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Final Resubmitted Thesis Title Page May 2008 Nineteenth-Century Shakespeares: Nationalism and Moralism by Mark G. Hollingsworth Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2007 Contents i Contents Contents i Long Abstract iii Acknowledgements vi Textual Note vii Introduction 1 Part One Contexts Chapter One Nationalism 44 a) Shakespeare and Nationalism 44 b) Shakespeare and the Nation 58 i) Ancestry 64 ii) Geography 70 iii) Patriotism 81 c) Shakespeare and the Nineteenth Century 95 i) Whig History 101 ii) Tory History 107 Chapter Two Moralism 115 a) Shakespeare and Moralism 115 b) Shakespeare and Private Moralism 143 i) Relationships and the Family 143 ii) The Marriage of Anne and William Shakespeare 149 c) Shakespeare and Public Moralism 158 i) Social Status and Class Position 159 ii) The Business of John and William Shakespeare 167 Contents ii Part Two Case Study Chapter Three The Sonnets 176 a) The Sonnets 176 b) The Sonnets and Nationalism 199 c) The Sonnets and Moralism 222 i) The Dark Lady 235 ii) The Fair Youth 243 d) The Sonnets and Ancient Greece 251 Conclusion 288 Appendix One Publication Graph 297 Bibliography 298 Long Abstract iii Long Abstract This thesis shows that ‘Shakespeare’ (both the works and the man) was at the forefront of literary activity in the nineteenth century. By focusing on concerns about the identity of the British nation and its people it shows that Shakespeare was a constant presence in the debates of the day and that a number of agendas were pursued through what were ostensibly writings about Shakespeare’s plays and the biography of their author. The Introduction first notes Shakespeare’s transition from Elizabethan playwright to Victorian cultural icon and proceeds to outline nineteenth-century critical practice and changes in the social organisation of knowledge. From here the shift in how Shakespeare was considered is noted as well as the fact that, despite increasing interest in the history of the phenomenon, the nineteenth century has been largely neglected. What exploration there has been of this period has tended, by its nature as part of larger surveys or issue-specific studies, to oversimplify the complexities of nineteenth-century criticism. Further to this, the nineteenth century itself is often treated as a time of unsophisticated development and as a precursor to modern thought rather than a period of interest in its own right. A variety of what this thesis terms ‘literary pursuits’ during this period are then contextualised, as well as the changing role of the critic in nineteenth-century society. This is accompanied by an exploration of the community of readers and writers who would have engaged with these works. Finally, the methodological decisions which have directed this thesis are explained, including the privileging of page over stage, and the choice of those nineteenth-century writers who have been examined. Long Abstract iv The main body of the thesis is divided into two sections: Part One (Chapters One and Two) gives a broad taxonomy of ways in which nineteenth-century writers used Shakespeare as a means for addressing other issues, and Part Two (Chapter Three) uses a specific case study through which to examine these particular issues. It shows that attitudes to Shakespeare were shaped by an ongoing dialogue concerning the identity of the nation and its population. However, while there was much commonality regarding the agendas for which Shakespeare was used, the ways in which various different writers approached this was surprisingly diverse. Chapter One, ‘Nationalism,’ looks at how Shakespeare could be used in order to serve a nationalistic agenda: this involved either allying Shakespeare with the nation itself (by utilising Shakespeare’s nationality, writing in a rhetorically charged manner, or interpreting Shakespeare’s works in a certain fashion), or equating the nineteenth century with the early modern period (and highlighting various commonalities or differences with those times). The concept of nationalism is contextualised by looking at various attitudes to the nation which were driven by the challenges of the expanding Empire. Chapter Two, ‘Moralism,’ looks at the ways in which Shakespeare was used as a tool by those who sought to promote certain behavioural traits amongst their readers. The different ways in which writers made use of Shakespeare are situated within a discussion of nineteenth-century philosophical and moral positions. This chapter looks successively at what is termed ‘Private Moralism’ (a concern with abstract ideas, such as self-control and adherence to familial or religious ties), and ‘Public Moralism’ (that is, efforts to improve the outward or physical attributes of individuals, such as financial accumulation or class status). Long Abstract v Part Two of the thesis focuses on how Victorian writers used Shakespeare specifically in relation to Shakespeare’s Sonnets . To this end, Chapter Three, ‘The Sonnets ,’ looks at how writings on the Sonnets pursued moral or nationalistic agendas. This chapter also seeks to draw together the strands of nationalism and moralism