"Nothing" As "Not-Being": Some Literary Contexts That Bear on Plato and on Parmenides

Binghamton University The Open Repository @ Binghamton (The ORB)

The Society for Ancient Greek Philosophy Newsletter

8-1977

"Nothing" as "Not-Being": Some Literary Contexts that Bear on Plato and on Parmenides

Alexander P.D. Mourelatos University of Texas at Austin, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Mourelatos, Alexander P.D., ""Nothing" as "Not-Being": Some Literary Contexts that Bear on Plato and on Parmenides" (1977). The Society for Ancient Greek Philosophy Newsletter. 230. https://orb.binghamton.edu/sagp/230

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by The Open Repository @ Binghamton (The ORB). It has been accepted for inclusion in The Society for Ancient Greek Philosophy Newsletter by an authorized administrator of The Open Repository @ Binghamton (The ORB). For more information, please contact [email protected]. "Nothing" as "Not-Being":

Some Literary Contexts That Bear

on Plato and on Parmenides

Alexander P. o. Mourelatos

The university of Texas at Austin

(August 1977)

!O It has often been noticed that Plato, and before him Parmenides, 1 assimilates "what is not" C't"O µ� �v) to •nothing" CµY)5&v or o6o&v)

Given that the central use of " nothing" has important ties with the exis-

tential quantifier ("Nothing is here" = "It is not the case that there is

anything here"), it has widely been assumed that contexts that document this

assimilation also count as evidence that both within them and in cognate

ontological contexts the relevant sense of 11being11 or "to be" is that of

existence. That this assumption is not to be granted easily, has been

2 • compellingly argued by G. E. L. owen. His main concern was to show that

the assumption is particularly mischievous in the interpretation of the

Sophist, where he found it totally unwarranted. My own concern is to

attack the assumption on a broader plane. "Nothing" in English has uses

that do not depend on a tie with the existential quantifier. So too in

cl or d l d xi 1 Greek: in� eh 'ou en can be g osse as •what does not e st , 1 but it can

also be glossed as "not a something, " or in owen's fornmlation,•1what is not

anything, what not-in-any way is': a subject with all the being knocked out

3 of it and so unidentifiable, no subject." In effect, the assimilation of

"what is not• to •nothing" may--in certain contexts-- work in the opposite

- -. 2 I

di.rection: not from "nothing" to " non""'.being" in the sense of non-existence;

rather from "non-being" as negative specification or negative determination

To to •nothing" as the extreme of negativity or indeterminacy. convey the

sense involved in this reverse assimilation I borrow owen's suggestive

translation •not-being" for me �, a rendering which makes use of an in

complete participle, rather than t.he complete gerund, of the verb "to be."

In the main Section of this paper I examine a certain "characterizing"

use of meden/ouden and medeis/oudeis in pre-Platonic non-philosophical

contexts. The passages discussed and analyzed offer cle.ar and suggestive

illustrations of the assimilation of "nothing" or "nobody" to •not-being."

In the concluding Section I explore connections between that use and philo

sophical concepts,with particular reference to Plato's doctrine of degrees

of reality.

To make alternatives clear I begin with an exploration of the relevant

English uses. The semanti c spectrums of "nothing" and of the personal form

•nobody" are, of course, wider than logic books might suggest. Only two uses concern us, and these can be quickly formulated if we take the expres sions "nob()dy"and "nothing"as answers to two types of questions.

(a) 1. Who is in the house now?--Nobody.

2. What is in the box?--Nothing.

(b) 1. Who is the gentle�arl dver there?--Nobody.

2. What is that shape over there?--Nothing.

The one-word cu:iswers in exchanges (a) are clearly equivalent to more per spicuous expanded paraphrases of the form •There is no ! in !!1" where K can 3

be replaced by an appropriate classifier or natural-kind expression and L

can be replaced by a locative word or phrase. This is the use of "nobodytc

or "nothing" that is closest to the negative existential quantified ex-

pressions in formal logic, "'(3x)Ex For suggestive convenience, in spite

of some infelicity--since (a)-type sentences are tensed, whereas the exis

tential quantifier imports no time implications--! shall call (a) the "exis

tential" use of "nobody" and •nothing."

It is not as easy to give a single perspicuous paraphrase of the one

word answers in type (b). The respondent may intend to dispute the inter

rogator's presupposition that there actually is something, let alone a

gentleman or a shape, in the region referred to. In that case, the question

receives in effect a type (a) answer. A distinct type (b) is defined in the case in which the respondent does not dispute the interrogator's existential presupposition. He says, roughly: "I notice who you are referring to, but he's nobody,• or "I notice what you're referring to, but it's nothing." In that sort of case the respondent intends to convey one of two possible messages:

(i) The object (person or thing) referred to is "of no account": it

(he or she) lies outside the interlocutors• scope of interests, in what

ever way and however broadly these interests are defined by the inter

locutors' current endeavor. thus the snobbish respondent might say "He's nobody" with reference to someone of inferior status;or "It's nothing" may be the reassuring response of a doctor to a patient concerning certain physical changes in the patient's body they have both observed1 or it might be the response of a laboratory assistant to a student with reference to a speck they can both see through 4

the mii romiop ec or of oAe limteAer at a l eitu re to aAothert rho iA uired

ab o ut a p oi A ta d e b g t h e mpeanera A d r h ii hh e fir m tlimteAer mimm e d.

