on harvesting in natural forests. In spite organizations working in close coordination of the ban, the achievement of effective with the Department of Environment and protection and conservation remains elusive. Natural Resources and other organizations. A The lack of effective institutions and policies Community-Based Forest Management Office to deal with both reduced timber supplies and (CBFMO) has been created within the regular enforcement of harvesting restrictions together structure of the Forest Management Bureau to with substantial social and economic impacts oversee the implementation of various people- has made the realization of natural forest oriented forestry programmes. conservation difficult. The Philippines has become a major net importer of timber since Biodiversity imposing restrictions on harvesting in natural No specific biodiversity guidelines were forests, leading to concerns over the harvesting encountered, although a more thorough search practices and sustainability of harvests in the of literature related to CBFM needs to be carried other countries supplying imported timber. out to assess the inclusion of biodiversity and other environmental considerations. Sustainable Forest Management The Philippines Government has adopted Information Sources CBFM as the national strategy to ensure the All the information presented was collected sustainable development of the country’s from the ITTO and FAO websites. Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 67

In 2000, about 3.3% of Singapore’s land area Singapore was classified as forest. Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and the Singapore Botanical Gardens’ Not ITTO member. Not Asia Pacific Forestry Jungle are Singapore’s lone remnant rainforest Commission member. Has not ratified fragments from the island’s once-rich forest. Convention on Biological Diversity. Both of these fragments have been the focus of intense study on the effect of fragmentation Until 1819, when the British established a on forest patches. Both forests have been settlement, Singapore was covered with isolated for a long period, about 130 years, but tropical rainforest. Subsequent intensive species composition is significantly different in agricultural schemes, coupled with logging the two patches. Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and fuelwood collection, led to significant covers about 50 ha and retains some primary deforestation and forest degradation. By 1884, forest characteristics, while the smaller only 7% of the island was forested. To provide Botanical Gardens’ Jungle covers only 4 ha and for watershed protection and wood production retains relatively little of its original diversity needs, in the late 1880s forest reserves were and forest structure. No commercial logging established and reservoirs and their catchments takes place in Singapore, and for the purposes were afforded legal protection. of this review SFM is not applicable. 68 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

the implementation of these bans and is now Thailand only legally undertaken in plantations and mangroves. Thailand was the first country in ITTO Member. Asia Pacific Forestry the world to ban all logging. Commission member. Has acceded to Convention on Biological Diversity. Forest Management Forest management, under the Royal Forest Department, has changed significantly over Background time from single-use management focused on The Kingdom of Thailand covers a land area timber extraction towards more progressive of 51 million ha and has a population of 62.4 multiple-use management with simultaneous million people. The forest extent is about consideration of soil and water issues, 14.5 million ha, or 28.4 % of the total land plantation development, forest rehabilitation area (FAO 2006b). The forest formations are and community interests. Plantation projects evergreen forests with three subtypes – tropical have broadened to include non-teak species, rainforests, semi-evergreen forests and hill fuelwood, mangrove species and community evergreen forests (43% of the forest area), forests. pine forests, mangrove and coastal forests (2%), mixed deciduous forest (22%), and dry Sustainable Forest Management dipterocarp forest (31%) (ITTO 2006). Much of Thailand is currently in the process of the remaining forest is within the protected establishing a continuous monitoring system area network. to support information for C&I. Thailand also participates in the process to establish model Throughout the 1980s there was accelerated forests, and a separate project proposal depletion of natural resources, which is all to establish a model forest for sustainable the more surprising considering that in the management has been prepared with support latter half of the nineteenth century Thailand from ITTO (ITTO 2006). Despite the logging was the first South East Asian country to ban, deforestation and degradation through start managing its forests for a sustained encroachment, and illegal logging, remain yield (Collins et al. 1991). Precipitated by a serious problems, even within protected landslide in late 1988 which killed 359 people, forests. two Royal Decrees were passed in 1989 to make provision for a nationwide ban on commercial Biodiversity Guidelines timber production from natural forests. Timber No specific biodiversity guidelines were found; harvesting has been reduced drastically since further investigation is required. Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 69

