UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Strategy and Science Fiction: Britain and the Invasion Scares, 1905-1909 by Meighen Sarah C. McCrae A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY CALGARY, ALBERTA JANUARY, 2008 © Meighen Sarah C. 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Canada ABSTRACT This thesis examines the relationship between journalism, 'future war' literature, strategic studies and government defence policy in Britain from 1905 to 1909. It is an analysis of the discourse created by a small group of men, concerned with British national efficiency caused by the challenges Germany posed to Britain's political and economic position in the world. It assesses the similarities in the visions promulgated by strategic publicists and fiction writers and their attempts to raise concerns over national defence with the objective of affecting government policy. It illuminates the blurred line between fact and fiction, through the case studies of The Times military journalist, Charles a Court Repington, and 'future war' writer, William Le Queux by exploring how and why these two men both used a vision of invasion to advocate a larger army. in ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank all of those who helped me in composing this opus. My supervisor, Dr. John Ferris, provided me with the wisdom, guidance and patience to make this work a success. Dr. Doug Peers, Dr. Holger Herwig, and Dr. Francine Michaud assisted me with the background knowledge necessary for this inter-disciplinary topic. A special thank-you to Dr. Brennan for the many hours we spent discussing World War One, and for his encouragement. Thank you to all of the staff of history department who were always willing to give their input into my work. The hard work of Brenda and Marion, always friendly and helpful, deserves a large thank-you. As well, thank-you to the staff at interlibrary loans, who graciously spent hours helping me locate rare science-fiction books from all ends of the earth. All of my friends and family, especially Garry, who listened to me ramble on about my historical "friends" and the funny situations they found themselves in: Repington's escapade while riding an elephant, H.G. Wells and his dislike of cockney accents, and Le Queux's obsession with being mysterious. While doing my research London felt like a second home because of Glafki. For their love and support I thank my grandpa and Anne, dad, mom and sister. I owe a debt to my colleagues for challenging me intellectually, and for their insight into various topics. Thank you to Adam and Kris, for their suggestions, reading drafts of my work, and most importantly for indulging me in drinking copious amounts of coffee and philosophising for hours. Thank-you to my inspirational professors at Carleton University, especially Dr. Aleksandra Bennett, who first suggested I combine my interest in literature and history; Dr. R.C. Elwood, who ignited my passion for history, with his course on Russian history; and Dr. John Taylor for his wisdom about the antiquities. IV TABLE OF CONTENTS Approval Page ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v INTRODUCTION 1 Historiography 8 CHAPTER ONE: The'Mystery Man' 17 The Novelist 18 The Story 32 CHAPTER TWO: The Gorgeous Wreckington 43 "Our Military Correspondent" 46 Why Invasion? 52 What A Friend We Have In Roberts 64 CHAPTER THREE: The Press Campaign 69 CHAPTER FOUR: The Invasion Inquiry 82 CHAPTER FIVE: Imagining the Enemy 100 CONCLUSION: Public Opinion and Further Examination 120 Further Questions 128 BIBLIOGRAPHY 133 v Introduction "Before a war breaks out, it has already long begun in the hearts of the people." Leo Tolstoi The 19m Century was a period of revolutionary change, as the Victorians made advances in industry, science, technology, and the natural sciences. These discoveries challenged Britons' beliefs and the way they perceived themselves. Furthermore, the rise of new powers, specifically Germany, challenged their country's economic and political position in the world. These anxieties were manifested in an Edwardian crisis, as Britons became increasingly concerned over their national efficiency, particularly in the area of national defence. This mentality affected British people of all classes, from militant conservatives to ardent pacifists. One consequence of this mentality was an outpouring of literature—fictional, journalistic and strategic—focusing on the defence of the British Empire, which itself further served to heighten public concern. This thesis assesses one piece in the puzzle of attitudes towards war in European countries before the First World War. The shape of the next 'great war' was of great concern to many Britons. Various conceptualizations of future wars emerged in fiction and non-fiction. As Antulio J. Echevarria II describes in Imagining Future War: The West's Technological Revolution and Visions of Wars to Come, 1800-1914, the nature of these visions rested on the writers' attitude towards change.1 He fits them into two general categories, The Optimists—comprised mainly of pacifists and socialists, believed Europe would not survive a great war, but were optimistic about convincing nations to abandon armed conflicts. They imagined a bleak present, but a bright future. Conversely, Antulio J. Echevarria II, Imagining Future War: The West's Technological Revolution and Visions of Wars to Come, 1800-1914 (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Security International, 2007). 1 the Pessimists, tended to believe that war was inevitable, but still winnable. They imagined a brighter present, but a darker future. Both views reflect dissatisfaction with the present, and a desire to change the future, by creating visions it. Echevarria II recognizes that these categories are arbitrary. This thesis examines men who can best be fit within a third category, The Ultimate Pessimist—those who believed both the present and future were bleak. War was inevitable and unwinnable under the present circumstances of their nation. These authors predicted disasters within the immediate future so as to provoke changes which were the only means to avoid it. These authors were neither pacifists nor warmongers, although they often were labelled as the latter. Rather, they believed that the British Empire could only be maintained by deterrence, which would be provided by a strong military that also could win a war if necessary. Only by preparing for war could the nation preserve peace, and itself. These authors used the idea of invasion, regardless of whether or not they believed it really could occur, as a means to disseminate their fears over national efficiency. These men believed Britain was in a dangerous position, unprepared for a struggle against the mass conscript armies of Germany. They held that Germany, a growing nation increasingly conflicting with other powers, was a serious threat to Britain. Their solution was to create a national army able to protect the shores of Britain, and be sent to the Continent when needed. Although these individuals did not always agree on details of policy or visions of the future, they all recognized that claims Britain was threatened with invasion would aid their cause of a larger army. By portraying the future as gloomier than the present, they illustrated the need for immediate change. This group of men disseminated its ideas to the public through various media, including journalism and 2 fiction. In particular, many of them used their literary ability to send their message about national efficiency through the medium of 'future war' literature, a popular sub-genre of science fiction. By the twentieth century, print media had become a major business in the western world, as populations rose, education and literacy expanded, and standards of living increased. The number of voters in Britain greatly increased as well, giving newspapers newfound political importance. With 6 million men voting in general elections by 1910, politicians and groups attempted to appeal to 'public opinion', as it had political significance.