Uhe other pommible memmaue im:

(ii) U h e obje t ref err e d t o i m A et r e m e l g p o o rtro A o u tto r red ui e d .. .- -1 \ --11 L - ('r - m e iim eA o f t h e n i A di t pr ma fa i ieappearm t o b e .

It im e teAmi elg deprired of he Ao mal haraiterimtiim of hat niA d t mo

i t i A 'barel g' or 'hardlb e g'iall edta m f o r ex mple i A ex h Auem ( a)A d

(b)t a 'ueAtlem A' or a 'mhape.' 'Ae i A mo e aptlg m e n of rhat it 'im

Aot' rather th A of rhat 'it im. • IA the limitiAu iamet to bo r r oAe of

the defiAitioAm iA oebmter'm hird Ner IAte AatioAal DiitioAa g t it im

'momethiAu hat im iharaiterized bg utter bmeAie of dete AatioA: erfeit

iAdimtiAuuimhableAemm.' et me refer to (b) A either of itm o m b-tgpem

am the •ihara teriziAu' ume of 'Ao odg' or 'Aoth Au.'

hat Aderliem t p e (a)t the eximteAtial umet im a o Aiep tioA of AoA-

eiA u am e pt Aemm: I mear h the houme Ad fiAd hat it im rai At: or I

o eA the box Ad fiAd hat it im emptg. hat Aderliem t e (b)t he ihar-

a i t e r i z i Au u m e t i m a ioAie pt ioA o f A o A - b e i A u to r p o p e r l g A o t - b e i A ua t m ( i )

( of mt AdiAu (almomt iA that juridiial meAme iA rhi h mo eoAe mag hare

•Ao mtA dA u' A a parti ular iourt Ad iame- or (ii) priratioA or

a t t eA u a t i o A . umt am the eximteAtial ume of 'Aobodg' or 'AothiAu' iorre-

m p o A d mt o h e e x i m t e A ta i l u m e of ' t o e t 1 1 t h e i h a r a t e r i z i A u m e m o r r em poA d

t o i o p u l a t i r e' t o b e . 'h e p e r m o Ar h o i m ' A o b o d g 'A t h e m e A m eh a t h e

' d o e mA o t i o A t •1 i m i e t a i A l gA o f i i t i r eo r h o A - e x i m t e Ae t A t i t g cl i n e r i m e

for the thiAu that im depreiated am a 'AothiAu.A

Ae iuht ob jet at thim oiAt hat here im Ao Aeed o m o t a iop-

ulatire oAmt u tioA iA he Aalgmim of he ihara teriziAu ume. For ag re

Aot e pla A the ume bg le A Au oA he pommible paraphramet 'he im treated 5

swer is that r � though he did not exist"? The an the paraphrase just given

is really an elaboration, not an analysis, of the characterizing use. For

it suppresses an important implication the characterizing use proclaims:

the reason why the disparaged person is treated as though he did not exist .!.! is that he is a "no-body,• in other words he not identical w ith any par

ticular person, or classifiable under � of the kinds of person, who might

be of concern to us: he is "not �," "not �'" "not £r" and so on, where the

letters stand for particular persons or types of person with whom we are

familiar or with whom we are prepared to deal. Similarly to say of a thing

that it is "nothing," in the sense that it is a very impoverished, enfeebled,

or attenuated specimen of its kind, admittedly could be paraphrased by, "it

might just as well not exist.• But the paraphrase will not do as an analysis

of the locution in the characterizing use. For the latter alludes to t he

rationale of the "just as well" version: it is no-thing , not-being in that

it is•not-!:_," " not�, " " not-!!, " and so on, where the letters stand for

characteristics familiar to us, and which the sort of thing referred to

nonnally ought to have.

The characterizing use of meden and cognate negative terms, such as

ouden and the personal forms medeis , oudeis,has been studied in detail by

4 A. c. Moorhouss. Let me review some of his major points and expand with my

own comments on just a few--the most suggestive--of his examples.

5 rn Homer the characterizing sense is served by the adjective of dis

paragement outidanos, "a no-somebody-fellow," a person "of no account, worth-

less, sorry, good for nothing." The Homeric indefinite pronoun outis, from

which outidanos is derived, has only the existential sense of "nobody," never 8

medeimare almo re the ihara teriziAumeAme. 8 Uhe umual fo Am oudeimaAd

period mtriitedto eximteAtialumem iA HoAer.But beui AiAu iA the Arihaii

ume bg taniAu firmt oudeimt oudeAtAd theAalmo medeimt m edeAt exp Ad their

both orer the haraiteriziAu meAmeof H mer'm outid AomtAor iA refereAie

o permoAm Ad to hiAum.

A remarn bleearlg ex mple of the derelopiAuAer ume of oudeimim iA

the opeAiAu of PiAdar'm Sixth NeAe A de:

he e im oAe raie of meAt oAe raie (ueAom) of uodm( oth ha re

breath of life fr m a miAu le mo her. But a porer th at ham

m Adered itmelf hrouuh Ad hrouuh holdm U$ dirided (5(eCp ge(

5eAa A xexp.µ£ra58raµ(cOt mo hat he oAe (miil. ueAomt 'raie')

im Aoth Au (oudeA)t rhile for he other he brazeA mng im emt b

limhed heir mure iitadel forerer. Yet re hare mome lineAemm

(p rom pheroAeA) t either iA u eat iAtelliue Aie (Aeu A ( ) or A

mtreAuth (phgmiA)t to he i AA o talmt houuh e A or Aot (o n eidotem)

rhat the dag rill br Aut rhat iourme after Aiuhtfall demt Ag ham

r itteA that re mumt A to he eAd. 7 he raie of meA im ie t iAlg Aot a 'Ao hiAu' A he meA me of AoA-e imteA e.

