BRITISH MIDDLE EAST POLICY: THE COUNTERTERRORISM DIMENSION By Isaac Kfir*
The emergence of Islamist terrorism has had a tremendous impact on the United Kingdom. The British government has pursued controversial domestic and foreign policies. This paper reviews some of the key measures and also the British involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan. It holds that the continuous clashes between the different branches of government has undermined Britain’s ability to contend with the threat raised by Islamic radicals, which is like no other.
The British government decision to support to get technology is there.”3 Around the the U.S.-led “War on Terror” placed the same time, Metropolitan Police United Kingdom at the epicenter of the Commissioner Sir Ian Blair stated, in a campaign, forcing the adoption of policies, comment on the August 2006 transatlantic strategies, programs, and other measures to airline bomb plot, that “the apparent speed deal with the Islamists—even though with which young, reasonably affluent, initially there was no indication that the UK some reasonably well educated British-born was a target of al-Qa’ida.1 Unfortunately, people” had become radicalized and willing the threat became a reality on July 7, 2005, to commit mass murders through suicide when four British-Muslims undertook a attacks was worrying.4 Significantly, suicide bombing campaign that left more Manningham-Buller made it clear that due than 50 people dead across central London, to al-Qa'ida’s nature, the challenge faced by making July 7 the deadliest terror attack on the security forces was substantial. This British soil. Britain has since became a was seen with the Barot case, in which the major target of al-Qa’ida and Islamists, plot was forged in one country, approved in with some security officials believing that another, and executed elsewhere.5 Overall, Islamic radicals view “…7/7 as just the it is apparent that Britain is a key target of beginning.”2 In a November 2006 speech, Islamist terrorism.6 Consequently, there has Director-General of MI5 Dame Eliza been a call to toughen up anti-terrorism Manningham-Buller claimed 200 terrorist laws. This move, however, is likely to be networks involving at least 1,600 people resisted by civil libertarians and Muslims and 30 “Priority 1” plots to kill had been who claim that Britain’s anti-terrorism identified. Only a few days after measures are already far too stringent.7 Manningham-Buller’s speech, a senior Britain’s role in the global War on Foreign Office counter-terrorism expert Terror has led to a fierce public debate over claimed that there was “[n]o doubt at all” the country’s participation.8 There have that al-Qa’ida was seeking nuclear been mass demonstrations,9 the jailing of a technology to attack the West and Britain. British officer for refusing to serve in The official added, “We know the Iraq,10 a variety of legal challenges about aspiration is there, we know the attempt to detention and the powers of the state, and get material is there, we know the attempt questions concerning integration and the
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 4 (December 2006) 41 Isaac Kfir soundness of the measures promoted by the An analysis of British counter-terrorism government11 (such as immigration).12 It measures show that the British approach is has also raised the issue of what it means to based on four key elements: prevention be British. However, most of the debate and (tackling the factors that lead to the controversy have been over Britain’s radicalization and terrorist recruitment); foreign policy.13 In the words of Inayat protection of British people and British Bunglawala of the Muslim Council of interests; preparation in terms of ensuring Britain, “…the [British] government has that in the case of an attack, casualties been totally in denial about the impact of its would be minimized due to effective own policies, especially foreign policies, response; and the pursuit of terrorists and and how they may have contributed to the those who sponsor them. Under UK law, growth in extremism. That’s why the terrorism is regarded as a criminal act, with demand for a public inquiry must be crucial investigation and prevention falling on the to any discussion of terrorism.”14 Simply shoulders of the police, while the security put, there are Muslims who feel that their services focus on intelligence gathering and community and the umma (Islamic nation) the investigation of covert, organized are ignored, neglected, or discriminated threats.18 The military’s role within the against by mainstream Western society. It is domestic sphere could at best be defined as repeatedly noted by such Muslims that the supporting the civilian mechanism. In plight of Muslims in Palestine, Chechnya, foreign policy, the military plays a central Kashmir, and most recently in Lebanon are role in counter-terrorism through its active often forgotten or ignored by the military engagements with terrorists international community at large and the (combat) and nation-building, as seen in West in particular. Consequently, British Iraq and Afghanistan. Muslims have criticized various measures The transformation of Britain’s security adopted by the UK government to counter apparatus has been impressive, especially the threat posed by al-Qa’ida.15 They feel since July 7, 2005, but the continuous clash that these measures coupled with the usage between the various branches of of such terms as “radical Muslim cleric” government (particularly between the and “Islamic extremists” lead to the executive and the judiciary branches) vilification of the Muslim community and coupled with inter-communal tensions to Islamophobia, which plays into the hands makes the UK vulnerable not only to of the militants.16 At the other end, Muslim further acts of terrorism, but also as a leaders such as Ahmad al-Rawi, president potential breeding ground for terrorist of the Federation of Islamic Organizations recruitment. The British public must in Europe, declared at the Twenty-Third understand that the threat posed by al- Congress of the Union of Islamic Qa’ida and other Islamist terrorist groups is Organizations in France (UOIF), “In real and total.19 At present, there is a failure Britain, where we are more than 2 million, to appreciate that a global war is raging and there is less discrimination than in other that giving in to the Islamists would countries. We may practice our religion undermine contemporary and future world completely. Young women wearing society. Abandoning Iraq and Afghanistan headscarves are very active at school or would allow the militants to focus their universities.”17 attention on topping the regimes and instituting a Shari’a-based system, as seen
42 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 4 (December 2006) British Middle East Policy: The Counterterrorism Dimension in Iran and previously in Afghanistan under Irish Republicans, arguably leading to their the Taliban. The government must improve decision to renounce the use of violence. In its public relations program to better the words of Frank Gregory and Paul educate the public of what the Islamists Wilkinson, “The UK’s armed forces and stand for, what they wish to achieve, and police have gained invaluable experience how their victory would impact the lives of and expertise in counterterrorism through people across the globe. three decades of involvement in the effort to suppress terrorism in Northern Ireland DEFINING THE ENEMY: INTERNAL and its overspill into the British VS. EXTERNAL mainland.”25 The emergence of Islamist terrorism of the al-Qa’ida model, however, There is considerable debate in is very new, as the religious conviction of academic and political circles as to how to these Muslims is so fierce that negotiation describe the al-Qa’ida movement and those is impossible. Moreover, there is no direct it inspires. There is a distinction between or even indirect contact. It is not known those who support the al-Qa’ida agenda where the jihadists are located, especially wholeheartedly and take up arms to fulfill the al-Qa’ida hierarchy, who nowadays its mantra and those who decry the exist to inspire operations rather than treatment received by the Muslim undertake and design ones.26 community at the hands of contemporary society. Thus, within the confines of this Britain’s Counter-Terrorism Legislation paper, the terms “jihadists” or “Islamists”20 and Other Measures are preferred when discussing Muslims who strive for “pure Islam”—the strict The horror and the fear caused by the adherence to Shari’a. Such Muslims are indiscriminate, callous, and methodical act angry primarily at Arab regimes that they of violence that occurred in the United claim have abandoned the true ways of States on September 11, 2001, propelled the Islam while drawing support from the West UK government to adopt an activist and predominately the United States, who legislative program, while also making it also give Israel unconditional support.21 It clear (and even more so after the London is, however, somewhat ironic that these bombings and French riots) that the root Muslims are willing to use the liberal causes of terrorism must be studied in great system as well as the comfort and security depth. The House of Commons Select offered by Western society22 to recruit new Committee on Home Affairs found that: members and support the jihadist mantra to ensure the emancipation of the Muslim …the new terrorism legislation world from the hands of the infidels.23 cannot and must not simply be a set of police and judicial powers. It BRITAIN AND TERRORISM must be part of an explicit broader anti-terrorism strategy. In the Britain has dealt with “terrorists” both context of international terrorism, it domestically and internationally for must explicitly and specifically set centuries.24 The country’s security out how British Muslim leaders will apparatus made substantial gains against be supported in assisting British various terrorist organizations, especially
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Muslims in resisting extremist “terrorism” if it is “…made for the purpose views.27 of advancing a political, religious or ideological cause.”32 The “action” referred Increasingly, however, the government to in the act occurs if it involves serious has had to contend with an activist violence against a person;33 involves judiciary. This has led to tensions between serious damage to property;34 endangers a the executive and the judicial branches person’s life, other than that of the person brought about by the Courts” determination committing the action;35 creates a serious to ensure that Britain’s War on Terror is risk to the health and safety of the public;36 conducted within the precepts of the 1951 or is designed to interfere with or seriously Refugee Convention, the European disrupt an electronic system.37 Convention on Human Rights, the Human The act’s other key measures deal with Rights Act (1998), and other relevant proscribing various terrorist organizations international human rights instruments.28 from operating in the United Kingdom38 Yet this position by the judiciary has led while also enhancing the power of the Prime Minister Blair to request that Home police by providing it with greater powers Secretary John Reid “…look again at to investigate terrorism, including wider whether primary legislation is needed to stop and search powers and the power to address the issue of court rulings which detain people for up to 14 days (extended to overrule the government in a way that is 28 days under the 2006 Terrorism Act). The inconsistent with other EU countries’ legislation further provides the police with interpretation of the European Convention the power to arrest a person whom the on Human Rights.” Blair has argued that officer “reasonably suspects to be a there needs to be a “…balance between the terrorist.”39 rights of the individual and the rights of the Under the Terrorism Act (2000), it is a community to basic security,” as he feels criminal offense to incite terrorism; to seek that “…although British judges should or to provide training for terrorist purposes already take that balance into consideration, in the United Kingdom or overseas, and to it’s clear that sometimes they don’t.”29 provide instruction or training in the use of firearms, explosives, chemical, biological, The Terrorism Act (2000) or nuclear weapons.40 The issue of incitement has been very difficult, creating The Terrorism Act (2000) is the clashes between the liberal tradition, which principal counter-terrorism legislation in focuses on free speech, and the need for the UK. The act replaced and reformed security and authority. At the heart of the previous temporary anti-terrorism debate lies the Human Rights Act (1998), legislation, making counter-terrorism which guarantees freedom of speech, measures permanent and applicable to all though the right is not absolute. The act has forms of terrorism, whether Irish, been used on various occasions to challenge international, or domestic.30 Under the act, government legislation, policies, and terrorism amounts to the use or threat of programs dealing directly or indirectly with action where it “…is designed to influence the War on Terror.41 the government or to intimidate the public or section of the public…”31 Moreover, the The Anti-Terrorism, Crime, and Security act designates the use or threat of action as Act (2001)
