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INDEX/GLOSSARY

Page references with “f” indicate figures; those with “t” indicate tables. Glossary terms are printed in blue.

abiogenic methane, 95 activation energy (Ea) The minimum group bonded to one hydrogen atom, absolute zero of temperature, 417 combined kinetic energy that a pair of or compounds whose molecules have absorption spectrum A plot of the colliding particles must have in excess that functional group, 886, 911–915 percentage of radiation transmitted by of the average for their collision to naming, 917Ð918 a substance over a range of incident result in reaction, 741–744, 808 reactivity, 916Ð917, 924Ð938 radiation energies (or wavelengths), of reaction, 742 structure, 916Ð917, 924Ð938 51, 74–77, 105, 158, 555 active site, 764 aldohexose, 1099 abundances of elements, 977 activity (A) (nuclear chemistry) Number of aldopentose, 1099 acceptor level, 1081 disintegrations observed per unit time, aldoses, 1099 acetals Functional groups with the measured in becquerel (Bq), 1159 alkali metals, 987Ð991, 995 structure RHC(ORЈ)2, or compounds activity (a) The effective concentration of alkaline earth elements, 991Ð995 whose molecules have that functional a solute species, 473, 498, 592 alkalosis, 582 group, 853, 930, 961 activityÐbased equilibrium constants, 498 alkanes Substances whose molecules ˚ acetylene, 790 acylation, 834 contain skeleton frameworks with C C achiral Molecules or objects that are acyl chlorides, 948Ð951 single bonds, 110–114, 119–120 superimposable on their mirror images acyl halides Functional group with acyl conformations, 317Ð322, 348 and therefore not chiral, 330–333, 348 group bonded to a halogen atom, cyclic, 115 acid A species that is a proton donor or RC(“ O)X, or compounds whose nomenclature of, 113 electron–pair acceptor, or a substance molecules have that functional group, alkene The C“ C double bond functional that is the source of the species, 193, 921, 948, 960 group, or compounds whose molecules 194f, 204, 953, 954 addition of have that functional group, 77, caracteristics, 528Ð532 alcohols, 933Ð934 773–776, 788–796 strong, 194 Grignard reagents, 934Ð936 spectroscopy, 793Ð796 weak, 194 addition reactions Reactions between reactivity, 796Ð815 acid anhydrides Functional group with molecules of two substances to form structure, 796Ð815 two acyl groups bonded to the same molecules of a new substance with no alkenes, stereoisomers of, 323 O atom, RC(“ O)OC(“ O)RЈ, or atoms “left over,” 782, 840 alkyl halides, 856Ð866 compounds whose molecules have of H2 to alkenes: hydration, 813 naming, 856Ð860 that functional group, 921, 960 of H2 to alkenes: hydrogenation, 802, 805, 816 reactivity, 851, 866Ð881 acidÐbase of H2O to alkynes: hydration, 819 spectroscopic evidence, 860Ð866 adduct, 197, 541 of HX to alkynes: hydrohalogenation, 818 structure, 866Ð881 character, 539 of X2 to alkenes: halogenation, 814 alkylation, 834, 897, 899 distribution, 554Ð559 polymers from ethylene derivatives, 804t alkynes, 114,773Ð773, 788Ð796 equilibria, 523Ð524, 545Ð553, 583 to unsymmetrical alkenes and carbocation electronic structure, 816 indicator, 573 stability, 809 spectroscopy, 793Ð796 pH, 554Ð557 adenosine-5-diphosphate (ADP), 244, reactivity, 816Ð820 properties, 559Ð575 621, 764 structure, 816Ð820 reactions, 193Ð193Ð196 adenosine-5-triphosphate (ATP), 244, 621, 764 alkylating agents Substances whose speciation, 557Ð558, 581Ð582 adhesion, 1182 molecules are able to transfer an alkyl titrations, 573Ð578 adrenaline, 527 group to a molecule of another acid–base neutralization Reaction due to aerogels, 1087 substance, 897 transfer of protons, with formation of aerosols Fine droplets of liquid or dust alkyl group A functional group or side water, 195, 204 suspended in a gas, such as the chain, that, like alkanes, consists only acidic condition, 656 atmosphere, 99–100f, 119, 478 of single-bonded carbon atoms and acidic solution An aqueous solution in which age-related macular degeneration (AMD), 3Ð6 hydrogen atoms. An example is a [H3Oϩ] Ͼ [OHϪ]. At 25 °C, pH Ͻ 7, agglutinate, 1114 methyl group, 114 533, 583 albedo The fraction of sunlight incident on allotropes Different forms in which an acidification the earth that is reflected, 100, 415 element can exist, 445 ocean, 591Ð595, 614 alcohol Functional group with the structure alloying, 659 soils and water, 975 R–OH, or compounds whose molecules alloys Mixtures of a metal with one or acid ionization constant (Ka) The have that functional group, 77, 856–866 more other elements that retain equilibrium constant for ionization of a addition, 933Ð936 metallic characteristics, 1078–1079 weak acid in aqueous solution, 523–527, models, 930 alpha (A) radiation Radioactive decay 535–536, 538t, 583 naming, 856Ð860 involving loss of an alpha particle acidity, 552 reactivity, 851 (4He2ϩ ions) which is readily acidosis, 582 spectroscopic evidence, 860Ð866 absorbed, 1148 acids reactivity, 881Ð893 alternative delocalized electron representations and bases, 193Ð200, 528 structure, 881Ð893 of a benzene molecule, 823 in an aqueous solution, 193Ð194 aldehydes Functional group with the aluminum, 995Ð1001 actinides, 1035 structure RC(“ O)H, with a carbonyl aluminosilicates, 1004

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IG-2 Index/Glossary

amides Functional group with the Ionization of molecular solutes, 185Ð186 excited, 268Ð269, 272 structure RC(“ O)NR2, or compounds aragonite, 592 localised regions, 388Ð396 whose molecules have that functional argon in air, 1022 modelling, 253Ð254, 295Ð297 group, 895, 921, 949, 957, 958, 960 Armstrong, Lance, 17Ð20 nuclear charge, 289Ð291 amines, 856Ð866, 936, 958 aromatic compounds Compounds with atom size, 261Ð263, 292 addition, 936Ð937 cyclical conjugated molecules atom structure process, 296f naming, 856Ð860 significantly more stable than a model aufbau principle Imaginary building of reactivity, 851, 893Ð899 compound whose molecules have a atoms of successive elements by spectroscopic evidence, 860Ð866 localized electronic structure, 773–776, assigning each successive electron to structure, 893Ð899 788–796, 820, 840 the orbital that results in the amino acid Compounds whose molecules reactivity, 820Ð839 lowest–energy atom, 285, 297 have both carboxylic acid and amine spectroscopy, 820Ð839 average rate of reaction, 723 functional groups, 559–563, 1115–1125 structure, 820Ð839 Avogadro, Amadeo, 417 acidÐbase properties, 559Ð563 aromatic Avogadro constant (NA) The number of proteins, found in, 561t heterocycles and ions, 826 specified particles in 1 mol of a amino sugars, 1113 aromaticity, 822Ð825 substance, 35, 43 ammonia synthesis apparatus, 489 Arrhenius equation A mathematical hypothesis, 417 nitrogen in the air, 487 expression that relates reaction rate to amount fraction, 424, 466 the activation energy, collision bacterial oxidation of minerals, 975 amount of substance (n) A fundamental frequency, molecular orientation, and baking soda, 990 quantity in the SI system, of which the temperature, 744–745–747, 765 balanced chemical equation A chemical unit of measurement is a mole, 35, 43 arsenic equation in which the total charge on amounts table, 138 inorganic, 159 the species that react is equal to that amphibole, 1004 organic, 159 on the species that are formed, and amphiprotic, 531 speciation, 157Ð159 atoms are conserved, 131–134, 149 amphoteric (or amphiprotic) Species that water, 1013 Balmer, Johann, 269 can behave as acids or bases, depending arsenobetaine, 159 balmer series, 271 on their environment, 531, 583 artificial leaves, 619Ð624 band of stability in nuclei, 1154Ð1155 hydroxides, 199 arylamines, 894 band theory A theory of bonding in amylopectin, 1112 aspergillus niger, 720 metals, 1077 amylose, 109Ð110, 1112 atmosphere, 100, 102, 414Ð415 barium sulfate slurries in intestinal XÐrays, 600 angular momentum quantum number, 277 caracteristics, 528Ð532 barometer A device used to measure anion A particle with negative charge CO2, 109f, 774f atmospheric pressure, 416 because it has more electrons than Earth, 413 Bartlett, Neil, 1023 protons, 56, 59–60, 82, 980 greenhouse gases in, 96Ð106 base A species that is a proton acceptor or anode The electrode at which oxidation lifetime, 104f electron–pair donor, or a substance occurs, 630, 660 Mars, 413 that is the source of the species., 194f, anomeric centre The hemiacetal carbon atom economy The principle that, as far as 195, 204 atom in molecules of a pyranose or possible, all of the atoms in the starting caracteristics, 528Ð532 furanose sugar, 1106 materials should be in the desired strong, 195 anomers, 1106 products, 126–128, 132, 147–149 weak, 195 antibonding molecular orbital A molecular atom efficiency The percentage of atoms base ionization constant (Kb) The orbital in which the distribution of of each element in the reactants that equilibrium constant for ionization of a density of electrons that “occupy” it end up in the desired product, weak base in water, 536, 538t, 583, 894 results in an effect of repulsion 126–128, 147–149, 150 bases in aqueous solution, 195 between atoms and weakening of the atomic composition, 30 basic oxygen furnace, 1043 bond between them, 400 atomic mass, 31Ð33 basic solution An aqueous solution in which anticancer drug, cisplatin, 1031Ð1035 atomic mass units (u) One–twelfth of the [OHϪ] Ͼ [H3Oϩ]. At 25 °C, pH Ͼ 7, anticodon, 1134 mass of a 12C atom, 31–33 533, 583 anti conformer, 317 atomic nuclei, 1153Ð1158 basicity, 894 antigenic determinants, 1114 atomic number (Z) The number of protons Bassler, Bonnie Lynn, 914Ð915 antisense strand. See template strand in the nucleus of every atom of an batteries Portable voltaic cells, 634–635 antisymmetric Stretching, 76f element, 29 bauxite, 998 anthropomorphism, 629 atomic orbital, 276, 386Ð388, 403Ð404 Bayer process, 998 apoenzyme, 1123 atomic properties, 259 Becquerel, Antoine Henri, 1147 aqua regia, 1010 atomic radii, 262f beetle, pine, 773Ð774 aquated ions Solute ions surrounded by atomic radius, 1039 Bent, Henry, 358 water molecules, 179 atomic spectroscopy, 256 benzene, 791, 822 aquation The process of surrounding atomic structure, 28Ð29 bonding, 788 molecules or ions in aqueous atomic weight The average relative atomic model of bonding in molecules, 396, 407 solution by water molecules, 158, 179, mass of a representative sample of molecule, bonding, 371 198, 982 atoms of an element, weighted by the stability, 821 of cations, 982 relative abundances of its isotopes, beryllium compounds, 993Ð994 of Metal Ions, 198 33–35, 43, 63 beta (B) radiation Electrons (b particles) aqueous solutions Solutions with water as conventional atomic weights, 41 emitted during radioactive decay of the solvent, 178, 204, 523–527, standard atomic weights, 40 some elements, 1148 539–541, 545–555, 651–652 atoms Tiny particles characteristic of each bidentate, 334, 1046 acidity, 982 element, 25–25, 28–29, 35, 43, 58, 125 bimolecular, 752