been working with the government on Timor-Leste developing a comprehensive forest policy for the country, with an additional emphasis Not ITTO member. Asia Pacific Forestry on community forestry (Gilmour 2005). The Commission member. Party to Convention final version of the forest policy statement on Biological Diversity 2007 but has not was tabled for debate in parliament in early yet ratified. 2006. The policy statement was produced through a participatory approach, based on feedback from village communities and Background other stakeholders (S. Appanah, National Timor-Leste covers an area of almost 1.5 Forest Programme Adviser (Asia Pacific), million ha and has a population of 925 000. It is FAO Regional Office for Asia Pacific, personal a rugged, hilly country with over half (53%) of communication). The following is an excerpt the land area classified as forest and woodland from the aforementioned policy: ‘The forest (FAO 2006b), bearing in mind that that woodland policy objective is effective protection of the occupies a much larger area than dense forest. ecological integrity and biological composition Human impacts, including repeated burning of no less than 70% of the area of forests by and land clearing for cultivation, hunting and 2020. Protection of forests will facilitate grazing have resulted in the loss of most of the sustainable forest management, preserve and original forests. The vegetation now consists maintain their ecological, social and economic largely of secondary forest and woodland, values especially for sustainable livelihoods and savannah and grasslands. Deforestation rates the economic development of communities, are high, with 16% of the forested area being the reduction of poverty, and for the benefit completely cleared between 1972 and 1999 of the nation’. (Erikstad et al. 2001 in (Bouma and Kobryn 2004). Massive deforestation took place during The forest policy is based on 11 strategies, and successive occupations of the territory, and protection of the environment and biodiversity sandalwood trees were especially targeted feature prominently. Fire, grazing, invasive for their valuable oil. Erosion is now a serious species and fuelwood collection have all been problem, as is the spread of a wide range of identified as serious issues which need to be introduced weeds. addressed in order to protect biodiversity and improve forest management. The cornerstone Forest Management on which management will be established With the establishment of the interim is participatory CBFM whereby boundaries United Nations Transitional Administration will be determined and legally recognized in East Timor (UNTAET) in 1999 following under Land Law 01-2003 and forthcoming the withdrawal of the Government of new forest legislation as a basis for defining Indonesia, early operations were concerned forest ownership and forest management with establishing a legal basis for facilitating responsibilities. A detailed weed and pest the provision of emergency assistance and management strategy will also be drawn up by rehabilitation to traumatized Timorese 2008. communities. Two initial measures were adopted to establish an interim basis for strategic directions in natural environmental Biodiversity Guidelines management. The first of these initiatives No specific guidelines on biodiversity (Regulation 17/2000) decreed a ban on conservation within production forestry or commercial logging of extant timber stocks community forestry areas yet exist, but and larger-scale commercial exploitation of the forest policy objective and strategies other resources such as fisheries and non- are certainly cognizant of biodiversity timber forest products, especially sandalwood. considerations. BirdLife International has The second initiative (Regulation 19/2000) been working with the Government of Timor- related to the question of land tenure within Leste (Ministry for Agriculture, Forestry East Timor. and Fisheries, MAFF) for several years on a programme of biological surveys, resulting in In order to aid Timor-Leste on its long road the identification of the country’s Important to forest management recovery, FAO has Bird Areas (IBAs). 70 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