44 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 4 (December 2006) British Middle East Policy: The Counterterrorism Dimension
On December 14, 2001, the Anti- Lordship concluded, “The real threat to the Terrorism, Crime, and Security Act (2001) life of the nation, in the sense of a people received its Royal Assent and became law. living in accordance with its traditional The act was a reaction to September 11, and laws and political values, comes not from its aim was to ensure that the UK terrorism but from laws such as these.”44 government had sufficient powers to contend with a similar threat. The key The Prevention of Terrorism Act (2005) features of the new legislation were the cutting off of terrorist funding; ensuring The government passed the Prevention cooperation and sharing of information to of Terrorism Act (2005) following the counter a terrorist threat between December 2004 House of Lords ruling. The government agencies and departments; legislation introduced control orders against streamlining appropriate immigration any suspected terrorist, whether UK procedures; protecting the nuclear and nationals or non-UK nationals or whether aviation industries; improving the security the suspected action was domestic or of dangerous substances that terrorists may international. The “control orders” appear wish to acquire; extending the powers of in two forms: a strict form that requires the the police; ensuring that the UK meets its UK government to opt out (“derogation”) European obligations in the area of police of Article 5 of the ECHR; or “control and judicial cooperation; and updating the orders” that are not sufficiently harsh and UK’s anti-terrorist powers.42 therefore do not require a derogation from The House of Lords, by a vote of eight ECHR.45 The “control orders” permit the to one, dealt a blow to the act when it ruled authorities to impose conditions on that Part IV (Immigration and Asylum) individuals, which range from prohibiting breached the articles of the European access to specific items or services (such as Commission on Human Rights that relate to the use of the internet), restriction on the right to liberty and the right to freedom movement to or within certain areas, from discrimination.43 The ruling forced the restrictions on communications and government to reconsider its counter- associations, and curfews (the “orders” do terrorism policies vis-à-vis dangerous and not mean “house arrest”). The aim of the undesirable elements. It also meant that the “control orders” is to deal with each case on Lords quashed the Human Rights Act of its merits, as the government has come to 1998 (Designated Derogation) Order 2001, realize that each situation poses a different which allowed the UK to opt out of Article risk. The Secretary of State normally 5(1)(f) of the European Convention on requires a court order to impose a “control Human Rights. The significance of the order,” although in an emergency the order ruling was its emphasis that, at least to their may be issued first, with the Court later Lordships, the threat from Islamists was not confirming the order’s legality.46 severe enough as to amount to a public The are a number of issues with “control emergency necessitating that the State orders,” especially as prima facie they adopt such draconian measures as challenge a number of Articles in ECHR, internment. In the words of Lord Hoffman, which include freedom of expression “Terrorist violence, serious as it is, does not (Article 10), freedom of association (Article threaten our institutions of government or 11), the right to privacy (Article 8), and so our existence as a civil community.” His on. Consequently, there is substantial
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 4 (December 2006) 45 Isaac Kfir concern within human rights circles that the encouraging terrorism (terrorism being act and its measures are too draconian. The defined under section 1 of the 2000 Home Secretary, for example, can issue Terrorism Act). This is due to Article 5 of “control orders” for indefinite periods the Council of Europe Convention on the through a very secretive process in which Prevention of Terrorism (the the standard of proof is lower than that used “Convention”), which requires states to in criminal law (it is based on a “balance of have an offense of “public provocation to probabilities rather than “beyond a commit a terrorist act.” Thus, under the act, reasonable doubt,” which is the standard a person commits an offense if they publish use in the latter).47 Ultimately a “control a statement that induces another to commit, order” restricts an individual’s rights, and, prepare, or instigate the act of terrorism or therefore, it could be argued that the Convention offenses.50 threshold for issuing such an order requires An important feature in the act is the a criminal standard rather than a civil one. issue of the glorification of terrorism. The act limits the powers of the court by Under the act, it is an offense to provide a providing it primary responsibility to statement that glorifies (glorification is determine whether the Home Secretary has defined in section 20 of the act) the acted beyond his/her power. The commission or preparation of acts of government, in an attempt to appease terrorism or Convention offenses. However, human rights groups, civil libertarians, and the act makes it clear that the offense is members of the judiciary has responded by committed only if “members of the public accepting a quarterly review of “control could reasonably be expected to infer that orders,” with members of the review group what is being glorified is being glorified as coming from the intelligence and law conduct that should be emulated by them in enforcement communities.48 However, existing circumstances.”51 When these measures have failed to appease the determining how the statement is likely to judiciary. This was seen in a recent Court of be understood by the public, it is necessary Appeal ruling in which the Lord Chief to look at the contents of the statement as a Justice Phillips of Worth Matravers; Master whole as well as the circumstances and of Rolls Sir Anthony Clarke, and President manner of its publication.52 On the of the Queen’s Bench Division Sir Igor dissemination issue, the act covers books Judge held that “control orders” restricting and other publications, including material the individual to an 18-hour confinement on the internet. The dissemination must, amounts to “deprivation of liberty,” however, be conducted either intentionally contrary to Article 5 of the Convention, or recklessly, and its purpose must be to which bans indefinite detention without encourage or induce a terrorist act, or the trial.49 individual’s conduct would provide assistance in the commission or preparation Terrorism Act (2006) of acts of terrorism.53 Conduct includes such things as distributing, circulating, On March 30, 2006, the new Terrorism giving, selling, lending, or offering to sell a Act received its Royal Assent. The terrorist publication. It also includes principle focus of the act was to deal with providing a service to others to enable them those propagating extremist activities. The to obtain, read, listen, or look at a terrorist government introduced the offense of
46 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 4 (December 2006) British Middle East Policy: The Counterterrorism Dimension publication, or to acquire it as a gift, sale, claiming that “glorification” was defined loan, electronically, and so on.54 too broadly, while the detention of an The act introduced two new offenses to individual for 28 days was viewed as being the statute book, making it an offense to too draconian.58 Gareth Crossman, the prepare a terrorist act or to train for Policy Director of Liberty has declared, terrorism. The preparation aspect of the act “These new powers [Terrorism Act 2006] builds on the common law offense of make us not only less free, we are also less conspiracy to carry out or attempt a terrorist safe when we drive dissent underground act. The act of preparation involves a and alienate minorities. Swept up in this person who has the mens rea while being new anti-terror safety net could be those caught, for example, with materials that who protest against dictators like may be used for terrorism purposes, though Zimbabwe’s Mugabe or North Korean not immediately. This is a development dissidents.”59 from the common law, under which the offense of an attempt occurs if the acts Britain’s Role in the Combating of committed are more than merely Terrorism Financing preparatory, while the offense of conspiracy provides that an agreement to commit an The challenge of countering terrorism offense must have occurred.55 finances is enormous because of the Section 6 of the act covers the issue of complexity and very nature of the financial training, which initially was dealt with in world, which operates in secrecy, coupled section 54 of the Terrorism Act of 2000 and with various national interests. At the same relates to training in the use of or the time, the defeat of international terrorism is making of firearms and explosives, heavily reliant on destroying terrorists’ including chemical, biological, and nuclear financial means. Terrorists use cash for weapons. Under section 6(1), a person such purposes as recruitment, training, commits the offense of training if they travel, and material, coupled with the provide instructions or training in the occasional need to pay for safe haven making, handling, or use of a noxious protection. Consequently, the international substance or any other device, method, or community has placed a high premium on technique that may be used for the purpose strengthening control over international of terrorism. Relating to the issue of finance.60 training, it is an offense to attend a place The British campaign against terrorist used for terrorist training in the UK or financing rests on the 1988 Criminal Justice elsewhere.56 Act and the 1993 Money Laundering The Terrorism Act of 2006 came in the Regulations. There is substantial midst of tremendous controversy for involvement by the Joint Money covering such issues as glorification of Laundering Steering Group (JMLSG), the terrorism and the detention of a suspect for Financial Service Authority (FSA), and the 28 days without charge, although any Financial Services and Market Act (2000). detention for longer than 48 hours requires The JMLSG is composed of the UK’s judicial oversight.57 These two features in leading Trade Associations in the Financial the act drew substantial criticism from both Services Industry (banks, building societies, the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats, credit institutions, investment firms as not to mention a number of Labour MPs, defined by the Financial Service Act of