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Index/Glossary IG-3

binding energy per mol of nucleons, 1157 bond polarity A measure of the charge carbon compounds, 89Ð122, 776Ð787 bioactive compounds, 9 separation across a polar bond, capture, 107 bioassays (biological assay) Experiments to 165–167, 168f, 169f fossil, 102f study the effects of a substance on bond rotation, 322Ð323 specific, 92Ð93 living matter, 8 boranes, 999 storing, recycling, 106Ð110 bioavailability A measure of the extent to borax, 999 structure and reactivity, 776 which a species is available to an boron, 995Ð1001 unsaturated, 114 organism—for example, from an neutron capture therapy (BNCT), 1171 carbon dioxide, 107, 442, 418, 457 administered drug or from the soil, production, 1088 atmosphere, 96, 103Ð110, 591 159, 488, 523, 558, 854 Bosh, Carl, 489 clathrate cages, 91 biochemical, 581Ð582 Boyle, Robert, 417 feedstock and solvent, 107 bio-leaching, 1044 Boyle’s law, 417 phase diagram, 443 bio-extraction, 1044 brittleness, 55 supercritical, 445 biofilms Collections of micro-organisms in Broglie, Louis Victor de, 274 carbon framework of molecules, 309Ð317 which cells cling to each other on a bromination, 829 carbon sequestration Geoengineering surface, 914 bromine, 1018 technique to trap carbon dioxide or biofuels Fuel derived from plants or algae, Brønsted-Lowry model In proton–transfer other forms of carbon, 108 110, 119 reactions, a base takes Hϩ ions from an carbon steel, 1043 biogas Gas formed by the breakdown of acid, 527–532 carbonic anhydrase, 763 organic matter in low-oxygen Brouwer, Darren, 446 carbonyl compounds, 78t, 916Ð924, 958 environments, 95, 110 Buckminsterfullerene, 839 naming, 917Ð922 biogenic methane, 95 buffer capacity A measure of the ability of reactivity, 916Ð917 biomass, 110 a buffer solution to minimize pH spectroscopy, 922Ð924 biomaterials, 1089Ð1090 change on addition of acids or bases, structure, 916Ð917 biomimetics The use of natural biological 571–572, 584 carbonyl functional groups (C“ O) The most systems to assist in the design of new buffer solution A solution that minimizes important and widely occurring class of materials or reactions, 303, 348 the change of pH when some strong functional groups in both organic and biomimicry (biomimetics) The use of acid or base is added, because it contains biological chemistry, 76, 916, 961 natural biological systems to assist in relatively large amounts of both a weak carboxylic acid, 5 the design of new materials or acid and its conjugate base, 564–573, 583 carboxylic acid derivatives Compounds reactions, 303, 348 burning, 27 whose molecules have a functional biopolymers, 108Ð110 butane, 110 group formally derived from a black carbon, 100 carboxylic acid group, with the ˚ blast furnace, 1042 13C NMR. See also nuclear magnetic resonance structure RC(“ O)X, where a group X ˚ Bohr model of electrons in atoms, 270 (NMR) spectroscopy, 313 replaces the OH of a carboxylic acid Bohr, Niels, 270 alkenes and alkynes, 794 group, 911–915, 961 boiling point Temperature at which c-terminal, 1118 naming, 920Ð921 the vapour pressure of a liquid is caffeine, 12Ð13 reactivity, 916Ð917, 938Ð960 the same as the pressure of the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog rules, 800 structure, 916Ð917, 938Ð960 atmosphere on the liquid surface, calcification, 593 carboxylic acid Functional group having 163, 203, 259 calcite, 1076 the structure RC(“ O)OH, or compounds normal boiling point, 163 calcium, 992, 994 whose molecules have that functional Bonaparte, Napoleon, 256 carbonate, 592 group, 911–915, 961 Boltzmann, Ludwig, 674 calculating pH change of buffer solutions, 570 carvone, 304, 330 Boltzmann’s constant, 674Ð675 calculation of enthalpy change of a reaction cast iron, 1043 bond angle, 307 Values, 239Ð240 catalysts Species that accelerate chemical bond energy (D) Enthalpy change for calmodulin (CaM), 1096 reactions and are regenerated after breaking a particular bond in the calorimeter, 231fÐ232 performing their function, 114, 719, molecules of 1 mol of substance, with calorimetry Experimental measurement of 726, 747–748, 750, 768 the reactants and products in the gas the enthalpy change accompanying a catalytic steam-re-formation, 986 phase, 241–243, 246 chemical reaction, 231–232, 245 cathode The electrode at which reduction bonding Cameron lakes, 457Ð458 occurs, 630, 660 in coordination complexes, 1062Ð1069 carbocation, 759, 809 cation A particle with positive charge in metals, 1076Ð1079 carbohydrates Polyhydroxylated aldehydes because it has more protons than in molecules, 357 and ketones, commonly called sugars, electrons, 56, 58, 59, 82 in semiconductors, 1080Ð1082 243, 852, 933–934, 1097–1115 charged density, 978Ð984 bonding molecular orbital A molecular carbon-13/ carbon-12 isotope ratio in forensic cell electromotive force. See cell emf orbital in which the distribution of analysis 19, 30 cell emf (Ecell) The applied potential density of electrons that “occupy” it Mars atmosphere, 117 required to stop electron flow in a results in an effect of pulling atoms carbon-13 NMR. See 13C NMR voltaic cell, 635–645, 660 together, 357–407 carbon-14 dating techniques, 1162 cellobiose, 1110 bond length, 307Ð308t carbon-14/carbon-12 ration on CO2, 1146 cellulose, 109Ð110, 1111 bond order A measure of the strength of Carbonate buffers in biochemical systems, 581 starch, 1097, 1111 bonding between two atoms in a carbonate speciation cements, 1087 molecule or ion, dependent on the in aqueous solution, 592 central dogma, 1139 number of electrons in the bond, and in surface ocean water, 593 ceramics Solid inorganic compounds that the types of orbital they “occupy”, carbonated soft drinks, 462 combine metal and non–metal atoms, 371–408 carbon atoms, 309Ð310 1084–1089

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IG-4 Index/Glossary

CFCs (chlorfluorocarbons) basic, 125Ð155, 149, 213Ð250 coding strand, 1133 in atmosphere, 104 categories, 188Ð200 codon, 1134 chain reaction, 1166 energy, 218f co-enzyme, 1123 chair conformer, 325 reaction rate, 721Ð725, 727, 740Ð750 co-factor, 1123 characteristic reaction, 801, 816, 867Ð869, specific, 130Ð131, 149, 188Ð200 cold pack, 461 888Ð889, 896Ð897 chemical reactivity, 1, 1145Ð1147 collagen, 1090 charge, monatomic ions of elements, 264Ð265 chemical shift (D) Specifies the position of colliding molecules, 744Ð745 charge density The charge/radius ratio of peaks in an NMR spectrum of a colligative properties, 468Ð478 ions, a factor that influences the compound, and gives information solutions of electrolytes, 472 polarization of electrons on adjacent about the electronic environment of collisional de-excitation, 103 species, 978–979, 1024 the atoms, 310–311, 314, 348 collision theory of reaction rates A way of covalentÐionic bond character, 979 NMR, 309 rationalizing observations about rates charge-to-radius ratio (charge density) The chemical species Any particles (atoms, ions, of reactions based on a model that charge/radius ratio of ions, a factor that molecules) that have characteristic assumes that molecules, atoms, or ions influences the polarization of electrons chemical behaviour, 58, 82, 130, 149, 158 of reactants are in rapid and random on adjacent species, 979, 1024 chemical thermodynamics, 671 motion, frequently colliding with each of cations. See charge density chemistries of nitrogen and phosphorus, 1007 other, 740–750, 768 Charles, Jacques, 417, 984 chemistry colloidal dispersions An intermediate state Charles’s law, 417 drugs, sports, 17Ð20 between a solution and a suspension, chelate effect Complex ions with ethics, 19 478–481, 482 polydentate ligands are more stable chemotherapy The use in medicine of colloids (colloidal dispersions) An than complexes that have the same substances that are selectively toxic to intermediate state between a solution number and type of donor atoms in malignant cells or to a disease-causing and a suspension, 478, 480–481 monodentate ligands, 1054–1055 virus or bacterium, 3–5 combustion, 27 chelating ligands Ligands that form more chiral Adjective describing a molecule or common ion effect The presence of than one coordinate covalent bond object that is “handed,” or not common ions reduces the extent of with the central metal ion in a superimposable on its mirror image, ionization of a weak acid or the complex, 1047 305, 330–333, 343, 348 solubility of a slightly soluble salt, chelates Complex ions with polydentate environments, 345Ð347 548–549, 586, 600–601, 616 ligands, 329–330, 1047 chirality The property of molecules or ions common oxidizing and reduction agents, 192t chemical accounting, 131Ð134 that are chiral, 117, 330–334, 1059 complexation Reaction in which a bond is chemical analysis, 144Ð146 chitin, 1113 formed by sharing of a non-bonding chemical biology The application of chlorination, aromatic compounds, 832 pair of electrons on one of the chemical knowledge and techniques to chlorine compounds, 1017, 1020Ð1021 reactants, 196–200, 204, 541, 557–558, study and manipulate biological chloroethane molecule, 69f, 70f 591, 610–614, 1051–1056 systems, 911 chlorofluorocarbons, 104 complexes, 610, 1033, 1045Ð1048, 1051Ð1056 chemical change (See chemical reactions) chlorophyll II, 621 complex ion Ion that is a product of a A process in which one or more new cholesterol, 325 complexation reaction, 159, 196, 204, species form as a result of redistribution chromatography The science of separation 1046 of atoms, ions, or electrons, 27–28, 131, of compounds in mixtures, 2 speciation, 1052Ð1054 218–219, 218–219 Ciamician, Giacomo, 622 complexity leading, 599Ð600 basic, 125Ð155 cis–trans isomerism Isomerism due to the compounds, 25Ð26 specific, 129Ð131, 649Ð650 existence of different molecules with concentrated, 200 chemical communication, 911Ð915, 960 the same number of atoms of each type, concentration, 200Ð203 chemical compounds Pure substances and the same connectivity, but different aqueous solutions, 200 whose molecules or ions are composed spatial arrangement of the atoms cell emf, 643Ð644 of atoms of different elements in fixed because of the inability to interconvert definitions, 545 proportions, 25–26, 43 without breaking of bonds, 322–324, ions, 608Ð609 chemical energy, 221f 326, 783, 797–799, 1032–1034, species, 554Ð559 chemical equation A symbolic 1058–1061 concerted reactions, 784 representation of a chemical reaction, cisplatin, 324, 1031Ð1035 condensation Change of phase of a 27, 131–134 citrate synthase, 1124Ð1125 material from vapour to liquid, 958 chemical equilibrium, 134, 487Ð491, 667Ð670 citric acid cycle, 1124 condensed formulas Formulas showing chemical formula A representation of the classifying particular groupings of atoms in composition of a compound, 26, 43 functional groups by level, 779 molecules, 71 chemical kinetics, 134 reactions by change in level of functional condensed structure, 113Ð114 chemical message, 775 groups, 781 conduction band, 1080 chemical potential A relative measure of reactions by type of overall transformation, configuration (stereochemistry) how far a reaction mixture is from 782 Three–dimensional spatial orientation chemical equilibrium, 134–135, 149 substances, 186 of atoms and bonds in a molecule, chemical properties The characteristic clathrate Substance in which guest 306–307, 337–340, 348 behaviour of a substance in reactions molecules are inside a cage of host conformations Different arrangements of with other substances, 27–28, 43 molecules, 90, 91–92, 119 atoms in molecules that result from chemical reaction (chemical change) A clays, 1087 rotation around a single bond, process in which one or more new climate change, 97Ð107, 720 317–322, 327 species form as a result of clouds, 100 conformers Relatively stable (energy redistribution of atoms, ions, or clostridium perfringens, 1129 minima) conformations of molecules of electrons, 27–28 Cockcroft, J.D., 1164 a substance, 317–321, 348