With other partners BirdLife will focus on the area of highest biodiversity value in Timor- Leste, to build partnerships and collaboratively identify conservation priorities and objectives. It will establish a foundation for community- based conservation via a national protected areas network. The Critically Endangered Yellow-crested Cockatoo Cacatua sulphurea (see Figure 2.4) is one of the important species found in Timor-Leste. Information Sources Staff from the FAO Regional Office in Bangkok (Patrick Durst and S. Appanah) were very helpful in providing the latest information on the status of the forest policy. Don Gilmour kindly provided his insight and documentation Figure 2.4. The Threatened Yellow-crested on the community-forestry initiative. The Cockatoo Cacatua sulphurea. Photo: remaining information was found on the Rosemary Low Internet. Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 71

the management of the forestry sector has Vietnam been reorganized and now operates under the promulgated regulations of Decree No. 388/ Not ITTO member. Asia Pacific Forestry HDBT involving 599 SFEs self-controlling their Commission member. Has acceded to economic activities. Convention on Biological Diversity. • The Ministry of Forestry directly manages 128 forest business units (69 SFEs, 20 forest product processing factories, 12 Background forest product business companies, 6 In Vietnam, where natural forests have seed companies and 17 forest service been cleared or degraded during decades of enterprises). high-impact timber extraction and shifting • Provincial People’s Committees directly cultivation, the government has enacted manage 471 forest business units (343 SFEs, decisions to limit production for a period of 81 forest product processing enterprises, 32 15–20 years to assist forest restoration and forest product companies, 1 seed company rejuvenation. A timber exploitation ban was and 14 forest service enterprises). placed on special-use forests and reserved forests (most natural forests) in 1992, and A revised law on Forest Protection and also encompassed limits on other logging. Development was adopted by the National Commercial logging has been prohibited in the Assembly in 2004 and came into force in April remaining natural forests of Northern Vietnam, 2005. Considerable work is ongoing to prepare southeast of the South Mekong delta, and in the Decree on Implementation of the Law, the the Red River delta. An annual allowable cut formulation of a National Forestry Strategy of 300 000 m3 has been applied since 2000. (2005–2020) and a 5-year plan (2006–2010) for The logging area in Vietnam is now only 12 000 the forestry sector (for additional information ha. see http://www.vietnamforestry.org.vn/ index.asp). Vietnam contains a great wealth of biological diversity in its forests. Endemism is high in Forests have been classified into three many groups. An estimated 50% of the entire categories: production forests, (watershed) national flora is endemic (Thai van Trung 1970, protection forests and special use forests, on WCMC website: http://www.unep-wcmc. which covers forests managed for biological org/). Even groups with relatively low levels diversity conservation and protected for other of endemism, such as mammals and birds, purposes. Most recent data indicate that 4.6 have some important endemic species. The million ha are classified as production forests, main mountain blocks such as the Lang Bien 5.7 million ha as protection forests, and 1.8 plateau, central mountains and mountains million ha as special-use forests (UNFF 2005). of Hoang Lien Son are those which carry the highest levels of endemism in conifers, other plants and birds. In addition, Vietnam contains globally important populations of some of Asia’s rarest animals, such as Kouprey Bos sauveli, Javan Rhinoceros Rhinoceros sondaicus, Asian Elephant Elephas maximus, Tiger Panthera tigris, Eld’s Deer, Douc Langur Pygathrix nemaeus (see Figure 2.5) and Crested Argus Rheinardia ocellata. Forest Management The forestry sector in Vietnam is organized in state-owned public enterprises to which a State Forest is assigned. Until 1981, the country forest sector was made of 413 State Forest Enterprises (SFEs), which are managed at different levels. Since 10/1993 Figure 2.5. Douc Langur Pygathrix nemaeus. Photo: Benjamin Lee 72 CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 Gustafsson, L. et al.

Forest management plans have been given period 1998–2010. The 5MHRP is implemented relatively low emphasis in Vietnam. Strong by Government Decision 661 (and thus often restrictions on harvesting in natural forests referred to as Programme 661). mean that the focus of silvicultural efforts in Vietnam are on rehabilitating natural forests As of 2003, the 5MHRP has achieved approxi and establishing plantations. Protection forests, mately 2 million out of the planned 5 million ha of managed for the conservation of water and soil, improved forest management or rehabilitation. and to counter the erosive impacts of water The majority of the achievements have been in and wind, form the largest category of natural the area of protection and special-use forests, forests. The key trend in forest management is whereas performance for the production forests an effort to expand and develop forestry while is lagging behind the targets. Consequently, the at the same time stabilizing and improving Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development standards of living for local people. The majority (MARD) is now undertaking a study to look at of Vietnam’s forestry incentive programmes are how the implementation of the 5MHRP can be related to plantation establishment. improved (UNFF 2005).