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1986, insurance companies, and so on). It In November 2001, the UK government aims to advance good practices in formed the Terrorist Finance Unit (TFU), countering money laundering while also operating from within the National assisting in interpreting the UK’s and EC Criminal Intelligence Service (NCIS) to Money Laundering Regulations, primarily provide financial intelligence packages for through the publication of Guidance Notes, further investigation. The TFU is composed which it has been doing since 1990. The of personnel from law enforcement, FSA is an independent, non-governmental regulatory, and intelligence agencies with agency operating under the Financial the aim of examining financial disclosures Services and Market Act (2000), which submitted to NCIS for possible terrorist regulates the financial services with the connections and to combine the data with intention of ensuring that retail consumers intelligence from other sources. The receive a fair deal through the promotion of combined financial intelligence packages an efficient, orderly, and fair market from are then referred for further investigative the financial services industry. In the realm work by the National Terrorist Financial of money laundering, the FSA has laid out Investigation Unit (NTFIU) and other various regulations and demands that come intelligence agencies. The second task of within its jurisdiction to prevent money the TFU is to “…work with law laundering operations. enforcement and intelligence agencies to The system received a boost with the develop intelligence led methodologies to passing of the 2002 Proceeds of Crime Act help inform future work on terrorist (POCA) and the Money Laundering financing and where appropriate share with Regulations 2003 (MLR). POCA created an and provide guidance to the financial Asset Recovery Agency (ARA), but more sector.”64 importantly, it replaced the five primary The Terrorism Act (2000) has and secondary pieces of legislation dealing endeavored to deal with terror financing with money laundering. The act created through the creation of four main offenses three principal offenses, which dealt with in relation to terror funding, which apply to concealing, disguising, converting, situations when a person intends or has transferring, or removing criminal property reasonable cause to believe that money or from England, Wales, Scotland, or property would be used for terrorist Northern Ireland.61 The second offense is purposes. Under section 15, it is an offense that of arranging, which calls for to invite anyone to provide money or establishing that a person entered into or property, or to receive money or property, became concerned with an arrangement that for the purpose of terrorism. Section 16 they knew or suspected would facilitate makes it an offense to use or possess money another to acquire, retain, use, or control or property for the purpose of terrorism. criminal property, and that the person The act also aims to deal with the concerned also knew or suspected that the facilitation of funds for terror purposes and property constituted or represented benefit money laundering, making any involvement from criminal conduct.62 The final offense in such activities an offense. That is, under is that of acquiring and using, which is section 18, it is an offense for a person to committed when the property acquired enter or to become involved in an (used or possessed) constitutes or represents arrangement that facilitates the use of a benefit from crime.63 property, whether by concealment, removal
48 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 4 (December 2006) British Middle East Policy: The Counterterrorism Dimension from jurisdiction, transfer to a nominee, or serving on the joint intelligence committee by any other way. The act allows one to to ensure that poor intelligence and argue that one did not know and had no coordination between the various security reasonable cause to suspect that the and intelligence agencies would not lead to arrangement related to a terrorist another September 11.68 property.65 Moreover, the act places a responsibility on a person to inform the The Security Services authorities, to disclose knowledge or information acquired through one’s The United Kingdom has three national business, profession, trade, or employment intelligence and security services of terrorist funding.66 (“agencies”) that direct Britain’s counter- terrorism program. The first agency, and Britain’s Security Apparatus the one entrusted with primary responsibility for British national security is Primary responsibility for the United the Security Service (MI5), which is Kingdom’s security lies with the Cabinet Britain’s internal intelligence agency. It is Office and the Central Government responsible for gathering information on machinery, which directs the rest of and assessing covert threats such as government’s efforts in the realm of terrorism, espionage, and the proliferation battling the threat of terrorism. The Cabinet of weapons of mass destruction to the Office Briefing Room A (COBRA) United Kingdom, as long as they are coordinates the government’s emergency domestic. The Security Service is under the operation. It is composed of the deputy authority of the home secretary.69 The prime minister; the cabinet secretary; the second agency is the Government’s foreign secretary; the chancellor; the Communication Head-quarters (GCHQ), defense secretary; the home secretary; the located in Cheltenham. GCHQ operates chief of defense staff; the chairman of the under the foreign secretary’s remit. Its key Joint Intelligence Committee; the chief responsibility is to intercept and decode foreign policy adviser to the prime minister; communications and other signals that are and, on an ad hoc basis, the director-general used to create signals intelligence of the Security Service; the director-general (SIGINT). GCHQ also advises government of the Secret Intelligence Service; the departments, the armed forces, and private director of communications and strategy in industry on communications security. The the Prime Minister’s Office (PMO); the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), or MI6, is director of government relations in the the third agency in the matrix, and it PMO; and the chief of staff in the PMO.67 operates as Britain’s external intelligence In June 2002, the same year that the agency. It uses human and technical sources government initiated its counter-terrorism and liaisons with foreign security services strategy known as CONTEST, Tony Blair to produce secret intelligence on political, appointed Sir David Omand to be Britain’s military, and economic issues. The Foreign first security and intelligence coordinator, a Secretary oversees the operations of MI6.70 post equivalent to the U.S. secretary for The Intelligence Services Act (1994) Homeland Security. The brief of the established the Intelligence and Security coordinator involves coordinating the work Committee (ISC), which oversees the of MI5, MI6, and GCHQ, while also Agencies. The ISC examines the
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 4 (December 2006) 49 Isaac Kfir expenditure, administration, and policy of command. Thus, SO15, with 1,500 officers, the agencies.71 Other important bodies is responsible for a variety of areas, the key involved in British counter-terrorism are the ones being to bring to justice those engaged Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC) and the in terrorist, domestic, extremist, and related Joint Terrorism Analysis Center (JTAC). offenses and to provide a proactive and The JIC is the Committee of Agency Heads reactive response to such offenses, and senior officials from government including the prevention and disruption of departments whose responsibility is to terrorist activity, supporting the national provide ministers and officials with coordinator of Terrorist Investigations intelligence assessment on matters outside London, and so on.73 pertaining to national security, defense, and foreign affairs. JIC also shoulders the Counter-Terrorism Exercises responsibility of formulating the annual statement of the UK’s Requirements and Emergency exercise programs have been in Priorities for secret intelligence collection, operation for decades, as they cover natural analysis, and assessment. The statement disasters, accidents, and man-made lays out regional and thematic incidents (terrorism). The UK government requirements, which are then prioritized to and the emergency services soon after reflect which issues are most important and September 11 intensified their “counter- therefore demand the greatest intelligence terrorism exercises,” which had been in effort. JTAC, established in June 2003, existence since the emergence of Irish produces analyses on Islamist terrorist terrorism in the late 1960s. However, as the threats. The center provides short-term al-Qa’ida movement poses a more of a assessments of the level of threat and global threat, the UK has had to change longer-term assessments of terrorist some of its counter-terrorism exercises to networks, capabilities, and threats.72 cover the danger. The British authorities Special Branch, also known as SO12, have adopted a policy of preparedness has played a central role in the campaign to involving counter-terrorism exercises in the ensure Britain’s national security. However, UK and also are working with other since September 11, and even more so countries and organizations to battle following the July 7 bombings, the terrorism outside of the UK. Metropolitan Police undertook a review of On the domestic front, Britain’s its counter-terrorism activities, which emergency and security services have eventually led to the merging of Special embarked on a number of initiatives in the Branch and the Anti-Terrorist Branch hope of making the country safer by (SO13) on October 2, 2006. The new force, practicing how best to deal with known as the Counter-Terrorism Command conventional or unconventional terrorist (SO15), was created with the purpose of attacks. In April 2004, Exercise Atlantic combining intelligence analysis and Blue took place. The objectives of Atlantic development with investigation and Blue were to test existing procedures for operational support activity. The merge domestic incident management in the event comes because it has become increasingly of a terrorist attack involving chemical apparent that the two functions— and/or biological weapons, while also intelligence gathering and operational testing security weaknesses in the London activity—need to exist under a single transport system. It also sought to practice