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Index/Glossary IG-5

composition, 67Ð71 covalent radius Half the experimentally deoxy sugars, 1113 conjugate acid–base pair Two species determined distance between the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 1126, whose compositions differ by an Hϩ nuclei of atoms of the same 1128Ð1131, 1132Ð1140 ion, 530–531, 537–538, 583 element bonded to each other in dependence of reaction rates on temperature, connectivity The sequence by which atoms a molecule, 261 741Ð743 are joined to each other in molecules, cracking, 114 deprotonated species, 555 64, 71–81, 362 Crick, Francis, 1129 detergents Surfactants used for cleaning, conservation of energy, 221Ð222 critical point The unique conditions of 481, 482 constitutional isomers (structural isomers) pressure and temperature at which the determining the order of a reaction Two substances with the same formula interface between liquid and vapour method of initial rates, 729Ð732, 735Ð737 but different connectivity of the atoms, disappears, forming one phase, deuterium, 30 71, 112f, 310, 323, 348 443–445, 448 dextrorotatory, 335 in complexes, 1057 critical pressure (pc) The pressure at the diagonal relationship, 990 controlling pH, 564Ð573 critical point of a substance, 444 diamagnetic Substances slightly repelled conventional atomic weight, 41 critical temperature (Tc) The temperature by a magnet and that have no conversion at the critical point of a substance, unpaired electrons, 280 acyl chlorides, 948Ð951 444 diastereomers A pair of stereoisomeric amids, 957 pressures for common compounds, molecules that are not mirror images ethers, 889, 953, 954 444t, 1088 of each other, 340–344, 349 solid to liquid, 439Ð440 ssuperconductors, 1088 diborane, 999 solid to vapour, 441 Crookes, William, 488 different conformers, 317 coordinate covalent bond, 1046 crystal-field theory A model to account differential aeration, 657 coordination for the colours and magnetic diffraction patterns, 274f chemistry, 1046 properties of transition metal diffusion The mixing of molecules of two complex, 329Ð330, 1045, 1046, 1056, complexes, 1038, 1062–1069 or more gases due to their rapid 1057Ð1069 coordination complexes, 1065Ð1067 molecular motions, 429–431, 447 complex, bonding, 1153 crystalline solids, 439Ð441 dilute, 200 complex formation constant, 1051 Curie, Marie Sklodowska, 1015 dimer, 1001 complex, isomerism, 1056 Curie, Pierre, 1015 diodes, 1081Ð1083 complex, pH-dependence of speciation, 1053 Curiosity Rover, 116 dipole-induced dipole, 434t complex stability, 1050 Curl, Robert, 838 dipole Molecule that experiences a force complex, structure and shape, 1056 cyanide, 554 aligning it with an electrostatic field, compounds, 610, 1044Ð1050 and seed germination, 11 165, 166f, 169t geometry, 1046 cyclic alkanes, 115, 322 dipole-dipole force Attractions between number, 1046 cyclic molecules, 325Ð329 charges of opposite sign on coordination geometry The distribution in cyclobutane, 325 different polar molecules, 167–171, space of ligands around the metal cyclodestrins, 851Ð855 204, 434t atom or ion in a complex, 1046, 1048 cyclohexane, molecular structure of, 325Ð329 dipole moment Quantitative measure coordination number The number of donor axial and equatorial bonds, 326 1083of the tendency of a molecule to atoms to which a metal ion is bonded in ring-flip, 327 be oriented in an electric field, due to a complex, 1046, 1048, 1050, 1056, 1060 cycloalkanes, cis-trans stereoisomers of, 322 its polarity, 101, 165, 168f, 204 core electrons The “inner” electrons cyclopentane, molecular structure of, 325 diprotic acid, 530 whose configuration corresponds with cyclopropane, 325 disaccharide, 1099, 1110Ð1111 that of the previous noble gas in the dispersion, 174 periodic table, 287 DNA, 1033, 1126, 1128Ð1131, 1132Ð1140 dispersion forces Intermolecular forces of copper extraction from ores, 1043Ð1044 double helix, 1129 attraction in non-polar substances, also corrosion The deterioration of metals as replication, 1132 operating in polar substances, 90, 174, the result of oxidation in the presence d-orbital energy splitting, 1063Ð1065 175f, 204, 434t of air and water, 654 d-to-d transition, 1065 disproportionation reaction, 1021 inhibitors, 659 Dalton’s law of partial pressures The total dissociation Separation of an ionic iron, 654Ð659, 660 pressure of a mixture of gases is the compound into its ions as it dissolves, corundum, 1001 sum of the partial pressures of each, 179–180, 204 Coulson, Charles A., 359 423–424, 447 dissolving, 178 covalent bond A force of attraction Dalton, unit of atomic mass, 32 molecular substances, 182Ð184 between adjacent atoms in molecules Davy, Humphry, Sir, 988 solutions in water, 182 and in covalent network substances, Davisson, C.J., 274 distillation, 110, 111f 64, 66–67, 82, 359–360 d-block elements Elements that differ in distribution of molecular energies, 437 formation, 66f, 385f the number of electrons in d orbitals, Dolphin, David, 1Ð6 covalent-ionic bond character, and charge 1035–1041 donor level, 1081 density, 979Ð980 definitions, 36 dopant, 1080 covalent molecular, 981 degenerate orbitals, 285Ð286 double bond Covalent bond pictured as hydrides, 985 dehydration of alcohols, 890 formed by sharing of four electrons covalent networks solids, 50, 54 delocalized electrons (in metals) Electrons between the bonded atoms, 66, 82, covalent network substance Hard, high- not constrained to a bond between 361, 391–392 melting substance modelled as a three- two atoms, 62, 370–376 double helix, 1129 dimensional network of atoms, each density (R) Mass of a sample divided by its downs cell, 988 atom covalently bound to a number of volume, 1040 drugs, chemistry, in sports, 17Ð20 others, 53–54, 82 density of gases, 422Ð423 ductility of metals, 63

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IG-6 Index/Glossary

dynamic chemical equilibrium A condition electron capture Nuclear process in which electron affinity, 267, 294 in which reactions go in opposite an inner shell electron is captured, 1152 electronegativities, 266, 294 directions at the same rate, so that electron cloud, 174 identified by atomic amounts and properties remain electron competition for electrons, 635Ð637 ion size, 265, 294 constant, 136–137, 149, 493, 487–488 electron configuration The distribution of melting points, 259, 440t dynamic equilibrium, 163, 459 electrons among the possible orbitals, metallic and non-metallic, 260 284–288t, 289, 297, 401–402, 1037 monatomic ions, charge, 264 E1 reaction mechanism Unimolecular periodicity, 286Ð287 number 29 mechanism for elimination reaction to transition elements, 1037 periodic table, 38Ð40 form alkenes, 879, 899 electron-deficient, 999 periodic variation of properties of the E2 reaction mechanism Bimolecular electron delocalization model A way of elements, rationalization, 257Ð268 mechanism for elimination reaction to modelling of molecules or ions such that properties, 257Ð268 form alkenes, 879, 899 electrons are distributed over a number reactivity as oxidizing agents and reducing Earth of bonds, rather than localized between agents, 261 atmosphere, 100 two atoms, 371–372, 396–397, 408 elimination reactions Reactant molecules radiation balance, 97Ð103 electron density A measure of the split into two or more molecules of eclipsed conformations, 319 probability of finding the electron at products, 782, 840, 878–879 E.coli, 1032 any point in the electron cloud of an emulsions Colloidal dispersions of one E-factor Ratio of the mass of waste atom, ion, or molecule, 281, 297, 388 liquid in another liquid, 478 materials to the mass a desired electron pair transfer, 541Ð542 enantiomeric pair, 1059 product, 147–148, 150 electromagnetic radiation, 52 enantiomers Pairs of stereoisomers whose effective concentration, 473 electromagnetic spectrum, 76f molecules are non–identical mirror effective nuclear charge (Z*) The nuclear electronegativities of elements, 266 images, 330–331, 336–337, 340–344, charge experienced by any one valence electronegativity (X) The ability of an 349, 349 electron, which is less than the actual atom to attract bonding electrons in a enantiose-lective synthesis, 346 nuclear charge because of shielding, molecule, 166, 204, 266 endogenous substances Substances 289–291, 297, 979 electronic structures, 816Ð820, 822Ð823, naturally produced in an organism effusion The movement of gas through a 866Ð867, 881Ð883, 893Ð899, 917Ð918, through the transformation of other tiny opening in a container into 939Ð946 substances in diet, 18, 43 another container in which the electron impact ionization mass endothermic Process in which the products pressure is very low, 429–431, 447 spectrometry (EI) A variation of mass have more energy than the reactants, effusion of gases, 429Ð431 spectrometry, 67 218–219f, 229f, 245 Einstein, Albert, 273, 685, 1156 electrons Subatomic particles that have energy The capacity to do work, 2–6, elastomer, 1006 negative electrical, charges, 28–29, 43, 213–251 electrical conductivity, 55, 179f 58, 253–257 artificial, 616Ð619, 622Ð623 electrical force of attraction, 54 ions, 268Ð275 changes, 807Ð808 electricity, 630Ð634 orbitals 285Ð287, 297 conservation, 221Ð222 electrochemical electrons in atoms, experimental evidence, density of fuels, 214 cell conventions, 630, 634Ð636 268Ð275 flow, 222Ð226 electrochemistry A field of study about quantum mechanical model, 276 food, 243Ð245 the interaction between electricity and wave-particle duality, 273 forms, 219Ð226 chemistry, 619, 630, 660 electron spin A property of electrons that interconversion, 219Ð221, 244f electrolysis A non-spontaneous process results in them generating a small kinetic, 221 brought about by application of an magnetic field, 279–281, 297 light, 2Ð6 electrical potential, 630, 649–654, 660 electron transfer, 190Ð191, 619Ð665 measurement, 222Ð223 of aqueous sodium chloride solution, 990 electrophile, 803 potential, 221 of molten NaCI, 988 electrophilic aromatic substitution redistribution, 218Ð219 of water hydrogen from, 215 Substitution reaction where an solar, 620Ð622 electrolysis cell An arrangement in which electrophile replaces an H atom on an states, 3 the application of an electrical potential aromatic ring, 828–839, 840 storage, 219, 220f, 221 forces a non-spontaneous oxidation- electrophoresis, 1116, transfer, 221Ð224,225t reduction reaction to occur, 630 electroplating, 649, 653 transformation, 219Ð226 electrolytes Compounds whose aqueous electrostatic potential map, 170, 542, 789 enol, 819 solutions conduct electricity because elemental substances The observable form Enright, Gary, 446 of the presence of ions, 180, 186, in which elements exist under specified enthalpy (H) A property of a system whose 472–473 conditions, 24, 259, 295, 1014–1015, change during a constant pressure strong, 179, 186 1017 process is equal to the amount of heat non, 179, 187 elementary steps Single molecular events transferred between the system and weak, 179, 186 such as the formation or rupture of a the surroundings, 226–229f, 234f, 245 electrolytic chemical bond or the displacement of enthalpy change (⌬H) The amount of heat cell, 630 atoms as a result of a molecular transferred between system and refining copper, 1044 collision surroundings during a process that electron affinity (Eea) The enthalpy change reaction mechanisms, 751Ð754, 768 occurs at constant pressure if no work accompanying removal of 1 mol of elements Characterized by atoms having the other than that due to expansion electrons from 1 mol of negative ions same atomic number, 24–25, 29–33, 43 occurs, 161, 225, 226–227–229 of atoms of an element, 267–268, atom size, 261 enthalpy change of aquation (⌬aqH) 294–295 atomic weights of, 33Ð35 Enthalpy change due to aquation of elements, 267 boiling points, 259 ions, 461, 982

