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Rubus Occidentalis Choi et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2016) 16:202 DOI 10.1186/s12906-016-1192-z RESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access Rubus occidentalis alleviates hyperalgesia induced by repeated intramuscular injection of acidic saline in rats Geun Joo Choi1, Hyun Kang1*, Won Joong Kim3, Chong Wha Baek1, Yong Hun Jung1, Young Cheol Woo1 and Ji Wung Kwon2 Abstract Background: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the antinociceptive effect of black raspberry (Rubus occidentalis) fruit extract (ROE) in a rat model of chronic muscle pain and examine the mechanisms involved. Methods: Adult male Sprague–Dawley rats were used, and chronic muscle pain was induced by two injections of acidic saline into one gastrocnemius muscle. For the first experiment, 50 rats were randomly assigned to five groups. After the development of hyperalgesia, rats were injected intraperitoneally with 0.9 % saline or ROE (10, 30, 100, or 300 mg/kg). For the second experiment, 70 rats were randomly assigned to seven groups. Rats were injected intraperitoneally with saline, yohimbine, dexmedetomidine, prazosin, atropine, mecamylamine, or naloxone after the development of hyperalgesia. Ten minutes later, ROE (300 mg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally. For both experiments, the mechanical withdrawal threshold (MWT) was evaluated with von Frey filaments before the first acidic saline injection, 24 h after the second injection, and at 15, 30, 45, 60, 80, 100, and 120 min, 24 and 48 h after the drug administration. Results: Compared with the control group, the MWT significantly increased up to 45 min after injection of ROE 100 mg/kg and up to 60 min after injection of ROE 300 mg/kg, respectively. Injection of ROE together with yohimbine or mecamylamine significantly decreased the MWT compared with the effect of ROE alone, while ROE together with dexmedetomidine significantly increased the MWT. Conclusions: ROE showed antinociceptive activity against induced chronic muscle pain, which may be mediated by α2-adrenergic and nicotinic cholinergic receptors. Keywords: Rubus occidentalis, Black raspberry, Chronic pain, Antinociception Background high content of anthocyanins and other phenolic Musculoskeletal pain is a significant health issue with con- compounds [2]. Anthocyanins, a class of flavonoids, have siderable costs and impact for individuals and society. anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti- Chronic pain and hyperalgesia induced by musculoskeletal carcinogenic properties [3–5], which suggest that Rubus injuries are managed using a multidisciplinary approach, fruits have a high potential for medical application. but can be disabling and difficult to treat [1]. Recently, Rubus occidentalis, commonly called black raspberry, food-based approaches for chronic pain management have has one of the highest anthocyanin contents among been investigated. Among them, blackberry fruits (Rubus Rubus spp. and a potent antioxidant capacity [6, 7]. Oxi- spp.), has increasingly drawn attention owing to their dative stress could play a role in chronic pain, especially in the musculoskeletal system [8], and the strong anti- oxidant action of R. occidentalis indicates its therapeutic * Correspondence: [email protected] potential. In addition, studies have reported antinocicep- 1Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, College of Medicine, Chung-Ang University, 84 Heukseok-ro, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 06911, Republic of tive effects of other Rubus species [9, 10]. Korea Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © 2016 The Author(s). Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Choi et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2016) 16:202 Page 2 of 10 We hypothesized that R. occidentalis extract (ROE) Mettler Toledo pH meter (Mettler Toledo International, would be beneficial for chronic musculoskeletal pain. To Greifensee, Switzerland) [11]. test this hypothesis, we used a rat model of long-lasting hyperalgesia induced by two intramuscular injections of acidic saline, which produces bilateral muscle and cuta- Drug preparation and administration neous mechanical hypersensitivity [11, 12]. One researcher, who was not involved in this study, pre- The primary outcome of this study was to evaluate the pared syringes containing various doses of ROE which antinociceptive effect of R. occidentalis in chronic muscle were dissolved in 2 mL of normal saline for ROE groups. pain. The secondary outcome was to assess the mecha- Syringes