Although the country’s forest cover is said to In 2004, four bilateral Forest Sector Support have been increasing over the past few years, Project partners and MARD agreed to establish forest quality continues to decline as a result a multi-donor Trust Fund for Forests (TFF). of forest degradation, further impacting water This new fund is intended to provide financing discharge patterns and biological diversity. The to promote pro-poor sustainable forest underlying and proximate causes of forest loss management and a transition towards a sector- and degradation are rural poverty, shortage of wide approach to management of the forest arable land, limited institutional capacities, sector. Vietnam has developed the Vietnam inadequate tenure regulations, unsustainable Criteria and Indicators (C&I) for sustainable land use, excessive logging and natural forest management. These national C&I have calamities. These causes combine to exert been submitted to the international FSC for heavy pressure on the remaining natural forest approval. These C&I were prepared by the areas. national working group on SFM, through a wide consultation process that involved workshops Sustainable Forest Management and meetings with participation of all related In order to prevent further deforestation stakeholders, such as SFEs, private companies, and degradation of forests, the Government household and community representatives, of Vietnam has announced a series of and related government agencies. To date, policies relating to management, protection some preliminary pilot assessments have been and development of the forest resources conducted in Kon Tum and Nghe An Provinces. and promoting sustainable participatory Since the MARD considers the use of such management of forests. Such policies include national C&I to be a voluntary action of the the Forest Protection and Development Law private sector, to promote their products (1991 and 2004), the Land Law (1993 and 2003), in international markets, it is considered Policy on Closing Natural Forests, and the Forest unnecessary to have the Vietnam C&I approved Land Allocation (FLA) programmes, which have officially by government. been conducted since the Land Law revision of 1993. Biodiversity Guidelines A project involving the Swedish University Major national programmes for afforestation, of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), the Center reforestation and improved forest management for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) have included Programmes 327, 556, and 661. and the Forest Science Institute of Vietnam In 1993, the government started Programme (FSIV), financed by the Swedish International 327, Regreening Open Land and Barren Hills, Development Agency (SIDA), has provided for the period 1993–2000, with the objective biodiversity-oriented guidelines for tropical of afforesting barren land and open treeless forestry in Vietnam (this report). hills throughout Vietnam. In 1995, a revised programme, named Programme 556, was Information Sources adopted. In 1998, the National Assembly The main information source was the Internet, agreed to adopt the ambitious 5 Million Hectare in addition to the UNFF Country Report for Viet Reforestation Programme (5MHRP) for the Nam (UNFF 2005). Logging for the ark: Improving the conservation value of production forests in South East Asia 73