50 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 4 (December 2006) British Middle East Policy: The Counterterrorism Dimension the joint response of the British, American, accepting only official, not photocopied and Canadian government to media documents, and follow-up on curriculum handling and public information in the vitas.76 event of a terrorist attack. Finally, the Internationally, Britain has continued to exercises tested the flow of information play a role in NATO counter-terrorism and among UK, U.S., and Canadian agencies.74 security operations through such operations A year before, in September 2003, the as Operation Active Endeavour, which has financial district of London saw police, been run by NATO’s Mediterranean Task ambulance, and fire service personnel— Force since September 2001. The operation wearing gas masks and chemical suits—in a protects the shipping in the Mediterranean simulated chemical attack on the region that is vital for global and British underground network. The aim of the national interests (98 percent of UK imports operation was to examine how the and exports travel by sea, and 30 percent of emergency services would work together world maritime trade passes through the and to assess the effectiveness of new Mediterranean Sea). The second focus of equipment purchased in the aftermath of the operation is to search for and prevent September 11.75 terrorism, especially as it is known that al- The situation vis-à-vis counter-terrorism Qa’ida has a maritime cell, as was seen took a different form following July 7, with the attack on the USS Cole. To this 2005, which emphasized that terrorism end, 75,000 ships have been monitored and posed not only a clear and present danger to over 100 have been boarded.77 In April the United Kingdom, but also that jihadist 2006, NATO held Exercise Brilliant terrorist cells were operating within the UK. Mariner 2006 for the Maritime Component This has led to a number of initiatives by Command, which is part of the NATO the UK authorities to educate people about Reaction Force (NRF). Commander in the threat of terrorism, but more Chief Fleet and Commander Allied importantly about being prepared in the Maritime Component Command, event of another attack. Britain’s MI5 Northwood (MCC Northwood) Admiral Sir issued a booklet entitled “Protecting against James Burnell-Nugent commanded the Terrorism,” which laid out the top ten exercise. As part of the exercise, ships from protective security measures that the NATO Reaction Force sailed from the individuals and businesses could take in Netherlands to Southern Norway, where order to protect themselves. At the they executed a mock evacuation of forefront, is the issue of risk assessment, civilians (NEO—Non-Combatant which deals with identifying the threats, Evacuation Phase).78 establishing actions that must be taken to protect oneself, and understanding one’s The Social Dimension: The Challenge of vulnerabilities. The risk assessment also Finding an Equilibrium deals with what measures could be taken to enhance security, such as the placement of The events in London on July 7, 2005, CCTV, locks, and alarms; and finally, calls placed the debate about integration and for continuous review and rehearsal of “Britishness” at the heart of the War on security plans. The other measures Terror. The realization that the four London suggested by MI5 include better bombers were either British-born or British- recruitment procedures, which involve based has forced people to understand that
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 4 (December 2006) 51 Isaac Kfir there are those who have embraced the al- charities, associations, organizations, and Qa’ida mantra to such an extent that they networks as they promoted their version of are willing to kill and injure for their Islam.83 beliefs. This is a marked transition from a Since September 11, the UK authorities period when the United Kingdom embraced have conducted a variety of studies and the unwanted and undesired in the name of initiatives focused on improving race and freedom, as the country became the community relations between mainstream preferred choice of those escaping British society and the Muslim community, persecution. Unfortunately, it is this which often feels disadvantaged.84 The tolerance that allowed Muslim dissenters Home Affairs Committee has held that from Algeria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria, “The threat of international terrorism brings and other countries to move to Britain, a new dimension to existing issues, and where they have continued to propagate perhaps makes their resolution even more their views and attract new converts to their pressing—it does not change them.”85 The cause, as they have sought changes in their British position has been that terrorism home countries. cannot be combated by force alone, as it British tolerance allowed militant requires dealing with the grievances of the Islamists to receive asylum status. One such weak, the dispossessed, and the poor—who example is Abu Qatada, who was granted are exploited by nefarious elements who asylum in 1993, despite entering the UK on direct the anger of the aforementioned a forged United Arab Emirates passport. people towards the West, for example. In The man considered as “Osama Bin the words of the House of Common Select Laden’s right-hand man in Europe” was Committee on Defense, “Tackling global allowed to preach his brand of militant inequalities and injustices must be part of a Islam until he was detained in October long term strategy to starve terrorist groups 2002, under emergency counter-terrorism of their support.”86 orders.79 Ironically, Britain’s commitment On the social domestic front, it has been to international law ensures that Qatada’s argued that lax morality has encouraged deportation became hard and attracted young Muslims unhappy with the much criticism from civil libertarians permissiveness of British society to fall into because of concern that his human rights the allure of Islamists who preach against (as defined by Western jurisprudence) such a state of affairs. This was seen with would be breached by Jordan, which tried Zacarias Moussaoui who arrived in London him in absentia for a variety of terror- in 1992 to attend a postgraduate degree in related offenses.80 Other notable figures business studies. His mother, Aisha al- who settled in the UK are Abu Doha, an Wafi, claims that her son, while living in Algerian believed to be bin Ladin’s key France, drank alcohol and enjoyed French man in the UK;81 Khalid al-Fawwaz, the society, but once in London, he fell under founder of the Advice and Reformation the spell of Islamist militants who were free Committee; and Yasir al-Sirri, the founder to preach their intolerant ideology. This of the Islamic Observation Center.82 The view has been supported by Moussaoui’s two most notorious militant Islamists to win brother, Abd-Samad, who said, “I believe asylum in Britain were Shaykh Omar Bakri that Britain has fed a snake at its bosom, Muhammad and Shaykh Abu Hamza. The and has been bitten by the snake.” Once two used British liberal laws to establish under the spell of militant Islam, Moussaoui
52 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 4 (December 2006) British Middle East Policy: The Counterterrorism Dimension began to attend a mosque in Brixton, where On the social cohesion front it is he was drawn into a group of Muslim becoming abundantly clear that mainstream extremists. Among these was Richard Reid, British society is increasingly at odds with the “shoe-bomber.” Moussaoui moved into the devout Muslim community that resides an apartment with David Cortellier, who within the United Kingdom. The heart of was later convicted in France of assisting the problem is that devout Muslims reject terrorism. From the Brixton mosque, the fundamentals that lie at the epicenter of Moussaoui and others moved to the traditional liberal society, which embraces infamous Finsbury Mosque. There they and encourages pluralism. attended the lecture of Abu Hamza. In 1995, Moussaoui headed to Afghanistan British Foreign Policy: Going After the and then Chechnya,87 where he became a Terrorists and State-Building jihadist. It is very clear that since September 11, Britain’s position as America’s there has been a concrete effort by various staunchest ally won it both friends and government departments, committees, and enemies. The British position was defined citizen groups to ensure greater social in the July 2002 issue of The Strategic cohesion in the UK. The process has been Defence Review: A New Chapter to the defined largely by the Cantle Commission, Strategic Review, which explored the threat which conducted a comprehensive study of “strategic effect terrorism” and the into community cohesion in the UK “impact of technological change in the following a number of disturbances in military.” At the heart of The Strategic various towns in England in the summer of Defence Review lies the age-old premise 2001. The commission produced 67 that the “enemy” (terrorists) should be recommendations on how to improve fought outside of the United Kingdom, community cohesion, which it defined in a which means that significant forces need to sense much broader than merely be ready to mobilize against terrorists or economics; it also looked into such areas as those who harbor them.90 education, employment, poverty, social inequalities, social and cultural diversity, The Afghan Campaign and access to communication and information technologies.88 However, when The British government supported the turning to the July 7 bombers, it is difficult American decision to dispatch troops to to see how community cohesion could have Afghanistan to apprehend Usama bin Ladin prevented the atrocity. The official report and topple the Taliban regime that gave him into the bombing emphasizes that the four sanctuary. The campaign against al-Qa’ida men were well-integrated into British and the Taliban led the UK government to society and that they were open about their assume a dual role in Afghanistan: The UK religious views. The report states “…there supported the U.S.-led military campaign, was little outward sign that this had spilled Operation Enduring Freedom (a counter- over into potentially violent extremism.” terrorism operation that is part of the U.S.- Moreover, “…there is little in their led global War on Terror). The UK also backgrounds which mark them out as played a major role in the reconstruction of particularly vulnerable to radicalization, Afghanistan through the NATO-led with the possible exception of Lindsay.”89 International Security Assistance Force
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(ISAF) and also through the Department of southern Afghanistan, there has also been International Development. The operation intensification in British-Taliban centers on the belief that ensuring security engagements. During May 2006, Allied in Afghanistan would prevent terrorists forces in the Kandahar and Helmand from re-establishing a presence in the provinces killed over 300 Taliban country. As former Secretary of Defense fighters.94 John Reid, stated: There has been a firm commitment by the UK government towards We cannot risk Afghanistan again reconstruction,95 with Tony Blair declaring becoming a sanctuary for terrorists. in January 2002, “We are not here just for We have seen where that leads, be it today, tomorrow, next week.” in New York or in London. We Consequently, the United Kingdom, beyond cannot ignore the opportunity to the dispatching of troops, has provided bring security to a fragile but vital Afghanistan with over a £1 billion since part of the world, and we cannot go 2001, with the money going to such on accepting Afghan opium being programs as humanitarian assistance, state- the source of 90 per cent of the building, and other such measures.96 heroin that is applied to the veins of Britain’s key responsibility within the the young people of this country. ISAF mandate is in the realm of counter- For all those reasons, it is in our narcotics. This is a significant job, because interests, as the United Kingdom Afghanistan produces around 87 percent of and as a responsible member of the the world’s opium, providing a net income international community, to act.91 of around $2.7 billion,97 which the Taliban use to finance much of their campaign.98 Under the UK’s first responsibility of The UK has spent over £100 million fighting the spread of global Islamist between 2003 and 2006 on activities to terrorism, the government supported the reduce opium production in Afghanistan, American view that the Taliban regime was which included £30 million in 2005 alone harboring and supporting the al-Qa’ida in emergency support to help farmers and network. With the support of the Northern others suffering hardship as a result of the Alliance, a campaign to oust the Taliban reduction in poppy cultivation.99 then began. ISAF, which the UK was first The 2006 decision to place ISAF troops to lead, operates under UN Security in southern and eastern Afghanistan has Council Resolution 1386 (2001), UN meant that the distinction between the Security Council Resolution 1510 (2003), international operation (ISAF) and the U.S.- and UN Security Council Resolution 1623 led campaign to oust the Taliban has (2005), with the aim of enhancing security become blurred. The new deployment has and stability in Afghanistan.92 The placed ISAF and the contributing countries international community has come to under tremendous stress, because the region realize that “failed states” require is infested with al-Qa’ida and Taliban considerable assistance if they are to join fighters.100 As a result, there has been a rise the international community.93 in ISAF casualties, as it has come to deal Consequently, there is a strong British (and more with Taliban and al-Qa’ida international) presence in Afghanistan, and operatives. This also impacts on domestic with the dispatch of British troops to politics of the ISAF countries, although