It im a 'AothiAu' iA the meAme of la niAu Ag of the attr butem he uodm haret Ad exemp lifg iAu oorlg or aruiAallg thome attribu em hat he tro raiem ommemm A o AoA. P Adar illumtratem ith efe eAie to oAe mu h

attribute :'Line the uodm re hare iAtelliueAie Ad t get re do ( (. • •

It im reler At to Aote here tha t i Aother ode PiAdar oA regm thim Ao t- e A u of h m Aitg umAu the e g aue Ad tu A of phr ame that Plato am to ume iA fo AulatiAu a metaphgmiim of deur eem of ealitg:

lmiµepo(·'L8& '.cc 'L 5' oS '..cc x.uc 8rap£r-oA oc.

re are thiAumof a dag. ohat are re( hat are re Aot( A im the 7

mhadorof a dream. (Pgth.rii i.95-98)

he h a r ate r iziAu um e t mpl g att emt ed iA o therfift h- ieAtu rg aut hor mt

AiludiAu AemihglumAd ArimtophAe mt bei memempeiiallg pr m iAeAtA

Soph oilem Ad luripidem.But beforere ex miAe illumtratire pammauem f om

the meioAd of the three ureat traue diAm t let me quote oorhou me•m i mm eAt

A a pammauefr m a latermourie:

[Dem.]47.87 axoo.( 8e ''U la 'p'U('L o88er i'L e(1 (

. . him im a mtriniAuAd ralu ble ex mplet eiaume

A he ioAtext(demiribiAu a me r At rho had beeA b utallg ammaultedt

Ad ram mooA to die)the me A Au 'die'rould readilg ha e e A aiiepted

if that had beeA a A oma l meAme of he phrame . But the A ram Aot

get deadtoAlg iA a rergbad oAditioA (thatim the me A Au of o88er

i'Le(1) mhe ram put A momeoAe'mha ue for t ea m At t Ad diedlater.

him pammauei mpletelgprorem he poiAtrhi h almo eme uem from

the ueAeralodg of the ex plemt hat he me AiAu ''deadtAoA-e imteAt'

ram altouetherexieptioAal fo r o88ereLraL •8

IA the liuht of tim i mm eAt re i A Aor foum oA tro r ear n a b l gepem m i r e pammauemA S(phoilem .At the eAd of AtiuoAe t CreoA re t uAm to the maue hariAuri Aemmedthe muiiideof him moAtAemoAt iA the o b rhere A tiuoAe hadbeeA Aterredtbg ireoA'mdei eet Ad had here nilledherme lf. mor iAu of themero deathmtreoA A r hearmthat him rifetA tu At io mitted muiiideupoA l e aAi Au of AemoA•m deah. omiAu all niAulgom ret to tallgde mp o A dAt the m e nm to im a tt e A dAt m :

Qui nlgt lead me aragtiar g me outt ''Voox (r'a iXXor ( µ15&ra.

( Atiu.1324-25)

A the phramethat I hare rep oduiedhe e ri hout tr AmlatioAtM orhoume 8

melf ' he oAe io AeAtm: 'I belierethe e A Au imt that CreoAiallm him

ho im dead( n emti) ratherthA at the fiAalextremi tg'. hat imt bg

exauuer tioA he uoembegoAd ialliAu himmel f ho medeimt Ad At iiipatem the

Aet d lamtmtauet dea h .1 19 him im almomti e ta iAlg riuht. CreoA ha d

Aot mponeA of h m melf am 'deadal eadg' Atil afterhe heard of him rife' m

dea h. He h A didmo triietA 1285Ad 1288cAd brieflgbefore m pean Au

the l Aem uoted ore he amned him atteAd Atm to mtrine m deadith a

ro d (13-9). Uhe otherp ole of he iomparimoAt he AedeAatram p epa ed

Ad iAt odu ed bg S phoilem A he mpee h of he firmt emmeAuert he oAe rho brouuht rord to he ho um of he dea h of AtiuoAe Ad A moA. CreoA'm

prediiameAt of 'a Ao odg' im pliiitlg de f.iAed iA hat mpee h: rur

d(etUa(Aar Ua t ' A or uoAe im e re thi Au' (1185) tmagm the memmeAuer .'Su h a m A I do Aot ioAmider am liriAu but am A Aimate io pme (empmgih oA AenroA)

(1187)t' he ioAti Auemc him mat eri al m bmt Aie Ad him niAulg att ribut em are

Aot ro h ' the mh ador of a mmone puff' (1188-7-) . But th at firmt memmeA.uer ould Aot get Aor the ultimate e teAt of CreoA'm demolatioA. So reoA'm remarn at ho eAdt aft er the meioAd memmeAuer ham m oneAt eAdormem Ad up- datemt iA eff et t rhat the firmt memmeAue r had told the ho um: 'Before thim latemt ialmi tg I thouuht of mgmelf am edeimc Aor I do Aot ereA mag I

I • Hl- am a l1•r 1•A u io pmet I m mimp 1 g d ea d •

he omt famiiA atiAu Ad iAmtruitire of he pamm auem f m Sophoilem im lle t ra 1183-87:

Dearemt oAet ho r gou hare demtroged (apolemam) me! Su e lg (deta)

gou hare demt oged met belored bro her( So theA reieire me Ato

thim gour mhelte r ( icc U' or -- 5. : egocc ) t me rho im Aoth Au Ato

that rhiih im AothiAu ( -r µio.r icc U' µio&r ) t hat I ag drell 9

. --

rithgou belotf-omAor oA • ...... ; .