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Forestry Research within the Consultative Group on International 26. • The Impact of Sectoral Development on Natural Forest Conservation Agricultural Research and Degradation: The Case of Timber and Tree Crop Plantations in Jeffrey A. Sayer Indonesia • (Indonesian edition) Dampak Pembangunan Sektoral terhadap Konversi 2. Social and Economical Aspects of Miombo Woodland Management in dan Degradasi Hutan Alam: Kasus Pembangunan HTI dan Perkebunan di Southern Africa: Options and Opportunities for Research Indonesia Peter A. Dewees Hariadi Kartodihardjo and Agus Supriono 3. Environment, development and poverty: A Report of the International 27. L’Impact de la Crise Économique sur les Systèmes Agricoles et le Workshop on India’s Forest Management and Ecological Revival Changement du Couvert Forestier dans la Zone Forestière Humide du Uma Lele, Kinsuk Mitra and O.N. Kaul Cameroun 4. Science and International Nature Conservation Henriette Bikié, Ousseynou Ndoye and William D.Sunderlin Jeffrey A.Sayer 28. • The Effect of Indonesia’s Economic Crisis on Small Farmers and Natural 5. Report on the Workshop on Barriers to the Application of Forestry Forest Coverin the Outer Islands Research Results • (Indonesian Edition) Dampak Krisis Ekonomi Indonesia terhadap Petani C.T.S. Nair, Thomas Enters and B. Payne Kecil dan Tutupan Hutan Alam di Luar Jawa William D. Sunderlin, Ida Aju Pradnja Resosudarmo, Edy Rianto, 6. Production and Standards for Chemical Non-Wood Forest Products in Arild Angelsen China Shen Zhaobang 29. The Hesitant Boom: Indonesia’s Oil Palm Sub-Sector in an Era of Economic 7. • Cattle, Broadleaf Forests and the Agricultural Modernization Law of Crisis and Political Change Honduras: The Case of Olancho Anne Casson • (Spanish edition) Ganadería, bosques latifoliaods y Ley de 30. The Underlying Causes of Forest Decline Modernizatción en Honduras: El caso de Olancho Arnoldo Contreras-Hermosilla William D. Sunderlin and Juan A.Rodriguez 31. ‘Wild logging’: The rise and fall of logging networks and biodiversity 8. High quality printing stock - has research made a difference? conservation projects on Sumatra’s rainforest frontier Francis S.P. Ng John F. McCarthy 9. • Rates Causes of Deforestation in Indonesia: Towards a Resolution of 32. Situating Zimbabwe’s Natural Resource Governance Systems in History the Ambiguities Alois Mandondo • (Indonesian edition) Laju dan Penyebab Deforestasi di Indonesia: Penelaahan Kerancuan dan Penyelesaiannya 33. Forestry, Poverty and Aid William D. Sunderlin and Ida Aju Pradnja Resosudarmo J.E. Michael Arnold 10. Report on Discussion Forum on Irformation Services in the Asia- 34. The Invisible Wand: Adaptive Co-management as an Emergent Strategy in Pacific and AGRIS/CARIS in the 21st Century and Asia-Pacific Regional Complex Bio-economic systems. Consultation Jack Ruitenbeek and Cynthia Cartier Michael O. Ibach and Yvonne Byron 35. Modelling Methods for Policy Analysis in Miombo Woodlands 11. Capacity for Forestry Research in the Southern African Development A. A Goal Programming Model for Planning Management of Miombo Community Woodlands Godwin S. Kowero and Michael J. Spilsbury I. Nhantumbo and Godwin S. Kowero B. A System Dynamics Model for Management of Miombo Woodlands 12. Technologies for sustainable forest management: Challenges for the 21st Ussif Rashid Sumaila, Arild Angelsen and Godwin S. Kowero century Jeffrey A. Sayer, Jerome K. Vanclay and R. Neil Byron 36. How to Know More about Forests? Supply and Use of Information for Forest Policy 13. Bosques secundarios como recurso para el desarrollo rural y la K. Janz and R. Persson conservación ambiental en los trópicos de América Latina Joyotee Smith, César Sabogal, Wil de Jong and David Kaimowitz 37. Forest Carbon and Local Livelihoods: Assessment of Opportunities and Policy Recommendations 14. Cameroon’s Logging Industry: Structure, Economic Importance and Joyotee Smith and Sara J. Scherr Effects of Devaluation Richard Eba’a Atyi 38. • Fires in Indonesia: Causes, Costs and Policy Implications • (Indonesian edition) Kebakaran Hutan di Indonesia: Penyebab, Biaya 15. • Reduced-Impact Logging Guidelines for Lowland