54 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 4 (December 2006) British Middle East Policy: The Counterterrorism Dimension nothing on the scale that Iraq generates.101 don’t care if we win or lose. Our only goal There seems to be in British circles at least is to do jihad. If you look at history you will more of a willingness to operate in see we have defeated the British three times Afghanistan than in Iraq. This is despite a despite their equipment being 30 times recent claim by Muhammad Hanif, the stronger. If we tolerate some losses we will Taliban spokesman and a close aid of be able to beat them again.”106 Such Mullah Muhammad Omar that the Taliban statements, coupled with the rise of are at war with the British. Hanif has militancy along the southern Afghan- declared, “The British are not here as Pakistani border, emphasize that the peacekeepers. They are here with the challenge before the international occupier, the American superpower. They community is far from over. It appears as if are allied with the superpower so we don’t the Taliban had taken a conscious decision care about them. If they are with the to actively engage British forces in southern Americans we can and will fight face to Afghanistan. Their hope was that British face.”102 casualties would lead to a British There is little doubt that what has taken withdrawal, which would severely place in Afghanistan since the fall of the undermine the international alliance against Taliban has been remarkable.103 The the War on Terror, in which Britain plays a country, after years of misrule, abuse, civil central role. war, and violence, appears on the path from being a “failed state” to a fully functioning The Iraqi Campaign member of the international community. Since 2001, the country has elected a Tony Blair’s decision for the UK to join president, adopted a working constitution, the American effort to topple the Saddam and held full democratic parliamentary regime has been equated with Munich elections. However, the job is far from (1938) and Suez (1956). In other words, complete and explains why the UK this was a defining moment in British government has suggested that the British foreign policy. Blair’s decision emphasized presence would continue in Afghanistan for the hold Atlanticism has over British at least three years.104 At the same time, in foreign policy, which rests on the premise provinces like Helmand, the situation is far of a “special relationship” between the from idyllic. There is a weak central United States and the UK.107 The War on authority, rampant corruption across the Terror and specifically the campaign in Iraq board, defunct government departments, have largely altered the Blairite agenda, and abundance in weaponry—all of which which in 1997 centered on improving have allowed the Taliban to retain a economic prosperity and enhancing social presence.105 In a recent interview with the justice. Tony Blair in his speech outside of London Times, Mullah Muhammad Qasim 10 Downing Street on May 2, 1997, made it Farouqi, the Taliban commander at clear that his focus would be on improving Helmand, claimed to have between two to Britain’s education, modernizing the health three thousand men under his command, services, cleaning up British politics from with thousands more willing to heed his call the corruption of the Major years, and most to take up arms to free Afghanistan from importantly uniting the country.108 Nine the “infidels.” In the words of one Taliban years later, the situation appears very member, “We will fight until we die. We different. The country is just as divided,
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 4 (December 2006) 55 Isaac Kfir with increasing inquiry about the for this has not been so clear cut due to the questionable practices and continuous nature of the challenge; however, what is dissatisfaction with the education and apparent is that there is growing anger health services. amongst Muslims in the UK and around the Operation Telic, the British name for globe over British involvement in Iraq.113 American Operation Iraqi Freedom, has gone through considerable changes since it CONCLUSION began on March 20, 2003. The actual military campaign against the Saddam There is little doubt that Britain has gone regime lasted for about a month before through a significant transformation in Saddam was toppled. The British terms of its counter-terrorism preparedness contribution to the campaign was around since September 11, 2001, and July 7, 2005. 40,000 service personnel, including naval, British policymakers have endeavored to ground, and air forces.109 British and adjust to the new world order by adopting American troops secured the Faw peninsula tougher legislation dealing with as well as the Rumaylah oil fields, with militantization, radicalization, and the British forces also taking control of the promotion of terrorism. This attitude has strategically important city of Basra. The arisen because of the recognition that a major combat operations ended in April threat exists against the United Kingdom, as 2003, and since then the UK has remained seen with the May 2006 announcement that in Iraq, playing a central in the MI5 had uncovered as many as twenty reconstruction (loosely defined to include “major conspiracies” by Islamist security as well) of Iraq. terrorists.114 Following the June 2006 The continuous presence of British Forrest Gate raid, a British counter- forces in Iraq, without the government terrorism expert claimed, “We’re going to stating categorically when the troops would see more ops of this kind. The threat to this leave, has caused much anger and country is so high that you cannot afford to opposition. Blair has sought to fight against take a chance.”115 such outcries, claiming that the purpose of In terms of countering the threat of the British presence in Iraq is to promote international Islamist terrorism, the security democracy in that country.110 In the words agencies— specifically MI5 and MI6— of Defense Secretary Des Brown, British have had to transform their apparatus and troops will remain in Iraq “…until the Iraqi thinking in the post- September 11 world, government is confident that the Iraqi as previously the only significant security forces are capable of providing international terrorist act to have plagued security without assistance from the the United Kingdom was the Lockerbie coalition forces.”111 This has not, however, bombing of December 1988.116 That is, prevented the leaking of a recent top-secret throughout the 1990s, British counter- memorandum from the JIC that argued that terrorism efforts centered on curtailing Irish the British involvement in Iraq has made terrorism. This was in spite of the growing Britain the target of terrorists for years to awareness from the mid-1990s that London come. This challenged Blair’s assertion that was becoming a “hotbed” for Islamist in reconstructing Iraq and making it militants who used the capital to promote, democratic, the UK was in fact protecting fund, and plan terrorist acts in the Middle itself from unsavory elements.112 Evidence East and around the globe. Despite these
56 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 4 (December 2006) British Middle East Policy: The Counterterrorism Dimension developments, the British authorities, wrong message to the enemy.”121 These including the security forces, failed to words could be directed at the British appreciate the al-Qa’ida threat.117 public as much as they were directed The campaign to strengthen Britain’s towards the American people. position in the War on Terror has suffered It is increasingly argued that it was the due to lack of cohesion. Decisions made by desire to control access to oil or the agenda the executive branch are increasingly of the American neoconservatives that led coming under criticism from the public, the the War on Terror.122 Such views are naïve legislature, and the judiciary. The judiciary, at best, if not downright dangerous, and for instance, has been playing a very give credence to those Americans who prominent role, as seen by the recent believe that their country is isolated in the disclosure that more than 230 foreigners international community and that everyone identified by MI5 and Scotland Yard as is against the United States. The British suspected terrorists have been allowed to government, which has generally stood by stay in the UK as asylum seekers.118 the American administration, has also come Moreover, it is apparent that the legal to adopt a “trench mentality,” making it less system is under pressure when it comes to likely to seek allies (internally and terrorist trials, with more than 90 terror externally) and work multilaterally—an suspects awaiting trial.119 On the social essential ingredient when confronting policy front, there is no doubt that more international terrorism. Moreover, further needs to happen in terms of interfaith efforts must be made to explain that the dialogue and social inclusion programs. At campaign in Iraq is not solely about the same time, however, politicians and fighting terrorism but also about nation- community leaders should not be afraid to and state-building. The idea of a democratic express their views and concerns about Iraq would have substantial ramifications certain issues relating to Islam, as seen in for the Gulf region and the Arab world in October 2006 with Jack Straw and his view general, in that it would be a beacon of on the niqab. Straw should be commended, liberalism and would show that it is because as one minister is reported to have possible to have an Islamic country without said, “We need an honest debate: how the repression that one sees in Saudi Arabia much is it reasonable for Muslims to allow or Iran. Iraq could become a symbol of a the State to adapt to their religion. We can’t successful state under which Islam and just say ‘yes’ to everything.”120 politics coexist. The lack of cohesion that is apparent in The British government needs to Britain makes the country appear divided, develop a public relations program that which fuels the terrorists’ campaign, as they better explains the need for tough measures feel that they are winning the war. As bin against Islamists internally and externally, Ladin himself said, “…what prompted me while also emphasizing that these to speak are the repeated fallacies of your individuals require specialist attention President Bush in his comment on the because of the threat that they pose. The outcome of the U.S. opinion polls, which danger of an al-Qa’ida sleeper cell indicated that the overwhelming majority of operating in the UK with the intention of you want the withdrawal of the forces from detonating a dirty bomb must be Iraq, but he objected to this desire and said transmitted more clearly. This is especially that the withdrawal of troops would send a important, as it yet to be understood what
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 4 (December 2006) 57 Isaac Kfir turns individuals into Islamists to the extent Islamic Caliphate will do. Such an end that they would not only take their own would have an immense impact on the lives, but those of innocent civilians as global community, as the regions sought by well. The four men who committed the July the Islamists are of great strategic 7 bombings appear to have turned to importance. The public must remember the radicalization while they were in the UK.123 mantra of Abdallah Azzam, bin Ladin’s The British public must appreciate the mentor: “Jihad and the rifle alone: no extent of the threat that the al-Qa’ida negotiations, no conferences and no network poses, as it seems that the belief is dialogues.”124 that once Britain ends its involvement in Afghanistan and Iraq, Britain will cease to *Isaac Kfir holds a Ph.D. from the London be target. This is a fallacy. The international School of Economics. He teaches at the community is facing a global challenge in Raphael Recanati School of the which a small group of radicals want to Interdisciplinary Center and is an associate transform the world; in the minds of at the Institute for Counter-Terrorism Islamists nothing but the restoration of the Policy (ICT).