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Index/Glossary IG-7

enthalpy change of fusion, 440f exothermic A process occurring in a system formation constant (Kf) The equilibrium enthalpy change of reaction (⌬rH) The that releases energy as heat to the constant for any step in the formation difference between the sum of the surroundings, 218–219f, 229f, 244f, 245 of a complex ion, 611, 616 enthalpies of the products and the sum extraction Isolation of a compound or a formulas of covalent network solids, 54 of the enthalpies of the reactants, group of compounds from a mixture, formulas of ionic compounds, 59Ð60 228–243, 245, 671–672 using physical and chemical methods fossil fuels, 106 enthalpy change of solution, 461Ð462, 482 techniques, 9 fractional crystallization, 470 enthalpy change of sublimation (⌬subH) extremophiles, 975 fragment ions Ions formed in mass The enthalpy change of a substance extrinsic semiconductors, 1080 spectrometry by the breaking of bonds when it changes phase from solid to E, Z system of nomenclature A set of in the molecular ion, 73, 82 vapour, 441 sequence rules for specifying the Franklin, Rosalind, 305 enthalpy change of vaporization, 161Ð162 cis–trans geometry of a molecules’ Frash, Herman, 1014 entropy (S) A measure of the lack of order double bonds, 800, 840 free energy (G) (Gibbs free energy) resulting from dispersal of energy and fac–mer isomerism A form of isomerism in Defined as G ϭ H Ϫ TS, 692 matter, 182, 672–681, 709 octahedral complexes with the formula free energy change of reaction (⌬rG) The entropy change of reaction (⌬rS) The MX3Y3, 1058 difference between the sum of ni G of difference between the sum of the Faraday, Michael, 820 the products and the sum of ni G of entropies of the product species and f–block elements Elements whose the reactants, where ni is the number the sum of the reactant species of a ground–state atoms have partially of moles of each species in a balanced reaction, 679–685 filled f orbitals, 1035 equation; a measure of the amount of enzymes Naturally occurring substances feedback cycles useful work that can be obtained from that catalyze particular reactions, 719, negative, 100 a reaction, 686–687, 696–697, 710 747, 761–765, 1122–1125 positive, 100 free radicals Atoms, ions, or molecules epinephrine, 527 Fermi, Enrico, 1165 with one or more unpaired electrons, epitestosterone, 18Ð20 Fermi level Chemical potential of electrons 370f, 784 equation See chemical equation in a solid (metal, semiconductor, or free radical chain reaction, 803, 840 equilibrium, 487, 671Ð672 insulator), 1077 freezing point depression, 470Ð474 concentrations, 505Ð506, 511Ð512, 546Ð547 fibroin, 1121 frequency (v) The number of wave peaks equilibrium constant (K) Value of the fibrous proteins, 1120 that pass by a fixed point per unit reaction quotient (Q) when a reaction fingerprint region, 77 time, 75–76f mixture comes to equilibrium, 496, 498, fire, 89 Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction, 834 503–505, 510, 514, 516, 532, 648–649, first ionization energy (IE1) The minimum fuel cell, 216 698–703 energy required to eject an electron fuels, energy density, 214 activity based, 498 from an atom in its ground state fullerenes, 836Ð839 dependence on reaction equation, 507 elements, 263 functional group isomers Constitutional equilibrium reaction, 495f first law of thermodynamics The total isomers (different connectivity) with equilibrium vapour pressure Pressure of energy of the universe is constant, 221 different functional groups, 311, 348 vapour above a liquid in a sealed vessel first-order reactions. 728, 732Ð739, 758, functional groups Commonly occurring at which liquid and vapour are in 874Ð876 groups of atoms with particular equilibrium, 162–164, 177, 203, 704–706 Fisher, Emil, 1100 connectivity patterns, in molecular equivalence point, 573 Fisher projections, 1100Ð1102 compounds, 75–77, 78t–81t, 82, escherichia coli, 1031 fixation, 125, 488, 489 776–783, 805, 820, 840 essential amino acids, 1117 fixation of nitrogen, 125, 515 Level 1, with 1 bond between a C atom and esters Functional group having the fixed nitrogen, 125, 488, 489 more electronegative heteroatoms, 780t ˚ structure R C(“ O)ORЈ, or compounds fixing of carbon atoms from CO2 gas, 620, 624 Level 2, with 2 bonds between a C atom and whose molecules have that functional flatulence, 719 more electronegative heteroatoms, 780t group, 77f, 921, 952, 960 Flematti, Gavin, 1, 6Ð12 Level 3, with 3 bonds between a C atom and conversion, 889, 953, 954 flotation, 1043 more electronegative heteroatoms, 780t hydrolysis, 953 fluorescence, 1017 Level 4, with 4 bonds between a C atom and ethene, 790 fluorine, 1017, 1019Ð1020 more electronegative heteroatoms, 781 ethylene, 790 fluorspar, 1017 levels of, 779 ethyne, 790 foam, 478 furanose, 1105 ethane, 110 food fusion, molar enthalpy change, 226 evaporation. See vaporization energy, 243Ð245 evidence for aromaticity irradiation, 1173 galvanic cell, 630 1H NMR Spectroscopy, 824 production, 125 galvanizing, 653 evidence for aromaticity: 13C NMR form of K, 497Ð498 gamma (G) radiation Emission of high Spectroscopy, 825 form of Q, 497Ð498 energy electromagnetic Exact Masses of Isotopes of Several formal charge The charge an atom in a radiation, 1148 Elements, 68t molecule or ion if the bonding Gamow, George, 254 excited state Any electron configuration electrons were shared equally by the gangue, 1041 such that an atom has more energy atoms that are directly bound to each gas, 20 than the ground state, 268, 284, 297 other, 374 amount, 417Ð418 of oxygen, 3Ð6 formation constant (B) (stability constant) density, 422Ð423 of gases, 12 The overall equilibrium constant for effusion, 429Ð431 exogenous substances Substances formation of a complex ion from an ideal equation, 417Ð423, 428Ð429, 447 administered to an organism from aquated metal ion and the ligands, kinetic energies of gas molecules, 426 outside the organism, 18, 43 1051–1052 mixtures, 423Ð425

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IG-8 Index/Glossary

gas (continued) ground state, 3 heterogeneous mixture A mixture in which molecular speeds, 426 ground-state configuration The matter is not uniformly dispersed, 22, 43 noble, 1022Ð1024 distribution of electrons among the hexokinase, 764 pressure, 416Ð417 possible orbitals that results in the hexoses, 1123 properties, 416Ð417 most stable atom or molecule, 284, 297 heterolytic, 784 real, 431Ð433 heteronuclear diatomic molecules relationships among n, V, p and T 1H (NMR), 313 Molecules containing two atoms of solubility, 457, 591Ð618 spectroscopy of alkenes and alkynes, 795 different elements, 406 similarities and differences, 418Ð419 Haber-Bosch Process, 125Ð126, 488, 489f, heterotrophs, 92 temperature, 417Ð418 515Ð516 highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) gases, 413Ð433 Haber, Fritz, 488 The highest-energy molecular orbital volume, 417Ð418 Hahn, Otto, 1166 that is “occupied” by electrons, 407, 408 geological CO2, 107f half-cell, 631 high electron density, 388Ð395 gas-chromatography A technique for half-cell reduction potential (Ehalf–cell) A high melting point, 55 separation of compounds in a mixture quantitative measure of the ability of a high-resolution mass spectrometry An by differences in their abilities to be half-cell to attract electrons compared instrumental technique in which the removed from a solid phase into a with that of the standard hydrogen accurately measured mass/charge ratio passing gas stream, 18 electrode, 631, 636–638 of ions of molecules is used to determine gas constant (R) The proportionality half-equations, 192 a molecular formula, 67–71, 82 constant in the ideal gas equation, half-life (t1/2) The time required for the high-resolution mass spectrum, 306 96f, 419 concentration of a reactant to decrease high-spin configuration Configuration of a gas-phase reaction mixture, changing volume, to one-half its initial value, 5, 737–738, complex with weak-field ligands, 512Ð513 768, 1158–1159 having the maximum number of gauche conformer, 317 Hall, Charles Martin, 998 unpaired electrons, 1067 gavione, 6Ð12 halocarbons, 104 Hindenburg, 215, 984 gecko, 303 halogen, 79t, 1017Ð1022 HOCI(aq) as bactericide, 555 Geiger-Müller counter, 1159, 1160f halogenation, 805, 818Ð819 Hodgkin, Dorothy Crowfoot, 1041Ð1042 Geim, Andre, 836 hard acids and bases, 1034 Hoffmann, Roald, 685 gel, 478, 479 hard-hard, 1034 Hofstadter, Douglas, 1096 Germer, L.H., 274 hard-soft acid-base (HSAB) theory, 1034 holoenzyme, 1123 Gibbs free energy (G) (free energy) Defined hardness, 55 homogeneous catalysis A catalytic process as G ϭ H Ϫ TS, 500, 686–697, 710 heat (q) Energy flowing from one object in which all reactants and the catalyst Gibbs, Willard J., 686 to another, 222–223, 245 are in the same phase (solid, liquid, Gillepsie, Ron, 376 heat and work accompanying chemical gas, solution), 747–748 glass, 1085Ð1087 reactions, 225 homogeneous mixture A mixture with global warming potential Measure of the heat capacity of water, 177 uniform composition throughout, with ability of a “greenhouse gas” to cause heavy water, 984 components not visible, 22, 43 changes to the earth’s climate, relative Heisenberg, Werner, 255 homogenic, 784 to the same mass of CO2(g), over a a-helix, 1120 homolytic, 784 defined period of time, 103–105, 119 hemiacetal Functional group having the homonuclear diatomic molecules globular proteins, 1120 structure RHC(OH)ORЈ, 853, 925 Molecules composed of only two atoms glucose, 109Ð110 formation, 1104Ð1106 of the same element, 399, 404–406 glycoside, 1108Ð1110 hemiketal Functional group having the host–guest complex A structural glycogen, 109, 1112 structure R2C(OH)OR, 925, 930 arrangement between a large molecule glycoproteins, 1113 hemoglobin, 1048Ð1050 or cluster of molecules that has a glycosidases, 1112 Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, 565 suitable shape and a site to bind Graf Zeppelin, 984 Henry’s law The solubility of a gas in a through non-covalent interactions to Graham, Thomas, 429, 479 liquid is directly proportional to the another molecule, 81, 90, 853–855 Graham’s law, 430 partial pressure of the gas in contact Hückel’s 4n + 2 rule for aromaticity, 822 graphene, 836Ð839 with the solution, 462–464, 482 Hückel’s rule Rule to predict the gravimetric analysis, 145 heredity, nucleic acids, 1131 aromaticity of cyclic, conjugated Green Chemistry Institute, 128 Heroult, Paul, 998 compounds by counting the number of green solutions, 445 Hess’s law If a reaction can be written as electrons, 822–825, 840 greenhouse gases, 97Ð107, 418, 720 the sum of two or more steps, its human activity, 94Ð95 carbon dioxide, 773 enthalpy change of reaction is the sum Hund’s rule, 386, 399 Grignard reagents Organomagnesium of the enthalpy changes of reaction of hybridization, 386Ð387, 797 halides, 879–881, 900, 934–936, 955, 960 the steps, 233–237, 245 hybrid orbitals Orbitals in a molecule or groups, 780 heteroatoms Atoms other than carbon polyatomic ion that are imagined to groups of the periodic table, atoms in molecules of an organic form by redistribution of the densities group 1, 987Ð991 compound, 779, 826 of the electrons in the atomic orbitals group 2, 991Ð995 heterocyclic compounds Cyclic compounds of the bonding atoms, 386, 408 group 13, 995Ð1001 with atoms of two or more elements in hydrated ions. See aquated ions group 14, 1002Ð1006 their rings; usually C and heteroatoms hydrated protons, 187Ð188f group 15, 1006Ð1014 such as O, N, P, or S, 826, 840 hydration. See also aquation, 813, 819 group 16, 1014Ð1017 heterogeneous catalysis When the catalyst hydrocarbons Substance whose molecules group 17, 1017Ð1021 is in a different phase (solid, liquid, have only carbon and hydrogen atoms, group 18, 1021Ð1024 gas, solution) from that of the 78t, 93, 115t, 119, 172f main group, 976Ð978 reactants, 749–750 classification of, 115