and Hill Dipterocarp dan Implikasi Kebijakan Forests in Indonesia Luca Tacconi • (Indonesian edition) Pedoman Pembalakan Berdampak Rendah untuk Hutan Dipterocarpa Lahan Rendah dan Bukit di Indonesia 39. Fuelwood revisited: What has changed in the last decade? Plinio Sist, Dennis P. Dykstra and Robert Fimbel Michael Arnold, Gunnar Köhlin, Reidar Persson and Gillian Shepherd 16. Site Management and Productivity in Tropical Forest Plantations A. Tiarks, E.K.S. Nambiar and Christian Cossalter 40. Exploring the Forest—Poverty Link: Key concepts, issues and research implications 17. Rational Exploitations: Economic Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Arild Angelsen and Sven Wunder Management of Tropical Forests 41. Bridging the Gap: Communities, Forests and International Networks Jack Ruitenbeek and Cynthia Cartier • • (French Edition) Communautés, forêts et réseauxinternationaux : des 18. Tree Planting in Indonesia: Trends, Impacts and Directions liaisons à renforcer Lesley Potter and Justin Lee • (Spanish Edition) Cerrando la Brecha: Comunidades,Bosques y Redes Internacionales 19. Le Marche des Produits Forestiers Non Ligneux de l’Afrique Centrale Marcus Colchester, Tejaswini Apte, Michel Laforge, Alois Mandondo en France et en Belgique: Produits, Acteurs, Circuits de Distribution et and Neema Pathak Debouches Actuels 42. Payments for environmental services: Some nuts and bolts Honoré Tabuna Sven Wunder 20. Self-Governance and Forest Resources 43. Recent Experience in Collaborative Forest Management: A Review Paper Elinor Ostrom Jane Carter with Jane Gronow 21. Promoting Forest Conservation through Ecotourism Income? A case study 44. • Fighting forest crime and promoting prudent banking for sustainable from the Ecuadorian Amazon region forest management: The anti money laundering approach Sven Wunder • (Indonesian edition) Memerangi Kejahatan Kehutanan dan Mendorong 22. Una de Gato: Fate and Future of a Peruvian Forest Resource Prinsip Kehati-hatian Perbankan untuk Mewujudkan Wil de Jong, Mary Melnyk, Luis Alfaro Lozano, Marina Rosales and Pengelolaan Hutan yang Berkelanjutan: Pendekatan Anti Pencucian Uang Myriam García Bambang Setiono and Yunus Husein 23. Les Approches Participatives dans la Gestion des Ecosystemes Forestiers 45. Forests and Human Health: Assessing the Evidence d’Afrique Centrale: Revue des Initiatives Existantes Carol J. Pierce Colfer, Douglas Sheil and Misa Kishi Jean-Claude Nguinguiri 46. Capturing Nested Spheres of Poverty: A Model for Multidimensional Poverty Analysis and Monitoring 24. Capacity for Forestry Research in Selected Countries of West and Central Christian Gönner, Michaela Haug, Ade Cahyat, Eva Wollenberg, Africa Wil de Jong, Godwin Limberg, Peter Cronkleton, Moira Moeliono, Michael J. Spilsbury, Godwin S. Kowero and F. Tchala-Abina Michel Becker 25. L’Ímpact de la Crise Economique sur les Populations, les Migration et le 47. Poverty and forests: Multi-country analysis of spatial association Couvert Forestier du Sud-Cameroun and proposed policy solutions Jacques Pokam Wadja Kemajou and William D.Sunderlin William D. Sunderlin, Sonya Dewi, Atie Puntodewo CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 48 No. Paper Occasional CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research

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CIFOR is a leading international forestry research organisation established in 1993 in

response to global concerns about the social, environmental, and economic consequences ARK THE FOR LOGGING of forest loss and degradation. CIFOR is dedicated to developing policies and technologies for sustainable use and management of forests, and for enhancing the well-being of people in developing countries who rely on tropical forests for their livelihoods. CIFOR is one of the 15 centres of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). With headquarters in Bogor, Indonesia, CIFOR has offices in Brazil, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, India, Zambia and Zimbabwe, and it works in over 30 other countries around the world. Gustafsson, L. Gustafsson, et al et CIFOR is one of the 15 centres

of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) .