' '(- lle tra im here addremlAu the u A mhe thi nm ioAta A m the amhem of her dead

A r e. eAt iriti i i oAfe m mem b eril deAeAt ( I a ppe Ad traA m - bro · ther orem t e m.

latioAm of he liAem he iitem):

lleitra meemmt o amme t iA 989that he deadar e liriAu '(g u ' ll

riA he praime of pietg from our dead father belor ']c theA mhe meemm

to deAg it A 1188['Ao hiAuto AothiAut ' u oted bo e] Ad 117-

['dead meA do Aot muffer paiA'] • • • • [t]he problem of the

oAt ol ou iial mtatumtof uho mt m iA thim plag me mm to me re g obm u re.11

I belie e there im Ao mu h problemc the muppomed obmuri tg Ad he

iritii'm berilde meAt arime mimpl g fr m a failure to appreiiate a ie taiA

Aatural or iAerit blet but louiiallg tr Ampa eAtt mem Atii i mpliia ioAt oAe

that im iAhereAt iA dimiour me a ut the dead--iA Green or A Aulimh. he

poiAt im ror h a diuremmioAt for it ham impliiatioAm for A uA derm A di Au

of the ioAieptm of ' Aoth A u' Ad 'AoA-beiAu' that uo begoAd he ll eitra

pamm aue .

h att A the e t of a permoA'm dea ht anem mem A tiiall g pommible the

lo utioAm 'he im Ao moret• 'he doem Aot eximtt' 'he im Ao iAu (eximteAtial meAme)t' Ad their rempe tire io Ate pa tm iA Greent im he bm Aie of that

ermoA f om he rorld of he liriA u.12 B ut i f e mhould piitu e a orld of

the dea dt to r i h perm oAm rho a e Ao loAuer alire reiedet Ad he e theg t ne pe A eAt bodet de izeAm of that rorld i A be maid 'Aot o e imt'

:\' ' oAlg bg a mo t bf mem Atii leuerdema A: a 1 A uimtii tr AmpomitioAt a ' (- .... \c< ' . ' \. etoA mg. For hat rorld im oAe of (eximteAtia l) AoA- eiAu Aot A hat rorld'm o A te mm Ad fr m he per me itire of itm deA iz A mt but A he te mm of he liA ut Ad iA he ermpe ti e of he liriAu. So the A der- 1-

rorld im h e do maiA of •Ao thi Au' ( ex imt eAtial- er eA th ouu h it ham quit e a

lar ue populat ioAt t he me berm of rhiiht horere r mh adorg iA the ir tex tur e

Ad horerer reduied theg be A their porermt are iArolred iA trialmt iA aitm

of expiatioA or purifiiatioAtAd rho relimhor loathetp raimeor eAmuret

the a tm of their mu rirorm iA the rorld bore.

him metoA mg holdmoAlg rith empeit to he eximteAtialume of 'AoA-

beAu' Ad 'AothiAu.'IA the ihara teriziAuume thereim AiAter upted

ioAtiAuitg betreeAthe tro orldm. IAdeedit im the ihara teriziAuume that

pe Aitm um Ad ereA eAio rauemum to pi ture he rorldof he deadam A

exteAmioAof he orld of he li iAu. he ihara teriz Au ume mediatemtA

effe tt he metoA moumume of 'AoA-beiAu'Ad 'AothiAu.' For rhilehe e

im Ao meAmeto the idea of deureemof e imteAie13 or deu eem of Ao hiAuAemm

:. ... 1·. 'tt·\ (iAt he eximteAtialmeAme-t there im Ao ioAieptualbar'to i niAu of deureem

of 'Aot-beiAu' (Aot of 'AoA-beiAu') or of 'AothiAu' A the ihara teriziAu

meAme. hum it im ommible for a liriAupermoA--line i eoA--to emplog aA

effeit of hgper ole bg magiAu 'I m dead alreadgt' 'I do Aot eximtt' 'I m

AothiAu'(eximteAtial) beiaume rithout hgperbole Ad rith Ao re ourme to

metoA mg he periei em himmelf am prirati elg or Aeuatirelg ha a terized to

a deuree that reruem oA rhat im app opriate for momeoAe iA the realm of the

dead. A a Autmhell: the dead i A iall he mel em 'Aoth Au' (e imteAtial)

bg etoA mgc t l liriAu i A iall he mel e m 'Aoth Au' (e imteAtial) bg

h perbole. But o h he dead Ad he liriAu i A uite p o erlg iall hem-

melrem •Aoth Au' A th e hara teriziAu meAmec for iA that meAme it im mimplg

a matter of more Ad lemm.