by showing that anxieties about the state of Britain fed into writing about the Sonnets at this time and that this involved a complex debate about the Sonnets , ancient Greece, and the nature of what would today be termed homosexuality. A significant contention of this chapter is that nineteenth-century attitudes towards the Sonnets need to be appreciated on their own terms rather than anachronistically via a modern understanding of homosexuality. The Conclusion suggests that Shakespeare was used by nineteenth-century critics and biographers as a location within which to debate certain overarching concerns of the day. How these issues were approached, however, took different forms and Shakespeare was employed for different ends, which points to a general unease regarding the identity of the nation. As the formal institutionalising of the English Literary canon was taking place during the period covered by this thesis it seems reasonable to suggest that the use of Shakespeare was related to Shakespeare’s position of dominance within the canon. Finally, suggestions are made as to how the ease with which Shakespeare could be used – as well as the unavoidable difficulties which are attendant with Shakespeare – might have affected this process of canonisation. Acknowledgements vi Acknowledgements — I’m sorry, he said. Shakespeare is the happy hunting ground of all minds that have lost their balance. - J. Joyce, Ulysses , (1922) 1 I am grateful for this opportunity to extend my appreciation to the following people: my thanks go to the University of Nottingham who funded this PhD, and to the School of English which supported my application for that funding. Thanks also to Professor Josephine Guy and Dr Mark Robson who performed their duties as supervisors with patience and commitment. Various discussions with Dr Paul Edmondson, Dr Finn Fordham, Professor Russell Jackson, Dr Nick Shrimpton, and Professor Stanley Wells all helped to point me in the right direction and shape ideas that may otherwise have lead to nothing. I would like to thank Sylvain Baladon, Heike Döring, Kate Haworth, and Talei Rounds for various French, German, Latin, and Greek translations. The staff at Birmingham Central Library, the British Library, Shakespeare Institute Library, and the University Libraries at Leicester, Leicester De Montfort, Loughborough, Nottingham, and Southampton all assisted with numerous enquires and requests and enabled me to find obscure material that might otherwise have escaped me. I thank Dr Rosy Aindow, Dr Mark Fairbanks, Dr Kathryn Jones, Jon Ford, Dr Tiffany Perala, Kristen Sipper, Dr Jill Sullivan, Dr Brian Vander Veen, Vicky Wilcher, and particularly Dr Ben Woolhead, all of whom either contributed useful advice or made the process of this thing we do more enjoyable. It is fitting that my three greatest debts are to the three most important people in my life. Firstly to my Mum and Dad without whose constant love, support, and guidance I would not be where I am today. It is all your fault. My biggest thanks go to Katherine who has made these last few years much easier than they would otherwise have been; her intelligent advice, unfailing encouragement, and generous affection mean much more to me than shabby words can ever express. For making me far happier than I probably have any right to be – Thank You. 1 James Joyce, Ulysses , 1922, Oxford World's Classics, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 239. Textual Note vii Textual Note All references to Shakespeare’s works refer to the line numbers in The Oxford Shakespeare: The Complete Works , edited by Stanley Wells and Gary Taylor, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998). All references to individual sonnets from Shakespeare’s Sonnets refer to the original numbering of the 1609 quarto (1Q, 2Q, etc.), in order to avoid any confusion caused by the rearrangement of the sonnets by certain nineteenth- century editors. All references to the Bible refer to the New Revised Standard Version (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1989). The various idiosyncratic spellings of Shakespeare’s name have been retained in all references and quotations – not least to highlight the lack of uniformity in the period even with regard to the spelling of Shakespeare’s name. All quotations retain their original emphasis, italicisation, capitalisation, and spelling. Introduction 1 Introduction CADE Thou hast most traitorously corrupted the youth of the realm in erecting a grammar school… thou hast caused printing to be used and… thou hast built a paper-mill. It will be proved to thy face that thou hast men about thee that usually talk of a noun and a verb and such abominable words as no Christian ear can endure to hear. - W. Shakespeare, 2 Henry VI , 4.7 ( c.1591) In the early 1590s William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was probably in London embarking on his fledgling theatrical career. The documentary record is a relative blank between 1585 – when Shakespeare’s youngest children were born – and 1592 when the Groatsworth of Wit was published by Robert Greene ( c.
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