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Index/Glossary IG-9

saturated, 114Ð116 emission of radiation of characteristic ion concentration, 607Ð608 unsaturated, 114Ð116 wavelengths when excited, 415–416 ion-dipole force Attraction between either hydrochloric acid, 1020 inert Unreactive under specified conditions; a cation or an anion and the oppositely hydrogen, 213Ð218 in transition metal chemistry, complexes charged end of a polar molecule, 178, compounds, 364Ð365, 1008Ð1010 that undergo very slow substitution of 179, 204, 434t economy, 216Ð217 ligand species, 669, 1055 ionic, 980 electrode, 633 inert electrodes, 633 ionic compound Generally solid compound energy, 216 infrared absorptions, 82 that conducts electricity only when from electrolysis of water, 215 infrared absorption spectrum Absorption molten, and which is modelled as a gas, 418 spectrum that results when the incident lattice of anions and cations, 54, group, 987 light is in the infrared region, 75 60–61, 81 making, 985Ð987 infrared radiation solubilities, 180 properties, 984Ð985 absorption by greenhouse gases, 101 ionic-covalent character of bonds, 980Ð981 reactions, 984Ð985 infrared (IR) spectroscopy, 74Ð81, 777, ionic hydrides, 985 sources, 215 793Ð795, 826 ionic lattice A regular three-dimensional storage, 216 alkenes and alkynes, 793 array of ions that comprises an ionic hydrogenation, 802 aromatic compounds, 826 compound, 82 hydrogen bonding A particularly strong infrared spectrum, 306 ionic radius An estimate of the radius of form of intermolecular dipole-dipole infrared “windows,” 103Ð105 an ion in its crystalline compounds, 265 interactions between H atoms on one initiation, 803, 1166 ionic salts, 595Ð605 molecule and O, N, or F atoms on in-plane, bending, 76f solutions in water, 178Ð182 nearby molecules, 171–174, 176, 183, instantaneous dipole Atom or molecule ionic substance, 50, 54Ð61 185, 204, 434t, 1129f with momentary unsymmetrical ionization Formation of ions from a hydrogen chloride, 1020 distribution of its electron cloud, 174 molecular substance when it dissolves hydrohalogenation, 805, 814, 818 instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces in water, as a result of bond breaking, hydrolases, 1123 Attractions between instantaneous 186, 292, 529f hydrolysis of esters, 953 dipoles and momentarily induced ionization constant for water (Kw) The hydrometallurgy Metallurgy that uses dipoles in neighbouring molecules, equilibrium constant for self–ionization aqueous solution chemistry, 1041, 174, 204 of water, 532, 538t, 583 1043–1044 integrated rate equation An alternative ionization energies, 263Ð264 hydronium ion A transient species form of a rate equation that shows ionization isomerism Isomers of complexes ϩ represented simply as H3O , 187, 204, the (changing) concentration of a due to interchange of a coordinated 533–534 reactant at a specified time, 732–739, ligand and an uncoordinated hydrophilic Physical property of being 768 counterion, 1057 attracted to water, usually through first-order reactions, 732 Ionization of Molecular Solutes, 185 hydrogen bonding, 853 second-order reactions, 733, 736f ion pairs, 592 hydrophilic colloids Colloids with strong instantaneous rate of reaction, 723 ions Charged particles in which the attractions between the particle surfaces insultators, 1078 number of protons is different from and water molecules, 480–480, 482 intensive property, 200 the number of electrons, 56–59 hydroplasticity, 1087 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, mobility in water, 983 hydrophobic colloids Colloids in which 104, 414 monatomic, 58Ð59 only weak attractive forces exist interhalogens, 1029 polyatomic, 59 between the water and the surfaces of intermediate, 760 solution, mobility, 983 the colloidal particles, 480, 482 intermetallic compounds, 1079 ion-selective electrodes Electrodes used hydroxyl radical in atmosphere, 96 intermolecular forces Forces of attraction to measure ion concentrations in hypergolic fuel, 1028 between molecules, 64, 82, 165–175, solution, based on the Nernst hypertonicity, 477 177f, 203, 433–437 equation, 645–646 hypochlorous acid, 1021 internal energy (U) The sum of the kinetic ion size of elements, 265, 294 hypotonic, 477 energy and potential energy of the iron corrosion, 654Ð659, 660 collection of atoms, ions, and iron extraction from ores, 1042Ð1043 ideal gas equation A mathematical equation molecules in the system, 224–225, 245 irradiation, food, 1173 that allows approximate calculation of internal circuit, 631 isodensity surface A contour surface of any one of n, p, V, or T if the other three International Union of Pure and Applied equal electron density, 282, 297 are known, 419–421, 428–429, 447 Chemistry (IUPAC), 36, 40Ð43 isoelectric pH The pH at which more of an ice, 89, 100 interstitial, 1079 amino acid is in the form of zwitterions ideal solutions Solutions that obey Raoult’s intramolecular forces Bonds between than at any other pH, 560–561, 583 law, 468, 482 atoms within molecules (rather than isoelectronic ions, 265 ignition rate, 730Ð731 between molecules), 64, 82, 165 isoelectric point (pI) The pH at which an imagination, 357 intramolecular level An aspect of the amino acid is balanced between imine functional group Functional group molecular level of operation in anionic and cationic forms and exists with the structure RN“ CR2, or chemistry where we consider the primarily as the neutral, dipolar, substances whose molecules have this distribution of electrons within zwitterion, 1116 functional group, 936, 960 molecules, 358, 408, 1105 isoelectronic species Molecules and ions immiscible, 183 intrinsic semiconductors, 1080 with the same number of valence induced dipole, 434t inversion of configuration, 757 electrons and the same number and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) invertases, 1111 connectivity of atoms, but have atoms spectrometer An instrument used to invert sugars, 1111 of different elements, 367 analyze for elements, based on their iodine, 1018 isomerases, 1123

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IG-10 Index/Glossary

isomerism, see cisÐtrans-, constitutional, lanthanide contraction, 1039 ligases, 1123 linkage, and stereo isomerism lanthanides, 1035 light, reflection on earth, 100 isomers Substances whose molecules have lattice enthalpy (lattice energy) The limiting reactant In a reaction mixture the same numbers of atoms of different energy evolved when ions in the gas with specified amounts of reactants, elements, but differ in the way the phase come together to form 1 mol of the reactant that is entirely atoms are arranged, 112, 119, 310, 348 a solid crystal, 461, 983–984 “consumed,” and which limits the cis- and trans-, see cisÐtrans isomers law of chemical periodicity The properties amounts of products formed, 140f, isosurface, 282 of the elements vary periodically with 141f–143, 149–150 isotonic, 477 their atomic numbers, 40, 257, 298 limiting reagent, 140 isotope ratio mass spectroscopy (IRMS) A law of conservation of atoms During line emission spectrum Radiation emitted technique to determine the ratio of chemical reactions atoms are neither by excited atoms, and which consists of different isotopes of a particular created nor destroyed, 129, 149 only particular wavelengths, 268–269, element in molecules of a substance, law of conservation of energy (first law of 297 19, 30, 43, 97 thermodynamics) The total energy of line spectra of atomic substances, 255Ð256 isotopes Atoms of an element with the universe is constant, 221 linkage isomerism Isomers of complexes different numbers of neutrons, 19, law of conservation of mass The total due to bonding of a ligand to the 29–33, 40, 43 mass of substances that react is the metal through different types of donor abundance, 30, 40 same as the total mass of substances atoms, 1057 dilution, 1172 formed, 129, 149 lipoproteins, 5 measurement of 32 law of conservation of matter Matter is liquids, 20, 436 table, 40Ð43 neither created nor destroyed. During kinetic molecular model, 436Ð437 isotopologues Molecules that are identical a chemical reaction, the numbers of temperature dependence of vapour pressures, except that the atoms of one or more atoms of each element in the 438 elements are different isotopes, 68, substances that react are the same as liquid state, 433Ð439 82, 306 the numbers of atoms of those lithium chemistry, non-typical, 990Ð991 elements in the products, 129 living organisms, 877Ð878 Keeler, James, 779 law of equilibrium For a given reaction at London forces. See dispersion forces Kelvin temperature scale A scale of a specified temperature, all equilibrium lone pairs, 361 temperature measurement in which 0 mixtures have the same value of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital K is Ϫ273.15 °C, 417 reaction quotient (Q), 496, 596 (LUMO) The lowest-energy molecular aÐkeratin, 1120 leaving group, 757 orbital that is not “occupied” by ketals Functional group having the Le Chatelier’s principle A change in any of electrons, 407, 408 structure R2C(ORЈ)2, 853, 930 the factors that influence the condition low-spin configuration Configuration of a ketone Functional group having the of equilibrium brings about a change complex with strong-field ligands, structure R2C“ O, or any substance in the relative amounts of reactants having the minimum number of whose molecules have that functional and products in the direction that unpaired electrons, 1067 group, 77, 886, 911–915 counteracts (often not completely) the lyases, 1123 naming, 916Ð922 applied change, 464, 488 reactivity, 916Ð917, 924Ð934 LED (light-emitting diodes), 1081Ð1083 macromolecules, 114 structure, 916Ð917, 924Ð934 Lee, Huen, 91 magnesium, 992, 993 ketoses, 1099 levels magnetic momentum quantum number, 277 kinetically functional group classification, 779Ð781 magnitude of K and extent of reaction, inert, 669 of operation: observable, molecular, 501Ð502 stable, 669 symbolic, 23Ð24 main group elements Elements in Groups kinetic energies of gas molecules, 426 levorotatory, 335 1, 2, or 13–18 of the periodic table, 38, kinetic energy Energy due to motion of Lewis acid A species that accepts a lone 259, 975–1030 the particles (atoms, ion, molecules) of pair of electrons from another species structure overview, 977Ð978 a system, 219–220, 245 in a complexation reaction, 197, 204, malleability of metals, 63f kinetic-molecular model of matter A model 541, 786 maltose, 1110 that assumes that all matter is composed Lewis Acid-Base reractions, 196Ð198 manufacture of nitric acid, 141 of particles with energy, and which can Lewis base A species that provides a lone Markovnikov’s rule In addition reactions be used to explain and predict physical pair of electrons to another species in a of HX to unsymmetrical alkenes, the properties, 20, 43, 431, 436–437 complexation reaction, 197, 204, 541, proton adds preferentially to the C kinetic-molecular theory A model that 610, 613–614, 786, 1046 atom that will lead to the most stable assumes that all matter is composed of Lewis, Gilbert Newton, 359 carbocation intermediate, 811, 840 particles with energy, which can be Lewis model of acids and bases, 541Ð544 Markovnikov, Vladimir, 809 used to explain and predict physical Lewis structure A way of representing the Mars atmosphere, 116Ð117, 413 properties, 419, 425–429, 436, 447 distribution of valence electrons in mass defect, 1156 Kohlrausch, Friedrich, 532 molecules, 360–370, 408 mass number (A) The sum of the numbers Kroto, Harry, 838 Liebig, Justus von, 488 of protons and neutrons in atoms of an ligand, 542, 1045Ð1048 isotope, 29–30 labelled concentration, 202 monodentate, 1046 mass percent The mass of one component labile Complexes that undergo rapid polydentate, 1046 of a mixture divided by the total mass, substitution of ligand species, 1055 ligand-field splitting (⌬ ) The difference o multiplied by 100%, 466, 482 lability, 1055 between the energy of the electrons in mass spectrometer, 306 lakes, Cameroon, 457Ð458 the “split” d orbitals of transition mass spectrometry A technique for language issues, 277 metal complexes, according to crystal- measuring relative mass of the atoms Landis, Floyd, 17Ð20 field theory, 1064