So Aor let um uo ba n o he lle tra pammaue. iritiimt AiludiAu

Moorhoumet ha e failed to Aoti e A m o t At m Ataitii bi uitg. he

e p emmioA ( med A iuht oAieir blg e Adermt od am 'the Ao hiAu' or 11

as "n.-:>thingness,• in effect, as an abstract name of the Underworld pictured

the domain of non-existence. Preserving parallelism of sense,the meaning

of 1165-66 would then have to be: "receive me, the one who (already) does

not exist (ten meden) into (the realm of) non-existence (!.£_ meden).ft one

might fault the logic of this statement, especially in view of the toigar,

"therefore,• with which it is introduced; for if Electra already does not

exist, she has already been admitted into the realm of non-existence, so

the request for entry is pointless. Also, in the light of our int erpr etat ion

- - of the Antigone passage, the existential sense for � meden required by

the parallelism would seem surprising. But it is perhaps wrong to expect

that Electra's utterances would be logical, in spite of toigar, at this

moment of heightened distress; and it is arguable that the ap0lesas, •you killed me,• of line 1164 encourages us to understand ten med en as though it were equivalent to �� ousan, •the one who does not exist, • in spite of

the emphatic distinction of Antig. 1324-25. So we must not rule out the sense •accept the non-existent one into non-existence.•

But there is another way of understanding � meden, by construing the neuter article to not as introducing an abstract noun but simply as referring to the neuter noun that occurs in the preceding line, � stegos, "the shelter,•

Electra's metaphor for the funerary urn. Indeed that construction is by far

the more likely and ready to hand, as is clear from the parallelism " •••me

• to this shelter here; •••the one who is nothing to this (urn) that is nothing.• On t his translation there is no strain in the logic, and the

co orm use of meden nf s perfectly to that in Creon's speech of distress . Both

Electra and Orestes, the latter as embodied by the ashes contained within the urn, as well as by the urn itself as container, are a "nothing" in the char- 12

·t he doem :J zAu meA me. he muppo med Aoth i AAe m m of 'rem tem im obri ou m:

p t !Pe ('he doem Aot moret he iAA ot iome to lleitra'm help-- Ad mo oA Ad

5- for h rith the mAg 'Aot-t''m implied iA 'remtem' utterlg deprired mtate.

It im pre ii mel g iA that meAm e that lleitra t at th e beui A iA u of him mieAe

(11 29) t iall m o remt em--auaiA ideAtified rith the amhem iA the u A--a 'Aot hiAu':

'Nor I hold gou iA mg haAdm am a AothiAuCoudeA oAta ).'14 IA faitt Sophoilem

doem Aot leare um to imauiAe 'remtem' 'Aot-;'' mc am thouuh to ioAfi A the

meAmeof 'AothiAu'iA liAe1129 Ad prepareum for the meioAdhalf of the

•AothiAu to AothiAu' of liAe 1188t he ham lleitra reiite a rhole mtriAu of

'remtem' depriratioAm beuiAAiAu at liAe 1138:

ut of (entom) gour homet A exile oA alieA (allem) moilt gou died

- rretihedlg(nanom ao lou)t rithout gour mimter Aear (di ha)c Aor (noute)

did I ramh gou • Aor (oute) did I uet to piin gou up off he

blaziAu pgre • • • but teAded bg the haAdm of mtr Auerm ou hare

iome ba n a dimiAutire mamm ( inrom o nom) iA a dim Auti e

eieptaile (mminroi ( ngtei) • • • [gour] Aurtu e uAarail Au

( A (pheletou) • • • Amtead of the dearemt fiuure of our

ermoA ( o phcm) amhem Ad a u melemm ( Aophele) mhador. (1138-59) he Ao hiAuAemm of he u A itmelf im Aot mimplg itm dimiAutire mize1 the u A im hardlg a •mhelterA (am it im ialled at 1185)c the ox moroA fi uret 'a

15 mhelter that im Aot a mheltert' im here rerg ilome to the murfaie.

IA thim mme mp e eh l l etr a ur a d u a l lideAti g fiemhet o ( faterith thatof 'remtem .At oAe poiAt he rhetoriiuoem ereA begoAd ide Ati fii atioA t pii turiAuthe dead 'remtem Aot merelg am the oA e totallg d ep r ied but am Ae rho im aiti elg dep ririAul l etra 'of e r e rhi Au t • 'line a m tom• (115--51 ) .

So re a e alreadg Ail Aed to t i n of lleitra am a AAoth Au• A the iharai- '' ' .. t;

terizing sense before we finally hear her climacti c hyperbole,"! am dead"

(1152, cf. 1164). Even before this scene Sophocles has s pell.ed out Electra's

privative nothingness: from the first scenes the play has been studded with

Electra's remarks of self-pity, in which she characterizes h er predicament 16 by using negative phrases and privative �- or apo- compounds.

Let me reiterate that even though the characterizing sense for Electra's c{,fv\ "me who _!,� nothing to this that is nothing" is the most immediate and logically

the most straightforward, the existential sense, •me the non-existent into

non-existence" must be allowed as a secondary semantic layer. The context is

quite different from that in Moorhouse's passage about the dying woman, where

the existential sense was precisely the one not intended. In Electra's

speech a lin.e that packs together the characterizing, the hyperbolic (with

respect to Electra), and the metonymous (with respect to the Underworld) use

of "nothing" is just what we would expect from the pen of a tragic poet.