containing 2 mL of normal saline were pre- nisms involved in its analgesic activity. pared for the control group. The syringes were covered with opaque tape and numbered sequentially according ™ Methods to a randomization list generated using PASS 11 soft- The present study was performed and described according ware (NCSS, Kaysville, UT, USA). As intraperitoneal to the Animal Research: Reporting In Vivo Experiments injection is the most frequently used parenteral route of (ARRIVE) statement [13]. administration in rats, drugs were intraperitoneally ad- ministered according to the study protocol. All experi- Preparation of ROE mental procedures were conducted by researchers who The ROE was provided by Gochang Berry & Bio Food were blinded to the group allocation of each animal. Research Institute (Gochang-gun, Jeollabuk-do, Korea). R. occidentalis Mature fruits of were collected from Experiment 1: Evaluation of antinociceptive effect of ROE − Gochang-gun in South Korea and stored at 20 °C. In The purpose of experiment 1 was to evaluate the anti- brief, the fruits were extracted twice with 50 % ethanol nociceptive effect of ROE on induced chronic muscle at 80 °C by using a reflux condenser, and extracts were pain. Fifty rats were randomly assigned to one of five filtered and concentrated. The concentrate was lyophi- groups of ten rats (control and 10, 30, 100, and 300 mg/kg − lized in a freeze-dryer and stored at 20 °C until use. All ROE). The dose level of ROE was referred to the amounts procedures were conducted under sterilized condition, used in other experimental studies on the pharmacological and stored ROE was used just before intraperitoneal effect of Rubus spp. [14, 15], and fixed based on logarith- injection. mic increase. Various doses of ROE or normal saline were injected intraperitoneally 24 h after the second injection Study animals of acidic saline. The experiment was approved by the Institutional Animal In addition, ketorolac of 10 mg/kg was injected intra- Care and Use Committee of Chung-Ang University (No. peritoneally in ten rats for the positive control [16]. We – 2015 00009). All experiments were performed in ac- used ten naive rats with no injection of acidic saline for cordance with the National Institutes of Health Guide for the negative control. the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Adult male Sprague–Dawley rats (250–300 g; Coretec, Seoul, Korea) were single-housed in cages in a temperature-controlled Experiment 2: Elucidation of mechanism mediating room (22 °C) and fed a standard laboratory diet and tap ROE-induced antinociception water. They were kept under a 12 h light/dark cycle (lights The purpose of experiment 2 was to examine whether on from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m.) and acclimated to the the effects of ROE on mechanical hyperalgesia induced by housing facilities for 1 week prior to commencing experi- repeated intramuscular injections of acidic saline were mental procedures. Rats showing any abnormalities were mediated by α (1 and 2)-adrenergic, cholinergic (nicotinic excluded. and muscarinic), and/or opioid receptors. The use of drugs administered to elucidate the possible involvement Induction of hyperalgesia in muscle of those receptor systems was based on previous studies All procedures were performed under sterile conditions [17–20]. The study drugs were purchased from Sigma by an investigator who was unaware of the group alloca- Aldrich (U.S.A.). Seventy rats were randomly assigned to tions of the individual rats. Immediately after baseline one of seven groups of ten rats, which were injected with behavioral measurements as described below, rats were either ROE only (control group) or ROE with normal sa- anesthetized briefly with 1–4 % isoflurane in 100 % oxy- line, yohimbine 2 mg/kg, dexmedetomidine 50 μg/kg, pra- gen and injected with 100 μL of pH 4.0 preservative-free zosin 1 mg/kg, atropine 5 mg/kg, mecamylamine 1 mg/kg, sterile saline into one lateral gastrocnemius muscle on or naloxone 5 mg/kg, 24 h after the development of day 0 and again on day 3. The pH was adjusted to within hyperalgesia. Ten minutes later, 300 mg/kg of ROE was 3.9 to 4.1 with hydrochloric acid using a SevenEasy injected intraperitoneally. Choi et al. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine (2016) 16:202 Page 3 of 10 Behavioral measurements autocorrelation pattern. We wanted to detect 10, 20, 30, For experiments 1 and 2, individual rats were placed on and 40 % increases in MWT in the ROE 10, 30, 100, and an elevated plastic mesh floor (8 × 8 mm perforations)
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