NOTES Guardian, November 14, 2006, 1 The House of Commons Defence http://www.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/ Committee in its examination of “New 0,,1947036,00.html. Terrorism” and UK security declared in 4 Abul Taher and Dipesh Gadher, "Islamists 2001, “The threat from international infiltrate four universities," The Sunday terrorism so far, however, has not seemed Times (UK), November 12, 2006, to be directed against the United Kingdom. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,208 The attacks attributed to al Qaeda have 7-2449930,00.html. been against U.S. interests. In recent years 5 Investigators for example believe that the Palestinian terrorism has been largely London bombings plot was hatched in directed against Israel itself. Algerian Waziristan in March 2004. Anthony Barnett terrorists have launched attacks in France. and Martin Bright, “We Warned MI6 of Aum Shinrikyo targeted the Tokyo Tube Attacks, Claim Saudis,” The Observer underground. Anthrax spores have been (UK), September 4, 2005. The 9/11 plot sent through the U.S. postal system. See was approved in an al-Qa'ida summit in House of Commons, Defence Committee, Kula Lumpur in January 2000. Barot was in “The Threat from Terrorism,” Second Malaysia at the time and allegedly met a Report, (Session 2001-2002, December 18, number of the people involved in the plot. 2001), paragraph 50 [HC 348-I]. Jamie Doward, “How a barbershop arrest 2 Rosie Cowan and Richard Taylor-Norton, led to heart of al-Qaeda's web,” The “Britain now No. 1 al-Qaida target – anti- Observer, November 12, 2006, terror chiefs," The Guardian (UK), October http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/stor 19, 2006, y/0,,1945941,00.html. http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,,3296044 6 About a week after the July 7 bombings, a 44-111274,00.html. leaked Whitehall document stated that a 3 Vikram Dodd, “Al-Qaida plotting nuclear network of “extremist recruiters” are attack on UK, officials warn,” The circulating around British universities
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targeting individuals with technical and 11 Clare Dyer, “Lawyers criticise house professional qualifications” focusing arrest plan,” The Guardian, January 27, especially on those taking engineering and 2005, IT degrees. Robert Winnett and David http://www.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/ Leppard, “Leaked No. 10 dossier reveals 0,12780,1399401,00.html. Al-Qaeda’s British recruits,” The Times 12 See for example “Community Cohesion,” (UK), July 10, 2005, A report of the Independent Review Team, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,208 Chaired by Ted Cantle, Home Office 7-1688261,00.html. (November 2001). Appendix C: Rosalyn 7 Gordon Brown, Blair-heir apparent has Lynch, “An Analysis of the Concept of mentioned that he would support extending Community Cohesion,” Home Office the detention period from 28 days to 90. Research, Development and Statistics David Cracknell and David Leppard, Directorate. The report is available on line "Brown: I'll be terror overlord," The Sunday at: Times, November 12, 2006, http://communities.homeoffice.gov.uk/race http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,208 andfaith/reports_pubs/publications/race_fait 7-2450152,00.html. h/community-cohesion.pdf?view=Binary. 8 Michael Meacher, a former minister of the 13 Some people argue that the British environment under Tony Blair, has claimed presence in Iraq and Afghanistan, coupled “…the ‘global war on terrorism’ has the with Blair’s close friendship with George hallmarks of a political myth propagated to W. Bush, has made the UK a target for pave the way for a wholly different Islamist terrorism. See for example the agenda—the U.S. goal of world hegemony, comments by General Sir Richard Dannatt, built around securing by force command chief of the general staff, over Britain’s over the oil supplies required to drive the presence in Iraq. See Richard Norton- whole project,” See Michael Meacher, Taylor and Tania Branigan, “Army chief: “This war on terrorism is bogus,” The British troops must pull out of Iraq soon,” Guardian, September 6, 2003, The Guardian, October 13, 2006, http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/ http://www.guardian.co.uk/Iraq/Story/0,,19 0,3604,1036571,00.html. 21450,00.html. 9 Around one million people attended the 14 Patrick Barkham, Polly Curtis, and anti-war demonstration in London in Joseph Harker, “Islamic voice of reason February 2003. Euan Ferguson, “One speaks out, but the anger remains,” The million. And still they came,” The Guardian, November 21, 2005, Observer, February 16, 2003, http://www.guardian.co.uk/islam/story/0,,1 http://observer.guardian.co.uk/iraq/story/0,1 647171,00.html. 2239,896511,00.html. 15 The recent police operation in Forrest 10 Flight Lieutenant Malcolm Kendall- Green, London, which led to the brief arrest Smith claimed that the war was illegal. See of two Muslim brothers suspected of Richard Norton-Taylor, “RAF doctor sent involvement in the manufacturing of to jail for refusing to serve in Iraq,” The chemical/biological weapons caused Guardian, April 14, 2006, tremendous anger within the Muslim http://www.guardian.co.uk/Iraq/Story/0,,17 community, leading to claims of police 53964,00.html. brutality and overreaction. Abul Koyair,
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one of the men arrested, claimed that his and “AQ-related” terrorism. See “Report family had once supported his desire to into the London Terrorist Attacks on 7 July become a police community support officer, 2005,” House of Commons, Intelligence but following his ordeal, “They [family] and Security Committee, May 2006. don't want me to be associated with the 21 See for example the interview conducted police. My mum and dad don't trust the by Mahan Abedin with Shaykh Omar Bakri police any more.” Hugh Muir, “‘He looked Muhammad, Terrorism Monitor, Vol. 1, at me and shot. As soon as he had eye No. 7 (March 23, 2004), contact, he shot me,’” The Guardian, June http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/ 14, 2006, uploads/st_001_007.pdf. http://www.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/ 22 Abu Hamza, for example, was able to 0,,1796915,00.html. live on social security while preaching his 16 See for example, “Submission to the hate sermons. Home Affairs Committee’s Inquiry into 23 Bin Ladin, in his February 1998 fatwa Terrorism and Social Cohesion,” Forum (“Declaration of the World Islamic Front against Islamophobia & Racism (FAIR), for Jihad against the Jews and Crusaders”), September 2004. noted three crimes. The first included the http://www.fairuk.org/docs/FAIR%20Resp U.S. occupation of Islam’s holiest lands, the onse%20to%20Home%20Affairs%20Com plundering of Islam’s wealth, and the mittee%202004.pdf. humiliation of Muslims and the Islamic 17 “European Muslim leader denounces world in general—as seen in the campaign ‘phobias’ against Islam, the West,” Gulf against Iraq. The second was the U.S. Times, (Qatar), May 10, 2006, determination to continue killing and http://www.gulf- injuring Muslims. The third was the U.S. times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2& desire to dismember the Arab states in the item_no=85651&version=1&template_id=3 region and turn such states as Saudi Arabia, 9&parent_id=21. Iraq, Egypt, and the Sudan into petty states, 18 “Defence and Security in the UK,” House which would strengthen Israel and allow for of Commons, Defence Committee, Sixth the continued occupation of the lands of Report of Session 2001-2002, Vol. 1 (July Arabia. Taken from Bernard Lewis, 17, 2002), “Licence to Kill: Usama bin Laden’s http://www.parliament.the-stationery- Declaration of Jihad,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. office.co.uk/pa/cm200102/cmselect/cmdfen 77, No. 6 (November/December 1998), pp. ce/518/518.pdf. 14-24. 19 Al-Qa’ida has repeatedly shown that 24 It is claimed that the father of the British nobody is immune from its wrath and that secret service was Sir Francis Walsingham, everyone is a target. Bin Ladin himself chief secretary of state to Queen Elizabeth I called for the targeting of civilians. from 1573 to 1590. Walsingham set up a 20 This is the term used by the British system of informants to protect Elizabeth’s Security Service and Police when reign against Catholic subversives. Mark describing Muslims who use religion to Hollingsworth and Nick Fielding, justify their terrorist activities. The larger Defending the Realm: Inside MI5 and the British counter-terrorism community War on Terrorism (London: Andre prefers the terms “international terrorism” Deutsch, 2003), p. 16.