III

The evidence discussed in the preceding Section is certainly adequate

to establish that the characterizing use of meden/ouden and medeis/oudeis

is at least as viable and familiar in classical Greek as the corresponding

uses of "nothing" and "nobody• in English. But an even stronger conclusion

is warranted. Doubtless, in terms of frequency, this use cannoi:' fail but

17 appear minor compared to the existential use. But this comparison belies

the import.an·ce . of the characterizing use iri the development of Greek concepts.

In non-philosophical sources the use is documented in contexts of major

dramatic or rhetorical impact. So its literary conspicuousness is high. It

would seem, moreover,t tha to the extent that authors such as Pindar and the r -i.e. trauediAm treat the o Aieptm tAoA-beiAu11aAd 'AothiAu' thematiiallg-

to the exteAt theg drelloA or exploitmem Atii impliiatioAmof the iorre-

mpoAdiAu rordm--it im the ihara teriziAutAot the eximteAtialt meAmethat

merrem am fo u m. So uireAthe literarg bainuro Adtre mhouldhardlg prem me--

am ham ueAerallg beeA the iame--that rheA °AothiAu' beiomem thematii for a

philomophiial author fo um rill be oA the eximteAtial meAme. It miuht rell

be that prem m ptioA mhould be iA faror of he hara teriziAu meAme. A uood

iame iaA be madet I belieret for the themim that ereA iA .a eAidem medeAt

rhe re it ap earm iA mi Aifii At ioAtramt to ( t ham iha rate ri ziAu meAme. 18

oith refereAie to Plato the iharaiteriziAu um e of med A /oudeA mumt

hare plaged a mi Aifii At role iA the derelopmeAt of the do triAe of deureem

of realitg. he latt ert am lamtom ham mho At i AA ot be io hereAtlg Ader-

mtood am a doitriAe of deureem of eximteAiet but am oAe that iArolrem the

19 ihara teriziAu !-Aemm Ad AoA- !-Aemm of meAmible pa tiiularm. Uhe ioA-

AeitioA ri h ou r heme ouuht to e obrioum: the Aeuatire pole iA a doitriAe

of deu eem of realitg orrempoAdm to the iharate riziAu meAme of 'AothiAut'

Aot-; 1 aAd Aot-F 2 Ad ot • • • Aot- A . If there are to be deu e em of

eal itg t hee mumt·b .e deureem of ( rea lit gc the h a r at eriziAuume both

allorm thim Ad proje tm the reler At e treme.

he oAe i t i o A i A be r Ad ered moe faihf ullg aAd itm m iAif iiA ie

etter a ppreiiatedif e re mAd ourmelrem of oher re m petm iA rhiih Plato'm

doitriAedrarm A the remouriem of ordiAarg m peeh Ad oA he literargtradi

tioi . Plato h m melfialled o u r a tteAt'io A t o oAe muh re mei t . IA Rep blii

479B th e AotioA that the re are •bi r a l e A t ' or A eui r o i a l '(if. e p a m ph o t e r -

izoumiA) eAtitiem im iAtrodu ed th ou uh h moroum allumioA to the foln riddle:

A m A rho ram Aot a A (a e Auih)t mar (looned at) but did Aot mee

( ' \; - r((- ( / ('( ' . -( ' : ::· ( ( :J ;·l i l { l ( 15

a bird (a ba (recognize) a bird that was not t) perched on a tree

that was not a tree . ( a rafter or beam ) , hit it (hit at it)

and did not hit it (actually hit it) with a stone that was not a

20 e stone (a draughtboa rd pi ec ) .

obviously related to this type of folk riddle is one of the most striking

forms of the oxymoron figure in Greek literature: "an !_-person (or thing)

that is not an !_-person (or thing) • A good example can be drawn from that

same scene of Sophocles' Electra that was discussed in the prece di ng Section:

21 meter ametor, • unmotherly mother,• or "mother hardly a mother" (1154).

As in the example cited, this type of oxymoron involves juxtaposition of a

noun against a compound consisting of the same noun p refixed by a-negative.

A quite dis�inct, yet significantly related figure, i s that of alliteration

through a-negative compounds. Here too we have a good example from Sophocles•

Electra, though not from the same scene discussed earlier: di:exvo� • • •

• • • v v U't' oli:ov • • • • -d:vuµ.q>&U't'O� -d T) ov houoo. Kal<&Sv,"childless - -unmarried 22 suffering an �ending doom of ills" (164-67). An impure variant of this device produces the same effect of pathos through accumulation of a- negative compounds, negative predications , apo- compounds and similar expressions.

23 we saw such a figure in the description of the supposed ashes of Orestes .

Both a-negative alliteration and its impure variant of accumulating negatives are among the most favored devices of Greek authors, from Homer through the dramatists, the orators, and beyond. What is more, predilection for these devices reflects tendencies characteristic of the Greek language itself. For

Greek not only has a richer variety of morphological variants of the negative

24 prefix than any other Inda-European language, it also is by far more pro- ductive of negative compounds than the two other ancient languages for which 18

· n 't d t' 25 re hare a i m parable odg of l(teraturetSaAm ri A a iA. he ioAi eptioA

of a permoAt hiA ut aitioAt or ereAtt hat im iharat erized iA Aeuatire te Am

throuuh aAd throuuh im Ao iAreAtioA of philomophiial oAtolouimtm1 it im oAe

of the o moAplaiem of Green literature.