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Index/Glossary IG-11

or molecules comprising a sample of a methanotrophs 95 used to explain observed behaviour of material, 18, 43, 67–71, 73–74 mica, 1004 substances, 23, 43, 90, 102–103 mass spectrum, 69Ð72 micelles, 480 molecular orbital (MO) theory A way of matches, 1103 Michaelis, Leonor, 762 modelling the bonding in a molecule materials science Study and synthesis of microfabrication, 1084 by imagining that the electrons occupy structural substances, including mimicking nature, 619Ð624 orbitals that are delocalized over the ceramics, metals, polymers, and miscible, 183 entire molecule, 397–408, 1076 composites, 1075–1076 mobility, 983 molecular recognition Selective non- matter Anything that occupies space and modelling (molecular level) Use of covalent interaction between one has mass, 20–23 observations of properties of substances molecule and others, or a part of classification of, 20Ð23 as evidence to draw inferences about others, 303–305, 348, 957, 961 states (or phases), 20, 413Ð454, 672Ð674 their nature at the molecular level, 53 molecular substances Substances believed to Maxam-Gilbert method, 1137 atoms, 253Ð254, 295Ð297, 357 be composed of molecules, 50, 63–65, 82, Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curves, 426 bonding, 357Ð359, 407 174–175 Maxwell, James Clerk, 427 models (molecular level) Theories about solutions in water, 182 Maxwell’s equation, 427 the nature of substances at the molecular weight Sum of the atomic Meitner, Lise, 1166 molecular level, and the relationship to weight of atoms in a molecule, 9, 69 melodies, molecules, 1095Ð1097 properties of the substances, 53–54, molecules, 50, 52, 69, 71f, 73 Mendeleev, Dmitri, 39 61–63, 64, 81 configuration, 337Ð340 melting models for the electronic structure of benzene covalent bonding, 359 conversion, 439Ð440 molecules, 822 cyclic, 325Ð329 point, 259, 1040 molal melodies, 1095Ð1097 mental model, 357 concentration, 466 replacement, 91f Menten, Maud Leonore, 761Ð762 freezing point depression constant, 471 spatial arrangement of atoms, 376 Messenger RNA, 1133 molality (m) The amount of solute (in molecularity The number of reactant meso stereoisomers, 342Ð343 moles) per kg of solvent, 466, 482 particles that participate in an metabolic acidosis, 582 molar concentration (c) The amount of elementary step, 752–754, 765 metabolic alkalosis, 582 solute (in moles) per litre of solution, mole fraction (x) The amount (in moles) of metabolism, 243 200, 204, 466 a specified component divided by the metallic, 50, 260 molar enthalpy change of fusion (⌬ H) total amount of all components in a fus mixture, 424, 466, 482 metallic bonding The mutual attraction The change of enthalpy of 1 mol of a monatomic ions, 58, 264Ð265, 293 between cations in a metallic lattice and solid substance during its conversion to monodentate ligands Ligands that coordi- the delocalized “sea” of electrons, 62 a liquid at its melting point, 162t, 226, nate to a metal via one donor atom, 1046 metallic elements, 39 245, 439–441, 448 monomers Building blocks for making metallic hydrides, 985 molar enthalpy change of solution (⌬ H) sol polymers, 114, 119, 802–803 metallic radius Half the experimentally Enthalpy change accompanying monoprotic acids Acids that have only one determined distance between nuclei of dissolution of 1 mol of solute in a ϩ H ion that can be removed from each adjacent atoms in a metallic crystal, 262 large volume of the solvent, 461–462, molecule, 530, 583 metallic substances, 63 482 monosaccharides, 1099, 1100Ð1102, 1104Ð1108 metallic versus non-metallic character of molar enthalpy change of vaporization Moseley, H.G.J. 40 elements, 260 (⌬ H) The enthalpy change when vap Mulliken, Robert S., 383 metalloids Elements with properties 1 mol of a liquid is converted to its mutarotation The spontaneous change in gaseous state at its boiling point, intermediate between those metals optical rotation observed when a pure and non-metals, 39 227, 245 anomer of a sugar is dissolved in water semi-metals, 38, 39 molar mass (M) The mass (in grams) of and equilibrates to an equilibrium metallurgy The process of separating 1 mol of a substance, 36–38, 43, 60–61, mixture of anomers, 1106 desired metals from other substances 63, 69, 471–472, 477–478 myoglobin, 1121 in ores mole (mol) The unit of the quantity transition elements, 1041Ð1044 amount of substance, 35, 43 NMR spectra, 777 metals Mostly malleable solids that are molar volumes, 419 NMR spectroscopy, 313Ð317, 446 good conductors, modelled as a lattice molecular formula Formula that shows the 13C, 313, 317, 323 of positive ions in a “sea” of electrons, number of atoms of each element in 1H, 313 61–63, 82, 329–330, 557 each molecule, 64, 70–71 n-terminal, 1118 bonding, 1076Ð1079 molecular ion Ion formed by ejection of n-type semiconductor, 1081 cations, 609Ð610 one electron from a molecule during naming, 790Ð791 reducing ability, 983Ð984 electron impact ionization mass nanotechnology The design, creation, and methane, 93Ð9, 116Ð118, 720 spectrometry, 67, 82 control of matter on approximately the abiogenic, 95 molecular modelling (Odyssey), 4, 18, 20, 22, nanometre (10Ϫ9 m) scale to create biogenic, 95 28, 53, 55, 62, 65, 76, 90, 113, 114, 160, structures, systems, and devices with bonding, 360 162, 169, 170, 171, 174 novel properties, 837–838, 840, 1091 sources, 105Ð106 molecular polarity, 167Ð169f, 170Ð171 nanotubes, 836Ð839 methane clathrate hydrate, 90, 92f molecular speed, 426Ð428 natural gas, 93 models of bonding in molecules, 406 molecular structure, 173, 303Ð306, 364Ð367 natural percent abundance The percentage molecules, 90f shapes, 306Ð307 of different isotopes of an element in methanogens, 95 tools, 306Ð307 naturally occurring materials, 31 mixtures, 22Ð23 molecular level Visualized structure or natural products chemistry The study of methanogens, 720 behaviour of the atoms, ions, or mol- compounds produced by living methanol production, 127 ecules of which materials are composed, organisms, 8

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IG-12 Index/Glossary

nature of electrons in atoms, 254Ð255 nuclear decay, rates, 1158Ð1164 organic negative feedback, 100 nuclear fission Reaction in which a large acids, 542Ð543 neon signs, 12 nucleus splits into two or smaller bases, 542Ð543 Nernst equation A mathematical nuclei, 1166–1167 chemistry, 885 expression for the dependence of cell nuclear fusion Reaction in which several food labels, 13 emf on concentrations of reactants and smaller nuclei react to form a larger organic compounds Compounds composed products, 643–645, 660 nucleus, 1167–1168 of molecules with carbon-atom-based Nernst, Walter, 489, 643 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) frameworks, 63, 92, 668, 779–788 net reaction Change of concentrations of spectroscopy, 8, 306 organometallic compounds Compound species resulting from unequal rates of nuclear medicine, 1170Ð1172 with molecules having bonds between opposite reactions, 494, 516 nuclear reactions Reactions involving metal atoms and carbon atoms, neurotransmitters, 527 one or more atomic nuclei, resulting 879–880, 900 neutral solution An aqueous solution in in transformation of isotopes into orthosilicates, 1004 which [H3Oϩ] ϭ [OHϪ]. At 25 °C, other isotopes, 1149–1153, 1164–1165 osmosis The movement of solvent pH ϭ 7.0, 533 nuclear spins, 313f molecules through a semipermeable neutralization: reaction of acids with bases, 195 nucleic acids Biopolymers, either DNA or membrane from a solution of lower neutralizing capacity, 552 RNA, made of nucleotides joined solute concentration to one of neutrons Subatomic particles that are together, 1126–1140 higher solute concentration, neutral, 28–29, 43 nucleons Nuclear particles, either neutrons 475–478, 482 activation analysis, 1173 or protons, 1157 osmotic pressure The “back pressure” that in nuclei, 1154 nucleophile, 757 must be applied to –prevent osmosis, Newman projections, 318 nucleophilic addition, 924Ð930, 944 475–478, 482 new materials, 81 nucleophilic substitution reactions Ötzi the iceman, 30, 1162 nitration, aromatic compounds, 832 Reactions involving the substitution of out-of-plane, bending, 76f nitric acid, 1101 one nucleophilic species in molecules overall atom efficiency (OAE) The mass of nitriles Functional group having the or ions of a substance for another a desired product as a percentage of structure RC‚ N, or compounds whose atom, group of atoms, or an ion, the total mass of products, 147, 150 molecules have this functional group, 757–761, 768, 944–946 overall reaction order The sum of the 920 nucleoside, 1126 exponents on all concentration terms nitrogen, 79t, 125Ð126, 1007Ð1010 nucleotides, 1126Ð1140 in the rate equation, 728, 768 atoms, 126f Nyholm, Ronald, Sir, 376 overlap of atomic orbitals A basic cycle, 977 Nyos Lake, 457 assumption of the valence bond model fixation, 125 of bonding in molecules, 385 making ammonia, 487 observable level of chemistry Behaviours overvoltage The extra potential needed to nitrous oxide of substances that can be observed make electrolysis occur, above that in atmosphere, 96, 103Ð106 directly by human senses, or by predicted from the table of standard noble instruments, 23, 43 reduction potentials, 652, 660 gas atoms, 58 ocean acidification, 591Ð596, 614 oxidation The removal of electrons by one gases,1022Ð1024 ocean selector, 106 species from another in the Nocera, Daniel, 215, 619, 653 octet rule A tendency of molecules and competition for electrons occurring in nodal surface, 283 polyatomic ions to have structures an oxidation-reduction reaction. In nodes, 276 in which eight electrons are in the organic chemistry, the term is used to non-bonding electrons, 172 valence shell of each atom, 361–369, describe a decrease of electron density non-bonding pair A pair of electrons 408 by a carbon atom, 815, 885 localized on an atom in a molecule Olah, George, 127 alcohols, 891 that are not involved in bonding to oligomer A polymeric substance whose alkenes to carbonyl-containing products, 814 another atom, 196, 361 molecules consist of only a few oxidation-reduction reactions Reactions non-carbon centres, 333Ð334 monomer units, 852, 899 that are the result of transfer of non-covalent interactions, 303Ð304 oligosaccharides, 719 electrons from one species to another non-electrolytes Substances that do not operation, 23Ð24 in a competition for electrons, ionize when dissolved in water, 187, 204 optical 190–196, 204, 620, 624–630 non-metallic elements, 39, 259 activity, 330, 335Ð337, 1059 oxidation state A measure of the degree of non-polar molecules, 167, 184 fibres, 1086 oxidation of an element in a compound non-polar substance Substance whose optically active Substance that rotates the compared with the uncombined molecules have zero dipole moment, plane of plane-polarized light passing element, 190, 204, 624–627, 660 167, 174f, 175f, 204 through it, 335, 348 oxides non-renewable energy sources, 213 orbital The non-uniform distribution of and hydroxides of metals, acid-base normal boiling point (standard boiling the electron matter in a standing caracter, 981 point) The temperature at which the waveform around the nucleus of an and oxoacids of nitrogen, 1008 equilibrium vapour pressure of the atom, 277, 282–283, 285–287 oxidizing, 261, 642Ð643 substance is 1.00 atm, 442 hybridization, 386 oxidizing agent Reactant species that northern lights, 12 overlap, 384Ð386 removes electrons from a species that is Novoselov, Konstantin, 836 shape of orbitals, 281Ð282 oxidized, 191, 192t, 624 nuclear binding energy (Eb) Energy required order of a reaction With respect to each oxidoreductases, 1123 to separate the nucleus of an atom into reactant, the exponent of its oxoacids Acids whose molecules contain protons and neutrons, 1155–1158 concentration term in the rate oxygen atoms, usually with at least one ˚ nuclear charge, 289Ð291 equation, 728, 732–735, 737–739, OH group, 366–367 nuclear chemistry, 1145Ð1177 757–758, 885–887, 889 oxoacids of chlorine, 1020

