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Coversheet for Thesis in Sussex Research Online A University of Sussex DPhil thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details A Moral Business: British Quaker work with Refugees from Fascism, 1933-39 Rose Holmes Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Sussex December 2013 i I hereby declare that this thesis has not been, and will not be, submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree. Signature: ii University of Sussex Rose Holmes PhD Thesis A Moral Business: British Quaker work with Refugees from Fascism, 1933-39 Summary This thesis details the previously under-acknowledged work of British Quakers with refugees from fascism in the period leading up to the Second World War. This work can be characterised as distinctly Quaker in origin, complex in organisation and grassroots in implementation. The first chapter establishes how interwar British Quakers were able to mobilise existing networks and values of humanitarian intervention to respond rapidly to the European humanitarian crisis presented by fascism. The Spanish Civil War saw the lines between legal social work and illegal resistance become blurred, forcing British Quaker workers to question their own and their country’s official neutrality in the face of fascism. The second chapter draws attention to both the official structures and the unofficial responses of humanitarian workers. Female domestic servants were the largest professional category of refugees from fascism to enter Britain. Their refuge was largely negotiated by other women, which has not been acknowledged. In the third chapter, I focus on intimate histories to approach a gendered analysis of humanitarian intervention. Finally, I argue that the Kindertransport, in which Quaker leadership was essential, represents the culmination of the interwar voluntary tradition and should be seen as the product of a complex, inter-agency effort. I argue that the Quaker work was hugely significant as a humanitarian endeavour in its own right. Beyond this evident and momentous impact, the Quaker work should be seen as a case study for the changing role of both voluntarism and humanitarianism between the wars. This dissertation illustrates the ways in which the interwar period saw both the professionalization of the humanitarian sector, and an increasing recognition that governments had to support private charities in their humanitarian responses to international crises. iii Acknowledgements My supervisors, Paul Betts and Gideon Reuveni, have been consistently positive and supportive. I have appreciated their wise words, and also our supervisions in various pubs and coffee shops around Brighton. I also benefitted immeasurably from the unofficial supervision of Sybil Oldfield and Ted Timms. With their partners, Saime and Gwen, they have offered an inspirational level of kindness and encouragement. I have been lucky enough to find a real community at Sussex, and have enjoyed the friendship and support of a whole department. I’d like to thank everyone in the History department. Paul Weir, David Geiringer, Becca Searle, Kevin Reynolds, Ben Jones, Nikolas Funke, Tom Akehurst, Sam Shave, Diana Franklin, Lucy Robinson, Owen Emerson, Rhea Edwards, Margaretta Jolly, Natacha Chevalier and Vinita Damodaran have been especially supportive colleagues and friends. I’d particularly like to thank Chris Kempshall for his humour and habitual punctuality. Sian Edwards has been both a stalwart and a star throughout, and I hope that someday we can honour our friendship with something classier than onion rings. Outside of Sussex, many people gave their time to support this project including particularly Jennifer Craig-Norton, Emily Mason, Brenda Bailey, Jennifer Taylor, Rosemary Bailey and Timothy Newell-Price. I’d particularly like to thank those who shared their own and their family stories. Some of them have asked not to be named, so I would like to thank them, and also Peter Kurer, Charles Hannam, Lenore Davies, Trudi Byrne, Rena Haines, Gisela Faust, Andrew Farrar and David Hughes. My friends and I have shared endless coffee, wine and nights of decreasingly wild behaviour since the start of this endeavour. I’d especially like to thank Katie Kittmer, Isabelle Amazon- Brown, Alex Fulcher, Emily Marriott, James Gadd, Lisa Gallagher and Alex Jorden who have all been 3am friends for better or for worse. I benefit from having a large and eccentric family whose company I genuinely enjoy. My parents, Simon and Joanna Holmes and my siblings Mary, Jane and Tom have always been fun, interesting, kind, and there for all the house moves, emotional crises and rants against the system. All the assorted grandparents, uncles, aunts and cousins have more than done their duty by expressing genuine and brief interest then offering wine. Guy Roberts-Holmes, Pamela Kea and their children Justin, Pia and Isabelle have been especially kind in their frequent hospitality and games of ‘Pictureka’. Becca Conduit has taught me the true value of beetroot, furniture from the street, and being an aunt. My outlaws, team Therrien, especially Sue Therrien, Felix Therrien and Ella Grice, have become part of my family and I look forward to many more sessions putting the world to rights round the kitchen table. My partner Alex Therrien and I have, together, realised that the world is our lobster and been on an adventure to find it. I couldn’t have done any of this without his love and support. I would like to dedicate this thesis to my grandmother, Jennifer Conduit, whose unstinting matriarchal strength, love and wisdom have supported three generations of her family. You’ve kept the hills alive, Granny, and now you have to hold out for the book. iv Contents Declaration……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………i. Summary…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…ii. Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..iii. Contents………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………iv. Abbreviations………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………vi. Illustrations…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…viii. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………1. Chapter One: British Quakers and Humanitarianism between the wars………………………………11. Wealth, Welfare and Quaker ‘Business Humanitarianism’. Gandhi’s Goat and Quaker Oats: Quakers, the Press and Public Opinion in the 1930s. A ‘Visual Correspondence’: Photography and Interwar Humanitarianism. Quaker Women: Speaking Truth to Power. Chapter Two: Networks of Intervention, Narratives of Reassurance and the Emergence of Quaker Resistance: The British Quaker response to the Refugee crisis caused by the Spanish Civil War..............................................................................................................................37. ‘Comité de Ayuda a los Ninos u Mujeres en España’: The establishment and initial work of the Barcelona Quaker Mission. ‘No-one regards Children as Reds or Anti-Reds’: Childhood, Photography and a neutral humanitarian space in Spain. Birmingham Quakers and ‘business humanitarianism’. The International Commission: professionalising international refugee support. A Conflicting Approach? Spanish Exiles and Evacuees. Quakers and Basque Refugee Children. Evacuating Republican Exiles to Mexico. ‘La Retirada’ and the ‘Pourrissoirs’ of Southern France. The Emergence of Quaker Resistance under the Vichy Regime. v Chapter Three: Filling the Vacancy: Women, Domestic Work and Gendered Approaches to the Refugee Crisis………………………………………………………………………………………………………………83. Co-ordinating the Quaker Response: The Germany Emergency Committee. Humanitarian intervention as a form of women’s resistance: the Scottish Domestic Bureau. Mothering the World: Women and Professionalism in Interwar Philanthropy. Individual Experience of a Refugee Worker: Mary Hughes and the York Refugee Committee. Filling the Vacancy: Expected Assimilation of the Refugee Domestic Servant. So What about the Men? Agriculture and Self-Reliance. Chapter Four: British Quakers and the Kindertransport: Internationalism, Integration and the Voluntary Tradition………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………128. Organising the Kindertransport: Legitimising child immigration. The Vienna Quaker Centre. The ‘Winton Children’: The Prague Kindertransport and Misdirected Gratitude. Photography and the Kindertransport: Integrating ‘Imagined’ Children. The Kindertransport in a domestic context: ‘Successful’ integration? Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………174. Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………182. vi Abbreviations AFSC American Friends Service Committee AJR Association of Jewish Refugees BCA Birmingham City Archives BCC Basque Children’s Committee BCRC British Committee for Refugees from Czechoslovakia FAU Friends Ambulance Units FCRA Friends Committee for Refugees and Aliens FHL Friends House Library FRS Friends Relief Service FSC Friends Service Committee FWRC Friends Warwickshire Relief Committee FWVRC Friends War
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