It im hum Ao idleh imtoriial exeriimeto poiAto ut AteiedeAtm or

protot pem A literatue Ad iA fo mm of mpee h for Plato'm do triAe of

deureemof realitg. Souriemfor he iAteA ediate deureelie Aot oAlgA

the tgpe of foln riddle Plato allud ed to 1 theg almo lie iA the ox m oroA of

the t pe metor ametor. or remo AdiAulgt the PlatoAii med mei !t r'iA Ao rag

beiAut' or p Atom . !tr ' alt oue th er Aot beiAut' t at im e uated to medeAt

'AothiAut' im pref iuur ed Ad ma de f iliar iA the h ara t eriz iA u ume of

me deA /m edeim eti.t em pe ii allg bg the ureat trauedi Amt iA e fi ure of a(

Aeuatire a lli teratioAt Ad iA h e fiuure of ai mulatiAu Aeuati em. All of

theme deriiem faiilitatet reiAforiet Ad pro mote oAe Ao her. So it im

properlg he hole o plex hat ioAmtitu te m A import At pre-pi lomop hiial

ba nuro Ad for he PlatoAii doitriAe of deu eem of realitg.

'bme ratioAm made iA thim paper i A be rea d am prorid Au mupportt iA

get a differeAt rat for a themim adr Aied bg harlem H. A 28 Ad otherm.

IA a fom ul ati oA I p e fert the themim im that the diale tii of Be Au iA

ilammiial Green mpe ulatioA fou mem Aot oA ' hat here im' but oA ' hat it

im' or •Hor it im'c Aot oA ei mt eAi e but oA phgmimt o Amtit uti oAt or fo m .

' \ (t ·( '(/ Foo Aotem

1. See P ame A i d e mB8.2 tB7.lt BB.7-13 P cl a to Rep . 478Bl2-Cl ! t ! .·

l89Al- tSoph .237C7-l2 .if. G. l. L. reAt 'Plato oA N o t - B eAu t ' AGreuorg

. amtomted.t P lat ot It etaphgmiim Ad lp imt emolog (GardeACi t gt N.Y . t19 71 ) t

pp. 225-27. 17

in 2. pp 241-48 and passim. For use of this assumption op. cit., �

J. "Notes on Parmenides," in interpreting Parmenides, see David FUrley,

hy Presented to Gregory Exegesis and Argument: Studies in Greek Philosop

New York, 1973), P• 12. Vlastos, Phronesis supl. vol. 1 (Assen and

3. Ibid., p. 247.

N.S. 49 •A use of 006&�� and µ�6&��,· Classical Quarterly, 15 (1965),

31-40.

5. This is my terminology, not Moorhouse•s.

6. It is fascinating to notice how deftly Homer exploits the semantic

distinctness of outis and outidanos in the episode of the blinding of Poly

phemus, the Cyclops, in Od. 9.364 ff. The Cyclops naively believes that

Odysseus' name is outis. So his screams, when Odysseus is blinding him,

bring no help from the other Cyclopes. For they assume he is complaining

of a natural illness, hearing him, as they do, cry: "No one {outis) is

killing me• (9.403-414). Homer's finishing touch to this dramatic pun is

at 460. The powerful monster, now reduced to ineffectual groping, yet still

confident he will capture Odysseus and take revenge, speaks to his favorite

sheep about the ills wrought on him by that "outidanos outis.• In putting

the two words together has he now finally understood the fateful ambiguity

of the sound •outis"? Or does he now understand outis--wrongly--merely as

a variant of outidanos? Or had he foolishly lulled himself from the start

with the belief that Odysseus had called himself Outis (=outidanos) in abject humility and self-deprecation? Homer leaves us to wonder. In the end,

Polyphemus• favorite animal carries Odysseus safely out of the cave and beyond the Cyclopes' reach. The crucial point, however, is clear: Odysseus not only is not , as Polyphemus' fellow Cyclopes thought, "no one," he also is 18

11am A of Ao Aott am Pol h emum himmelf--at oAe time or Aother--thouuht

ai o t.•

7. ii AoAd att oret tr Am.t he odem of PiAdar ( hiiauot 1947)t

p. 111trith mg o A fullertr AmlatioAof liAe 2.

8. p. iit.t p.34.

9. bid. t p. 38.

1- . oo rhoumeiAte pretmthe idim oudeA( am 1! am AdoAet brouuht

to uiA.a So A pammauemof the fo mt'! am dead (apole A-• • • I Ao loAuer

am A thiAu

hare a e e rari At of the mto n rhetoriialfiuu e 'I'm deadtI am Ao o e•

(o A rhiih mee belort A. 12). ather rhat re ha e im mi Aifii At juxta

omitioA of the t o mtatem that are e pliiitlg dimtiA uim hed bg CreoA at

the eAd of AAtiuoAe.

oith r e f e r e Ae to he muh d i mum m e d pammaue A A jxa' 'oooir (r 'U

µS(r dr'i l( BA.p (1231-t oorhoume ioAiludem that both oud A oA A d

medeA here me A 'of Ao aiio At' (p. 37)--iA the te mm umed iA him papert

hat theg are . o h haraiteriziAu umem.

11. oilli m Salet lle trat bg Sophoilem: A Ur AmlatioA ri h

o meAtarg (lA ulero d Cliffmt N.J.t 1973) t p. 139 ( 834.