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Index/Glossary IG-13

ϩ within a species to affect sexual or electron clouds of neighbouring oxonium ion Derivative of H3O , where one or more H atoms are replaced by social behaviour, 775, 840 species, 979, 1024 R groups, 888, 930–931 phosphate buffers in biochemical systems, 581 polar reactions Reactions in which the oxygen, 2Ð6, 79t phosphorus, 1010Ð1013 mechanism shows electrons moving in molecules, energy states of 3Ð6 photochemical smog Brown smog pairs when bonds are formed or ozone, 1014 produced by photochemical reactions broken, 784–785 hole, 415 in still air masses containing nitrogen polar substance Substance whose molecule, models of bonding, 396 oxides and volatile organic compounds molecules have a dipole moment, 167, exposed to the sun, 667–670, 706–709 174f, 204 p-n rectifying junction, 1082 photodynamic therapy (PDT) The use of polonium, 1107 p-type semiconductor, 1082 light in medical treatment, 3–6 polyamides Polymer made of amide paired electrons, 278 photoelectric effect,273, 274, 275f monomers, joined by peptide bonds, pairing energy, 1068 photoelectron spectroscopy (PES) A 958–959 paramagnetic Substance whose atoms, technique, based on ejection of polyatomic ions, 59 ions, or molecules have unpaired electrons by irradiation with high- polyatomic molecules, models of bonding, electrons and that are attracted to a energy photons, for estimating the 406Ð407 magnetic field, 280, 297 energies of electrons in the various polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) particles, 21 orbitals in molecules, 397–398 Compound with fused aromatic rings, partial bond, 371 photonics, 1086 836Ð839, 840 partial pressure The pressure a gas in a photons, 274 polydentate ligands Ligands that mixture would exert if it were the only photosensitizers Substances whose coordinate to a metal via more than gas in the container, at the same molecules can be electronically excited one donor atom, 1046 temperature, 423–424, 447 by absorption of particular polydimethylsiloxane, 1005 parts-per-million (ppm) The mass of a wavelengths of light, and transfer their polyesters Polymer whose monomers are component of a mixture; may be extra energy by collisions to molecules joined by ester linkages, 958 expressed in grams, per 1000 kg of of other substances, 4 polyethylene, 115 total, or as mmols per mol (of a gas), photosynthesis, 620Ð621 polymers Substances with large molecules 467,482 photosystem I (PSI), 621 composed of repeating units of Pasteur’s, 336Ð337 photosystem II (PSII), 621 monomers, 114–116, 119, 804t, 958, Pauli exclusion principle, 284, 399 physical properties Behaviour of a 1005–1006, 1021 Pauling, Linus, 371, 383 substance that does not involve polymerase chain reaction (PCR) Method for p-block elements Elements in Groups chemical reaction, 28, 43, 52, 896 amplifying small amounts of DNA, 1138 13–18, whose atoms have valence pi bond Covalent bond imagined to be polymerization of alkenes, 802Ð803 electrons in p orbitals, 287 formed by sideways overlap of polymorphs Different solid or liquid forms peptides Small amino acid polymer p orbitals, 386, 408 in which a compound can exist, (usually comprised of fewer than 50 piezoelectricity The induction of an 445–447, 448 monomers) electrical current by mechanical polyprotic acids Acids that have molecules amphiphiles, 305, 1115Ð1125 distortion of material or vice versa, 1088 with two or more protons that can be percent abundance, 40 pig iron, 1042Ð1043 removed by bases, 530, 551–552, percentage ionization, 546Ð549 a-pinene, 775 558–559, 578–579, 583 percent yield The yield of a reaction Planck’s constant, 254, 274 polysaccharides Carbohydrate polymers product expressed as a percentage of planar, 810 made of simple sugar monomers held the theoretical yield, 143, 150 plane of symmetry in moleculesb, 332 together by glycoside linkages, 1099, perfluoropropane, in atmosphere, 104 plane-polarized light, 335 1111–1113 period table of elements, 38Ð40 plasmas, 20, 415, 1168 porphyrins, 4 periodic table of the isotopes, 42 plastic sulfur, 1014 positive hole, 1077 periodic trends, 1039Ð1040 pOH In dilute solutions, pOH ϭ positron emission Emission of a nuclear 10 Ϫ periodic variation, 257Ð268, 292Ð295 Ϫlog [OH ], 534 particle having the same mass as an periodicity Periodic occurrence of elements, polar and non-polar parts of solute molecules, electron but a positive charge, 1152 based on atomic numbers, whose 184 potassium, 988Ð991 properties are similar, 39, 258f, 287–289 polar bond A bond joining atoms whose production, 988 periodicity of electron configurations, 286Ð287 electronegativities are different, so potential energy That component of the peroxides of metals, 989 that the bonding electrons are energy of a system due to the relative petroleum, 110, 111f unequally shared, 166, 204 position, composition, or arrangement ϩ polar covalent bond, 166, 359 of particles, 219–220, 245, 742 pH In dilute solutions, pH ϭϪlog10[H3O ], 532–535, 545–546, 583 polar molecule, 167, 184 powder, white, 49Ð52 change, 570Ð571 polarimeter, 330 precipitate, 188 controlling, 564Ð573 polarimetry, 306, 335Ð33 precipitation of ionic salts, 595Ð604 dependance, 602, 647Ð648 polarizability Ease of distortion of the precipitation reactions Reactions in meters, 645Ð646 electron cloud of an atom, ion, or solutions which a precipitate is formed speciation, 178Ð180, 187, 523Ð526, molecule from cations and anions, 188–190, 204, 553Ð563, 581Ð582, 591Ð594, 613Ð614 electron clouds, 174Ð175, 979, 1024 605–610 phase, 20 polarization Distortion of the electron primary change, 437Ð439, 671Ð672 cloud of an atom or a molecule, 204 batteries, 635 diagrams, 442Ð445 electron clouds, 174Ð175, 979, 1024 pollutants, 667, 706 phenyl, 791 polarizer, 335 standard, 574 pheromones Compound used to exchange polarizing power The degree to which a pressure (p) Force on a surface per unit information between individuals cation can induce polarization of the area, 416–417, 462–465, 706

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IG-14 Index/Glossary

principal quantum number, 276 Earth, 97, 98fÐ103 reaction quotient (Q) A defined function of productÐfavoured, 501 health and safety, 1168Ð1170 concentrations of reactant and product production and properties of oxygen and sulfur, therapy, 1171 species whose value at equilibrium is 1014 radiative forcing Change in the balance the equilibrium constant, 494–501, 516 products New substances formed during between incoming and outgoing reaction rate. See rate of chemical reaction chemical reaction, 27, 43, 499 radiation of our climate system due to reactions of acetylide anions to form c˚ c ˚ adding, 511Ð512 substances in the atmosphere, 101, 105f bonds, 817 removing, 511Ð512 radical, 803 reactions of alkynes producing level 1 promoter sites, 1133 radioactive functional groups, 818 propagation, 803, 1166 decay, 1149Ð1155 reactions, classification of by change of propane, 110 isotopes, 1172 functional group level, 781Ð783 propene, 790 series, 1150 reactive nitrogen, 125, 488 propylene, 790 radioactivity, 1147Ð1148 reactive sites, 542Ð543 properties, physical, 52 radiocarbon dating, 1162Ð1164 reactivity protective oxide layer on aluminium, 997 radioisotopes used in medical diagnostic oxidizing agents and reducing agents, 261 proteins Large biological polymers procedures, 1170 understanding, 773Ð787, 805Ð840, 851Ð855 comprised of 50 or more amino acid radon, 1150 real gases, 431 residues, 1095, 1115–1125 Raoult’s law The vapour pressure of the rearrangement reactions Molecules of a amino acid solvent is proportional to the mole reactant reorganize bonds and atoms biosynthesis, 1134Ð1136 fraction of solvent in a solution, 468, 482 to yield molecules of an isomeric crystal structures, 308Ð309 rate constant (k) The proportionality product, 783, 799, 840 structures, 561tÐ562t constant in a rate equation, 729, 768 red phosphorus, 1007 protium, 30 rate-determining step The slowest step of a redox reactions, 624 proton NMR. See 1H (NMR) reaction mechanism, which limits the reduced, 624 protons Subatomic particles that have a rate of the overall reaction, 754–757, 768 reducing agent Reactant species from positive charge, 28–29, 43 rate equation A mathematical relationship which electrons are taken by a species ratio in nuclei, 1154 that expresses experimentally observed that is reduced, 191, 192t, 624 purification by recrystallization, 465 dependence of reaction rate on reactant reducing sugars Sugars that reduce Agϩ in purines, 1126 concentrations, 727–728, 730–731, 768 the Tollens test or Cu2ϩ in the Fehling’s pyranose, 1105 rate-limiting step, 754 reagent, 1109–1110 pyrimidines, 1126 rate law, 727 reduction The taking of electrons by one pyrometallurgy Metallurgy that involves rate of a chemical reaction The change in species from another in the high temperatures, 1041, 1042–1043 concentration of a substance per unit competition for electrons occurring in pyroxenes, 1004 of time, 725–744, 765 an oxidation-reduction reaction. In rates of nuclear decay, 1158Ð1164 organic chemistry, the term is used to quanta, 255Ð256 rationalizing the periodic variation of describe a gain of electron density by a quantum properties, 292Ð295 carbon atom, 190, 204, 885–886 dots, 1091 Rayleigh, Lord, 1022 carboxylic acids, 887 mechanical model, 276Ð283 reactions esters, 887 mechanics, 276 changes, 781Ð785 potential, 191, 629 quantitative functional groups, 802Ð815, 816Ð820 refraction of light in glasses, 1086f aspects of equilibrium constants, 501Ð507 reaction species, 499 refractive index, 1085 relationships, 229Ð230 reactants Substances that react to form refractories, 1087 quantization of energy of electrons in atoms, other substances, 28, 43 regioselective A label for reactions in which 269 adding, 511Ð512 bond-making or bond-breaking is quantized (energy of electrons) Electrons amounts, 138tÐ143, 499 preferred at one molecular site or in in atoms can have only particular concentration, 727Ð731, 740Ð741 one particular direction over others, 809 amounts of energy, 255, 269, 297 removing, 511Ð12 regloselective, 809 quantum number A parameter in the reaction energy diagram A representation relationship between Q and K, 499, 593 equation for a standing wave, any of the changing energy of a tiny system relative abundances, 68f “allowed” value of which gives rise to a comprising the particles taking part in a relative atomic mass (Ar) The mass of an solution for the equation, 276, 279t, 297 single collision event as reaction occurs, atom of an isotope on a scale in which quartz, 1002 742–743, 747–748, 765, 807 the mass of a 12C atom is taken to be quorum sensing Chemical communication reaction equations, 507Ð511 12 exactly, 31–33, 43 between organisms that allows them reaction intermediates Relatively high relative concentrations of the protonated to detect and respond to the density of energy species formed in one step of a species, 555 their surrounding population, 912, 961 reaction and consumed in a later step, relative molecular mass (Mr) Mass of an 808 isotopologue on a scale in which the 12C R configuration of chiral centres, 338f reaction kinetics The study of the rates of isotope has a value of 12 exactly, 68–69 RNA, 1126, 1133Ð1140 chemical reactions, 494, 605, 721 relative stability, 136 Raoult, François M., 468 reaction mechanism Sequence of renewable energy sources, 110 racemate A 50:50 (equimolar) mixture of a bond–making and bond-breaking steps replication, 1131Ð1132 pair of enantiomeric molecules, and so that occurs during the conversion of resonance If the valence electrons in a is not optically active, 337, 349, 758 molecules of reactants to molecules of molecule or ion can be distributed in radiation products, 748, 750–757, 765, 783, 784, more than one sensible way, then alpha (a) radiation, 1148 789, 807–808, 926–930, 944–946 the actual electron distribution is beta (b) radiation, 1148 reaction mixtures, 492Ð494, 499, 511Ð512 intermediate between these ways, 309, gamma (g) radiation, 1148 reaction order, see order of reaction 370–376, 408

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Index/Glossary IG-15

respiration, 218 second-order reactions, 728, 733Ð734, 735, soda ash, 990 respiratory acidosis, 582 737, 757, 870Ð872 Soddy, Frederick, 1149 respiratory alkalosis, 582 seeds germination, 6Ð12 sodium, 988Ð991 restriction endonucleases, 1137 selective precipitation Separation of one chloride, electrolysis of aqueous solutions, reverse osmosis, 474, 477 ion in solution from another by 1018f reverse transcriptases, 1139 differences in the solubilities of their chloride, electrolysis of molten, 988 reversible salts, 609–610, 616 production, 988 process, 675 selenium, 1014 soft acids and bases, 1034 reactions, 492Ð493f self-assembly Ability of molecules to soft-soft, 1034 reversibility The ability of a reaction to arrange themselves in an ordered way sol, 478, 479 proceed in either direction, depending as a result of selective molecular solar energy, 620Ð622 on the conditions, 492 recognition, 305, 1091 solids, 20, 436 ribonucleic acid (RNA), 1126, 1133Ð1140 self-ionization of water A proton-transfer kinetic molecular model, 436Ð437 ribosomes, 1134 reaction between water molecules to solid sol, 478 ϩ ˚ ribosomal RNA, 1133 form H3O (aq) ions and OH (aq) ions, solid state, 433Ð436, 439Ð441 ribozymes, 1140 187–188, 204, 532–533 solubilities of Ionic compounds, 180Ð181f ring-flip, 327f semiconductors Materials in which the solubility The concentration of a substance Ripmeester, John, 91, 446 valence band is separated from the in a saturated solution, at a specified root-mean-square speed, 427 conduction band by a smaller energy temperature, 178, 459, 462–465, 482, Rosenberg, Barnett, 1031Ð1032 gap (band gap) than for insulators. 595–605 rotation, 317Ð324, 335Ð336 Conductivity is normally between that complexation, 610Ð613 Rutherford, Ernest, 40, 1148, 1149, 1164 of insulators and metals, 623, equilibria, 610Ð613 Rydberg equation, 269 1079–1084 gases, 457 Rydberg, Johannes, 269 semi-conservative replication, 1132 predictions, 599Ð600 semi-metals. See metalloids product (Ksp), 593, 596 S configuration of chiral centres, 338f sense strand. See coding strand salts, 593, 600Ð604 sacrificial anodes, 658 sequestration of carbon dioxide, 108 solubility product (Ksp) The equilibrium salt sequence configuration, 337Ð340 constant in a saturated solution of a acidity of aqueous solutions, 982 shared electrons, 66f slightly soluble salt, 596–599, 616 bridge, 631, 1122 shell Comprising orbitals of an atom that soluble molecules, 184Ð185 molten, 650 have been derived by use of the same solute concentration, 202 Sanger dideoxy method, 1137 value of n in the Schrödinger equation, solutes Dissolved substances in solutions, sasol process, 750 277, 297 178, 202–203 saturation horizon, 594 shielding (screening) The effect of solutions Homogeneous mixtures,22, 200, saturated, 788 repulsions from other electrons, 201f–203, 459–460 fatty acids, 379 reducing the charge that the valence solutions saturated hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons electrons “feel” at the nucleus, acidity, 552Ð553 whose molecules contain only single 289–291, 297 behaviour, 457Ð482 ˚ C C bonds, 111 sievert (Sv), 1168 homogenous mixtures, 22 saturated solution A solution in which sigma (S) bond A covalent bond with measure, 552Ð553 solute and dissolved species are in cylindrical symmetry, including those reagent, 606Ð607 equilibrium, 137, 457, 459, 482, 593, imagined to be formed from s atomic solvary process, 990 595–597, 616 orbitals on each of the bonded atoms, solvent The medium in which other Sawhorse representations, 318 385, 408 substances are dissolved to form a s-block elements Elements of Group 1 or 2, silanols, 1005 solution, 178–182, 200, 445 in which the valence electrons of atoms silica, 1002 solvation, 179 occupy only s orbitals, 287 silica gel, 1003 southern lights, 12 scandium chemistry, 1040Ð1041 silicon production, 1002Ð1006 space science, 1173 scanning electron microscopy (SEM),1089 single bond Covalent bond pictured as spatial arrangement, 376Ð383 Schindler, David, 97 formed by sharing of two electrons speciation, 488, 490, 554Ð559 Schrödinger equation A generalized between the bonded atoms, 66, 82, acid-base, 553Ð563, 581Ð582, 591Ð594 mathematical equation for 317–322, 360, 391–392 arsenic, 157 three–dimensional standing “electron singlet oxygen, 3Ð6 complexes, 613Ð614 waves” around an atom’s nucleus, 276, skeletal structures, 321Ð322 pharmaceutical drugs, 523 2970 Sklodovska, Marie, 1150 ions, 1052Ð1054 Schrödinger, Erwin, 295 slaked lime, 994 plot, 525, 555 screening (shielding) The effect of slaking, 994 species, See chemical species repulsions from other electrons, slightly soluble, 595 specific heat capacity (c) The amount reducing the charge that the valence snowflakes, 65f of heat required to raise the electrons “feel” at the nucleus, 289 SN1 mechanism, 869Ð870, 874Ð877 temperature of 1 g of a substance by scuba diving, 463 SN1 reaction, 758Ð761 1 K, 160t–161, 204 secondary SN2 mechanism, 869Ð874 specific rotation, 335Ð336 batteries, 635 nucleophilic substitution reactions, 757Ð758, spectator ions Ions in solution that do not pollutants, 706 760Ð761 participate in a reaction, 189 second law of thermodynamics Any Smalley, Richard, 213, 838 spectrochemical series A rank order of spontaneous process is accompanied by Smil, Vaclav, 488 ability of ligands to split the d orbital an increase in the entropy of the smoke, and seed germination, 6Ð12 energies in complexes, 1064 universe, 672, 681–685, 709 soap, 481 spectroscopic evidence, 793Ð796, 860Ð866