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25 Frank Gregory and Paul Wilkinson, terror suspects living under control orders “Riding Pillion for Tacking Terrorism is a had disappeared led Blair to claim that the High Risk Policy,” Security, Terrorism and Opposition and the Judiciary prevented the the UK, Chatham House Briefing Paper government from implementing tough anti- (ISP/NSC Briefing Paper 05/01), p. 2. terrorist measures. See Sam Knight, “Blair 26 This is arguably the situation with the turns on judges over escaped terror July 21 London bombers who were inspired suspects,” The Times, October 17, 2006, by al-Qa’ida but did not appear to have any http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2- direct contact with the hierarchy. This may 2408358,00.html. explain why the July 21 plot failed, as the 30 “Explanatory Notes to Terrorism Act planning was so poor, especially when 2000,” contrasted with the July 7 operation. One of http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/en2000/2000e the potential suicide bombers, Manfo n11.htm Kwaku Asiedu, chose not to carry out his 31 Terrorism Act (2000), Section 1(1)(b), mission. The attack was scheduled for the http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2000/2000 middle of the day, which is when the 0011.htm. London Underground is relatively quiet (the 32 Ibid, Section 1(1)(c). bus that Mukhtar Said-Ibrahim boarded 33 Ibid, Section 1(2)(a) . only had three passengers). Overall the July 34 Ibid, Section 1(2)(b) . 21 operation appears far too amateurish to 35 Ibid, Section 1(2)(c) . be an al-Qa’ida operation. 36 Ibid, Section 1(2)(d) . 27 See for example, House of Commons 37 Ibid, Section 1(2)(e). Home Affairs Committee, “Terrorism and 38 There are currently 40 international Community Relations,” Sixth Report of terrorist groups proscribed under the 2000 Session 2004-2005, Vol. 1 (London: The Terrorism Act. See Home Office website Stationary Office Ltd., April 6, 2005), for full list: paragraph 179, http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/security/terr http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/c orism-and-the-law/terrorism-act/proscribed- m200405/cmselect/cmhaff/165/16502.htm. groups. 28 Matthew Tempest, “Howard warns 39 Terrorism Act (2000), Section 41(1). against ‘judicial activism,’” The Guardian, 40 Terrorism Act (2000). July 25, 2005, 41 In April 2006, the High Court ruled that a http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0 control order issued against a British man, ,,1546219,00.html; Will Woodard and Clare identified as “S,” was “conspicuously Dyer, “Ministers accused of reacting too unfair” and incompatible with the Human quickly after promise to review human Rights Act. See Knight, “Blair turns on rights law,” The Guardian, May 15, 2005, judges over escaped terror suspects.” http://politics.guardian.co.uk/homeaffairs/st 42 “Explanatory Notes to Anti-Terrorism, ory/0,,1774978,00.html. Crime And Security Act 2001,” 29 Ned Temko and Jamie Doward, http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/en2001/2001e “Revealed: Blair attack on human rights n24.htm. law,” The Observer, May 14, 2006, 43 A (FC) and others (FC) (Appellants) v. http://observer.guardian.co.uk/politics/story Secretary of State for the Home Department /0,,1774399,00.html. Revelations that two (Respondent) X (FC) and another (FC)
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(Appellants) v. Secretary of State for the 57 Ibid, Sections 20 and 28. Home Department (Respondent) [2004] 58 On the advice of the Metropolitan Police, UKHL 56, the government sought a 90-day detention 44 Ibid, pp. 88-97, paragraphs 96, 97. period. 45 Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2005, 59 Matthew Tempest, “Terrorism Act comes http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2005/2005 into force,” The Guardian, April 13, 2006, 0002.htm. http://politics.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/stor 46 “Explanatory Notes to Prevention of y/0,,1752937,00.html; Liberty Press Terrorism Act 2005,” Release, April 13, 2006, http://www.liberty- http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/en2005/2005e human-rights.org.uk/press/2006/terrorism- n02.htm. act-will-make-us-less-safe.shtml. 47 Terrorism Act (2000), Section 4(7)(a). 60 See for example, FATF’s Eighth Special 48 Lord Carlile, the independent reviewer of Recommendations, “FATF Standards: Nine the UK’s counter-terrorism legislation, has Special Recommendations on Terrorist expressed concern over the psychological Financing,” implications that come with “control http://www.oecd.org/document/9/0,2340,en orders.” “Control orders to be reviewed _32250379_32236920_34032073_1_1_1_1 quarterly,” The Guardian, May 2, 2006, ,00.html#IXCashcourriers. http://www.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/ 61 Proceeds of Crime Act (POCA), 2002 0,,1765875,00.html. [UK], Section 327, 49 Richard Ford, “Judges deal blow to http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2002/2002 ‘draconian’ anti-terror laws’,” The Times, 0029.htm. August 2, 2006, 62 Ibid, Section 328. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2- 63 Ibid, Section 329; “Money laundering 2295588,00.html. and the Proceeds of Crime Act,” Irwin 50 Council of Europe Convention on the Mitchell (September 2002), Prevention of Terrorism, Section 1(1) and http://www.legal500.com/devs/uk/cc/ukcc_ 1(2). 002.htm. 51 Council of Europe Convention on the 64 “Combating the Financing of Terrorism: Prevention of Terrorism, Section 1(3)(b). A Report on UK Action,” HM Treasury 52 Ibid, Sections 1(4)(a) and 1(4)(b); (October 2002), p. 18, http://www.hm- “Explanatory Notes to Terrorism Act treasury.gov.uk/media/129/6D/combat_terr 2000.” orism.pdf. 53 Council of Europe Convention on the 65 Terrorism Act (2000), Section 18(2). Prevention of Terrorism, Section 2. 66 Ibid, Section 19. 54 Ibid, Section 2(2); “Explanatory Notes to 67 Erik van de Linde, Kevin O’Brien, Terrorism Act 2000.” Gustav Lindstrom, Stephan de Spiegeleire, 55 Council of Europe Convention on the Mikko Vayrynen, and Han de Vries, “Quick Prevention of Terrorism, Section 5; scan of post 9/11 national counter-terrorism “Explanatory Notes to Terrorism Act policymaking and implementation in 2000.” selected European countries,” Research 56 Council of Europe Convention on the Project for the Netherlands Ministry of Prevention of Terrorism, Sections 6(3)(b), Justice (Leiden, Netherlands: RAND 6(3)(c), 8. Europe, May 2002), p. 107,
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http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_repo http://www.ukresilience.info/publications/p rts/2005/MR1590.pdf. rotecting.pdf. 68 Patrick Wintour, “Blair picks security 77 “Royal Navy engages Russian Navy on services coordinator,” The Guardian, June exercise,” Defence News, February 26, 21, 2002, 2006, http://politics.guardian.co.uk/whitehall/stor http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/Defenc y/0,9061,741329,00.html. eNews/TrainingAndAdventure/RoyalNavy 69 Peter Chalk and William Rosenau, EngagesRussianNavyOnExercise.htm. Confronting the “Enemy Within”: Security 78 “Brilliant end for ‘Brilliant Mariner,’” Intelligence, the Police and Defence News, April 7, 2006, Counterterrorism in Four Democracies http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/Defenc (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2004), eNews/TrainingAndAdventure/BrilliantEnd p. 8; Greg Hanah, Kevin A. O’Brien, and ForbrilliantMariner.htm. Andrew Rathmell, Intelligence and Security 79 Interestingly, videos made by Abu Legislation for Security Sector Reform Qatada were found in the flat used by (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2005), Muhammad Atta, the ringleader of the pp. 14-15. September 11 cell. See Hollingsworth and 70 Hanah, O’Brien, and Rathmell, Fielding, Defending the Realm, p.173; Intelligence and Security Legislation, p. 14. Simon Jeffrey, “Profile: Abu Qatada,” The 71 “Intelligence and Security Committee Guardian, August 11, 2005, Annual Report 2004-2005,” April 2005, http://www.guardian.co.uk/alqaida/story/0,1 http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/publicatio 2469,1547225,00.html. ns/reports/intelligence/iscannualreport.pdf. 80 Daniel McGrory and Richard Ford, 72 House of Commons, Intelligence and “Move to expel ‘al-Qa’ida cleric’ will test Security Committee, “Report into the Britain’s resolve on law,” The Times, London Terrorist Attacks on 7 July 2005,” August 11, 2005, ,May 2006. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,229 73 Rosie Cowan, “Yard merger creates new 89-1730209,00.html. anti-terror department,” The Guardian, 81 Audrey Gillan, “Bin Laden’s ‘UK October 3, 2006. connection’ fights extradition,” The 74 Mark Townsend and Gaby Hinsliff, Guardian, April 23, 2002. “Anti-terror drill revealed soft targets in 82 Hollingsworth and Fielding, Defending London,” The Observer, July 10, 2005, the Realm, pp. 168, 171-72. http://www.guardian.co.uk/attackonlondon/ 83 In a recent exposé, it has been argued that story/0,,1525398,00.html. British immigration officials had repeatedly 75 Hugh Muir, “The day the City stood still failed to deport Abu Hamza despite ... and Britain's defence against terror was allegations that he had committed fraud, put to the test,” The Guardian, September bigamy, and lied on his application for 8, 2003, British citizenship. See Sean O'Neill and http://www.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/ Damien McGrory, “Blunders that left Abu 0,,1037320,00.html. Hamza free,” The Times, May 30, 2006, 76 “Protecting against Terrorism,” Security http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2- Services, MI5 (Norwich: The Licensing 2202315,00.html. Division, HMSO, 2005),