12 . here im t of iourmet a •rital' ume or Au Aie of •to bet• 'to eximtt•

Ad eiAai. But the fa t that the paraphramem or tr AmlatioAm 'to lire' or

•to be alire• Ad •to die• or 'to be dead' are arail ble for pomitire Ad

Aeuatire prediiatioAmt rempe tire igt A him t pe of ume doem Aot rarr At magiAu that 'to be ' 'to e imt' or eiAai iA muih iamem mimplg e Am 'to lireA or •to be ali e.• At the rerg leamtt the rital ume of theme rerbm iarriem ureater rhetoriial foriet ureater pathomt h A orrempoAd Au ume of he ' t. ·.( '

prediiatem 'lirem'or 'diem.• him im empeiiallgilea r A literargexamplem

' ( th at miuht o he rime be taneA am pleoAamtii: ('I A ou(oe. Ue xa.e '.V

(Homerd . 24.282)c (ororxa t (ror'A9 (raCor (DemomtheAem.18.72)c (AoAeV--8'

(U A UpoCa (luripidem Uread. 1292) . See Joaihim l ormnit 'Z A

AtmteheA der Beurif fe SeiA Ad Niihtm Ad de r oelteAtmteh Aum- Ad oelt-

miho pfu mthe orie A im mtreAueA Si Ae (I. Ueil)t' Arihir fur emihiihte de r

Philomophiet 49 (1987)t 139c Charlem H. A t Uhe rerb ' e' A A iieA t Greent

FouAdatioAm of A uaue mupl. mer.t 18 ( o d eiht A d BomtoAt 1973)t pp .

24 --45 t 378- 79.

13. f. Greuorg V l amt omt 'Deu reemof Realitg iA P latot' A ReAford

b o uu ht ed.t Ner lmmagm oA Plato Ad Arimtotle (LoAd oAt 1985)t pp. 8-9.

14. he h ar ate riz iAu meAme for oudeA here im u arA teed bg the

i mediate oAte t: 'I did Aot reieire gou ba n iA th e fo A A rhiih (h(mpe r)

I meAt gou off11 (1128)c •r meAt gou off rempleAdeAt (l mp oA exee mp ma )' (1 13 -).

15. See belort p. -- A d A. 21.

18. See 184-87 dUexr oc • • • a'1UµOeU'c • • • dr(rUU'V 't'r lxouA

xaor. 1 8-9 2 (('U'c (miil. lleitra'm) dreAR.' (t -88' i'' dp o• (U.c

&reu Uex(r • dcOLA'c o (.cdr(p bAepC'aUa. • • • .a(Ca • de.xet

ur ''A(t xeratc (if. ' ( full') 8' d (C'at. Up.Ae(a. c.

23--32Ua8e dp [lleitra'mroem] dAU a xexA(aeUa.•oo5e AoU' lx xaµ.or dAo-

Aauoµa. :ra p.9o c Joe -p(ror. 813-22 dAe 'ep (µer( dO.A'c • • • (iA

lleitra'm lif e) oo8etc A89oc. Cf. 'remtem' r marnm: oµ' dUC .c x:-eo c

lO9apµeror (1181)c O&u )c (8pou 5u.8p ou ce fc 'PO (c (1183 -.

17. Uhe abmolute o At for he ihara teriziAu ume imt iA Ag ereAtt

remarn blg hiuh. For Sophoilemt for rh m oorhoume iolleited all the reler At pammauemt the o At im 18. For luripidem he total im Aearlg do ble that of

the 24 't pi al ex mplem' dim ummed bg oo rhoumet pp. 38-4-. 2-

A the 18. See 'DeteA .aig Ad A deteA A aigt eBiAu Ad NoA-BeiAu

Fra meAtm of Pa AeAidemt'iA ouer A. ShiAerAd Jo A KiAuFarlort Ner

lmmagm oA PlatoAd the Pre-SoiratiimtAadi A Jou Aal of Philomophgmupl.

ol. 2 (G uelph t'Atario t1978)t pp. 45-8-.

19. 'p. iit.tpp. 1--11.

2-. See Ja em Ad mt he Rep blii of Platotldited rit h CritiialNotemt

i AeAta g aAd Ap eAd ie m 2Ad ed.t 2 rolm. (Ca briduet1983)1 rol. 1t pp.

342-43ad loi. I h are altered mliuhtlg the umual i A te ( et atioA.

21. For a di mum m i o Aof the fiuure tmee Hollimter A d el bat H a m i loA t

he NeuatireCompouAdm iA Green (Baltimore 1899)t t pp. 48-49 1if. A. i.

oorhoume t Studiem iA he GreenNeu atire m (ard iff t1959)t pp . 88-88 .

22. other examplem :Homer Il. 9 .83 - 4 d(po p d9&µ (''dr ' e'(8 (lc( r

# ' t 5 ' epxoµa ((ar Auµa(ar uL or. f. bore t A. 18t Ad Hil t o A t pp. 44-45 .

23. Abore tp. oot Cf. demiri ptioAof l l etra ' mp r e d i imAt t A. 18.

24. oorhoume tStudiem p. t 4 7.

25. Hmi l t oA tp. 58.

28. See 'hg l xi m tAi eoem Not l e ue am a DimtiAit C oAep t iA Green

Phi lomo phg tA • rhir fur Gem hi hte der Phi lo m oph ie58 t (19 78 ) t 32 3- 34if. 1

Verb • eet• pp. 394-419 .