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84 For example, in 2001-2002, Bangladeshis http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/documents/ had the highest male unemployment rate in 7-july-report.pdf?view=Binary. Great Britain, at 20 percent. This is four 90 House of Commons, Defence Committee, times the rate among white British or white “A New Chapter to the Strategic Defence Irish men. The picture is similar for women, Review,” Sixth Report of Session 2002- with Bangladeshi women having the 2003, Vol. 1 (London: The Stationary highest unemployment rate of all (24 Office, 2003) HC 93-I, percent, six times greater than that for white http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/c British or white Irish women). For all ethnic m200203/cmselect/cmdfence/93/93.pdf#sea groups, unemployment was highest among rch='The%20Strategic%20Defence%20Rev young people aged under 25. Over 40 iew%3A%20A%20New%20Chapter%2C'. percent of young Bangladeshi men were 91 “Statement by John Reid, Secretary of unemployed, while young Pakistani men State for Defence,” Hansard, January 12, and women had unemployment rates above 2006, Column 1529, 20 percent. The rate for young white British http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/c men and women were 12 percent and nine m200506/cmhansrd/cm060126/debtext/601 percent respectively. Figures taken from 26-10.htm. House of Commons Home Affairs 92 House of Commons, Defence Committee, Committee, “Terrorism and Community “The UK Deployment to Afghanistan,” Relations,” Sixth Report of Session 2004- Fifth Report of Session 2005-2006, (April 6, 2005, Vol. 1, (London: The Stationary 2006, HC558), Office Ltd., April 6, 2005), pp. 22-23, http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/c paragraph 69. m200506/cmselect/cmdfence/558/558.pdf. 85 Figures taken from “Terrorism and 93 On “failed states” see for example, Community Relations,” House of Commons Robert I. Rothberg, “Failed States in a Home Affairs Committee, Sixth Report of World of Terror,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 81, Session 2004-2005, Vol. 1 (London: The No. 4 (July/August 2002), pp. 127-40. Stationary Office Ltd., April 6, 2005), pp. 94 Declan Walsh and Bagarzai Saidan, 7-8, paragraph 13. “Across the border from Britain’s troops, 86 House of Commons, Defence Committee, Taliban rises again,” The Guardian, May “The Threat from Terrorism,” Second 27, 2006, Report, (Session 2001-2002, December 18, http://www.guardian.co.uk/afghanistan/stor 2001), paragraph 87 [HC 348-I]. y/0,,1784304,00.html. 87 Francis Harris and Duncan Gardham, 95 The UK also hosted a major international “‘Life in London made my boy a terrorist,’” conference on Afghanistan on January 31 Daily Telegraph, (UK) April 4, 2006, and February 1, 2006, with the aim of first http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtm launching the Afghan Compact, the l?xml=/news/2006/05/04/wmous104.xml. successor of the Bonn Agreement. The 88 “Community Cohesion.” Compact aims to provide the framework for 89 “Report of the Official Account of the an international agreement engagement in Bombings in London on 7th July 2005” Afghanistan. Its second aim was to enable (London: The Stationary Office, 2006) HC- the Afghan government to present its 1087, Interim National Development Strategy, which outlines the Afghan government's
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priorities for enhancing development, (Qatar) May 20, 2006, http://www.gulf- improving security, countering the narcotics times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2& trade, and strengthening governance. Its item_no=87463&version=1&template_id=5 third goal was to ensure that the Afghan 7&parent_id=56; see also criticism by government has sufficient resources to meet Simon Jenkins, “The Extraordinary folly of its domestic and international Britain’s new opium war,” The Guardian, responsibilities. London Conference on January 4, 2006, Afghanistan website: http://www.guardian.co.uk/afghanistan/stor http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagen y/0,,1677389,00.html. ame=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c= 101 Clifford Krauss, “Canada Leader Page&cid=1132599285324. Accused of Trying to De-emphasize Danger 96 Anthony Lloyd, “Afghans calls for faster to Troops,” The New York Times, April 26, reconstruction,” The Times, October 24, 2006. 2006, 102 “Taliban at ‘war’ with UK troops,” Gulf http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2- Times, (Qatar) May, 20, 2006, 2418388,00.html. http://www.gulf- 97 United Nations Office on Drugs and times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2& Crime, “Afghanistan: Opium Survey, item_no=87426&version=1&template_id=4 2005,” 1&parent_id=23. http://www.unodc.org/pdf/afg/afg_survey_2 103 On the work of the international 005_exsum.pdf#search='Drugs%20and%20 community in the reconstruction of Crime%2C%20Opium%20Survey%2C%20 Afghanistan see, Peter Marsden, United%20Nations%20Office%2C%20Nov “Afghanistan: the Reconstruction Process,” ember%202005'. International Affairs, Vol. 79, No. 1 (2003), 98 “Kabul seeks help in fight against drugs,” pp. 91-105. Gulf Times, (Qatar) June 14, 2006, 104 House of Commons, Defence http://www.gulf- Committee, “The UK Deployment to times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2& Afghanistan,” Fifth Report of Session 2005- item_no=91768&version=1&template_id=4 2006, (April 6, 2006, HC558), 1&parent_id=23; Walsh and Saidan, http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/c “Across the border from Britain’s troops.” m200506/cmselect/cmdfence/558/558.pdf. 99 “The UK and Afghanistan,” Foreign and 105 Walsh and Saidan, “Across the border Commonwealth Office and Department of from Britain’s troops.” International Development (July 2005), 106 Tahir Luddin and Tim Albone, “‘Do not http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/uk- send your children here. We will kill afghanistan.pdf. them,’” The Times, May 24, 2006, 100 It has been reported that around May 20, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3- 2006, Mullah Dadallah was captured in a 2194397,00.html. battle around the southern city of Kandhar. 107 Tim Dunne “‘When the Shooting Starts’: In the space of two days, around 190 Atlanticism in British Security Strategy,” Taliban fighters were killed in the Helmand International Affairs, Vol. 80, No. 5 (2004), Provinces as a result of clashes with pp. 893, 908; Christoph Bluth, “The British security forces and Alliance forces. See Road to War: Blair, Bush and the Decision “‘Key Taliban chief’ caught,” Gulf Times,
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to Invade Iraq,” International Affairs, Vol. It’s not simply a matter of them joining a 80, No. 5 (2004), pp. 871-92. terrorist organisation.” See David Leppard, 108 “Speech outside Downing Street,” Prime “British brigade of Islamists to join Al- Minister’s Office, May 2, 1997, Qaeda foreign legion in Iraq,” The Sunday http://www.pm.gov.uk/output/Page8073.asp Times, June 04, 2006, 109 Timothy Garden, “Iraq: the Military http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,208 Campaign,” International Affairs, Vol. 79, 7-2209957,00.html. No. 4 (2003), pp. 713-14. 114 Daniel Foggo and David Leppard, “MI5 110 Peter Riddle, "Win or bust: Blair pins at full stretch as 20 Islamist terror plots legacy on Iraq," The Times, May 24, 2006, revealed,” The Sunday Times, May 28, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,171 2006, 29-2194564,00.html. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,208 111 Duncan Campbell, “Basra deaths raise 7-2200246,00.html. fear over roadside bombs,” The Guardian, 115 Michael Smith and Abul Taher, “Bomb May 31, 2006, suspect free to leave UK,” The Sunday http://www.guardian.co.uk/Iraq/Story/0,,17 Times, June 18, 2006, 86369,00.html. During a visit to the UK, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,208 Barham Salih, Iraq’s deputy prime minister, 7-2230763,00.html. called on the international community not 116 House of Commons, Intelligence and to abandon or withdraw from Iraq until the Security Committee, “Report into the Iraqi government had the country properly London Terrorist Attacks on 7 July 2005,” controlled. Salih claimed that that the future (May 2006). of Iraq was vital to the future of the Middle 117 Frank Gregory & Paul Wilkinson, East, and that Iraqis would need help for “Riding Pillion for Tacking Terrorism is a some time. He said, “This is a society that High Risk Policy,” Security, Terrorism and was traumatised by 35 years of tyranny.” the UK, Chatham House Briefing Paper See Phillip Webster, “Iraq war could be (ISP/NSC Briefing Paper 05/01), p. 2. judged a disaster, Beckett admits,” The 118 David Leppard, “More than 230 terror Times, October 24, 2006, suspects free to stay in Britain,” The Sunday http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2- Times, May 21, 2006, 2417832,00.html. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,208 112 David Leppard, “Iraq terror backlash in 7-2190421,00.html. UK ‘for years,’” The Sunday Times, April 119 This number is bound to increase as the 2, 2006, security services and the police conduct http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,208 further investigations. See Sean O’Neill and 7-2114502.html. Daniel McGrory, “Crisis as terrorist trials 113 It is believed that a “British brigade” hit log jam,” The Times, October 7, 2006, operates under the command of Abu Musab http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2- al-Zarqawi, with senior security sources 2392704,00.html. admitting that between 120 to 150 Britons 120 Anthony Browne, “I would prefer have traveled to Iraq to fight coalition women not to wear the veil at all, says forces, with one security official declaring, Straw,” The Times, October 7, 2006, “The really worrying thing is that this has http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2- become a movement that people believe in. 2392710,00.html. It is further reported that
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Straw had been considering this matter for over 12 months, and as one of Labour’s most experienced politicians, he must have known the furor that would follow his remarks. Martin Wainwright, Tania Branigan, Jeevan Vasagar, Matthew Taylor, and Vikram Dodd, “Dangerous attack on Fair Point? Straw veil row deepens,” The Guardian, October 7, 2007, http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0, ,1889846,00.html. 121 “Text: Bin-Laden tape,” British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) News Online, January 19, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/462 8932.stm. 122 See for example Michael Meacher, “This war on terrorism is bogus.” 123 “Report of the Official Account of the Bombings in London on 7th July 2005” (London: The Stationary Office, 2006) HC- 1087, http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/documents/ 7-july-report.pdf?view=Binary. 124 Sreeram Chaulia, “Counter-Insurgency in Kashmir: Bolstering VDCs,” IPCS Terrorism Project, Article 712 (April 10, 2002), http://www.ipcs.org/printArticle.jsp?kValue =716.
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