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IG-16 Index/Glossary

spectroscopy A method of finding out about standard molar enthalpy change of strong electrolytes Substances that the structure of molecules that depends formation (⌬fH°) Enthalpy change dissociate completely into ions when on their interaction with electromagnetic accompanying the reaction in which dissolving in water, 180, 204 radiation, 2, 74–81, 777–778 1 mol of a substance in its standard strong-field ligands Ligands that interact carbonyl compounds, 922 state is formed from its component strongly with the d orbitals of a metal infrared, 74 elemental substances in their standard ion, causing large ligand-field splitting, functional groups, 777 states, 237, 238t–240, 246 1064 speeds of gas molecules, 426 standard molar enthalpy change of strontium-90, 1159 spherically symmetrical, 281 vaporization, 234 structural formulas Representations spin, 279 standard molar entropy (S°) The entropy that indicate the connective sequence spin-spin splitting Multiple absorptions for of 1 mol of a substance in its standard of all of the atoms of a substance, 67f, an NMR signal caused by interaction with state, 676–677, 709 71– 73 nuclear spins of neighbouring atoms, 863 standard molar free energy change of structural isomers (constitutional isomers) spontaneity formation (⌬fG°) The free energy Two substances with the same formula criterion, 671Ð672 change when 1 mol of a substance in but different connectivity of the reaction, 687Ð689, 693Ð696 its standard state is formed from its atoms, 71 spontaneous, 671 component elements in their standard structure and reactivity of carbon compounds, change, 719Ð720 states, 690–691, 710 776 direction of change, 671Ð672 standard states Defined conditions of structure, understanding, 773Ð787, 851Ð855 spontaneous direction of reaction substances, at specified temperatures, sublimation, 441 Direction of net reaction that takes a 232–233 sub-shell Each set of orbitals derived by reaction mixture toward chemical standing wave, 276fÐ279 use of the same value of l in the equilibrium, 134–136, 149, 500–501, 516 Stannard, Russell, 254 Schrödinger equation, 277, predicting, 642Ð643 Starch, 1112 substance A single, pure form of matter, terminology, 135fÐ136f, 137, 681Ð684 state Solid, liquid, gas, or plasma, 3 22, 27–28, 35–38, 49–58 spontaneous reaction, 629 state function A property whose magnitude properties, 52Ð58 sports, chemistry of drugs, 17Ð20 depends only on the amount of the substituent, 113 stabilities of ionic compounds, 180 substance and the conditions, regardless substitution reactions One atom or group stability, 135, of its history, 20, 224, 245 in a molecule is replaced by another constant, 1051 steam-methane reforming, 215 atom or group, 757–761, 783, 820, 840, stable, 135, 149, 500 steam reforming 94 869–878 staggered conformers, 319 steel, 1043 substrate, 757, 1122 stainless steel, 1043 stereocentre An atom in a molecule around sucrose, 1111 standard ambient temperature and which the spatial arrangement of other sugars, 851, 1099, 1102Ð1104 pressure (SATP) At a temperature of atoms gives rise to stereoisomerism, sulfate analysis, 146f 25 °C and pressure of 1 bar, 420 331–332, 342, 344–345, 348 sulfonation, 833Ð834 standard boiling point The temperature at stereochemistry The branch of chemistry sulfur which the equilibrium vapour pressure concerned with the three-dimensional allotropes, 1014 of the substance is 1.00 bar, 442 structures of molecules, 303–304, chemistry, 975Ð976 standard cell emf (E°cell) The cell emf 330–334, 348 compounds, 1016Ð1017 when all reactants and products are in carbohydrates, 1102 dioxide, 1016 their standard states, 636, 640–641, stereoisomeric alkene molecules, 323 hexafluoride, 418 648–649, 660 stereoisomerism coordination complexes, sulfuric acid, 1016 solute concentration, 466Ð468, 545Ð546 1058Ð1061 superconductors, 1088 standard enthalpy change of reaction (⌬rH°) stereoisomers Molecules that have the supercritical fluid A substance at pressure Enthalpy change of reaction when all same numbers of each type of atom, and temperature higher than those at the reactants and products are in their with the same connectivity, but that its critical point, 107, 444–445, 448 standard states, at the temperature of differ in the three-dimensional spatial superoxides of metals, 989 the reaction mixture, 233, 245 arrangement of the atoms, 310, supersaturated solution Solutions in which standard entropy change of reaction (⌬rS°) 323–324, 342–347, 348 the concentration of solute is higher Entropy change when all the reactants stereoisomers, cis-trans, 322 than that of a saturated solution, 459, and products are in their standard steric strain, 798 482, 593 states, 679–681, 710 stoichiometric factor Ratio of amounts of supramolecular assemblies, 81, 90 standard free energy change of reaction reactants or products, deduced from the complex, 90 (⌬rG°) The free energy change of balanced chemical equation, 139, 144 surface-active agents, 481 reaction when all of the reactants and stoichiometry Calculation of relative surface density, 281Ð282f products are present in their standard amounts and masses of reactants that surface tension Amount of energy states, 689–690, 691–693, 942 react, and of products that are formed, required to increase unit surface area, standard half–cell reduction potentials in chemical reactions, 132, 138–140, 164, 177, 203 (E°half–cell) Half–cell reduction potentials 144–147, 149 surfactants Substances that affect the when all reactants and products are in storage batteries, 635 properties of surfaces, and therefore their standard states, 638, 639t, 660 straight-chain carbon compounds, 112 affect the interaction between two standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) A Strassman, Fritz, 1166 phases, 480–481 half–cell with H2(g) at 1 bar pressure is strong acids Acids that are strong surrounding thermodynamics, 223Ð224 bubbled through a solution having electrolytes, 194, 204, 528, 529f, swapping, 91 [Hϩ] ϭ 1 mol LϪ1, arbitrarily assigned 535–537, 575–576 symbolic level Use of language, zero reduction potential, 636, 660 strong bases Bases that are strong symbolism, or mathematical standardization, 574 electrolytes, 195, 204, 530 expressions to represent substances

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Index/Glossary IG-17

and their chemical and physical transistors, 1081Ð1083 Van Camp, Loretta, 1031Ð1032 properties, 23, 43 transition elements Members of Groups van der Waals equation A modified symbols, 63 3–12 of the periodic table, 38, 1031–1074 version of the ideal gas equation, stretching, 76f electron configurations, 1037 to better model pressure-volume- syn stereochemistry, 802 trends, 1039 temperature relationships at low T syngas Mixture of H2(g) and CO(g) used to transition state An unstable arrangement and high p, 432, 448 make other compounds, 94, 127, 750 of atoms in which the energy of van’t Hoff factor, 474, 703 synthesis atoms, molecules, or ions in a single vaporization Process by which a liquid carbon compounds, 776 collision is at a maximum, 259, 742, substance changes to the gaseous ammonia from nitrogen, 515 760, 765, 808 state, 161f–165, 177, 204, 437 synthesis gas (syngas) Mixture of H2(g) translation, 1131, 1134Ð1136 molar enthalpy, 227 and CO(g) used to make other transmutation, 1164 vapour pressure Pressure of vapour above compounds, 750, 777–778, 884–885, transuranium elements, 1165 a liquid in a sealed vessel at which 948, 952, 986 triple bond, 395 liquid and vapour are in equilibrium, synthetic chemistry Creating, through a triple point A unique pressure and 437–438, 448, 468–470 designed series of reactions, temperature for each substance, curves, 438f compounds from simpler or more at which liquid, solid, and vapour liquids, temperature dependence, 438 available ones, 10 phases may co-exist in equilibrium, verbenol, 775 system thermodynamics, 223Ð224 442, 443 verbenone, 775 triplet oxygen, 3Ð6 vision, 5 THG (tetrahdrogestrinone), 18 tritium, 30 visualization, 542Ð543, 783Ð784 table of isotopes, 40Ð43 trivial, 790 visualizing energy changes in the reaction taste, 851 troposphere, 101 mechanism, 807 tellurium, 1014 tunable laser spectrometer, 117 VisudyneTM, 3Ð6 temperature (T) A measure of how hot Tyndall effect, 479 vitamins, 1123 something is, which is related to the volatile organic compounds, 668 average kinetic energy of its atoms, understanding reactions by visualizing volatility, 163 molecules, or ions, 99f, 101f, 102, mechanisms, 783 voltaic cell An arrangement that directs 222–223, 245, 462–465, 701–706, unimolecular, 752 the transfer of electrons in a 741–743 unit resolution Mass spectrometry whose spontaneous oxidation-reduction template strand, 1133 level of accuracy is sufficient to reaction from one compartment, termination, 803, 1166 distinguish between particles with m/z through a conductor, to another termolecular, 752 values that differ by 1, 67 compartment, 630–635, 643–648, 660, Tershkikh, Victor, 446 units of unsaturation, 115 699–700 testosterone, 325 universal constants of nature, 36 volume changing, gas-phase reaction mixture, use and detection in sport, 17Ð20 universe thermodynamics, 223Ð224 512Ð513 Thenardite, 145f unpaired electrons, 278 theoretical yield The maximum mass of a unsaturated, 788 Walker, Virginia, 91 product that can be obtained from compounds, 788 Walton, E.T.S, 1164 specified amounts of starting materials, fatty acids, 379 water 143–144, 150 hydrocarbons, 114 arsenic, 1013 thermal unsaturation, units of, 115 boiling point, 163Ð164 equilibrium, 223 uranium change of density, 160 inversion, 706Ð707f -238 radioactive decay series, 1150 chemical reaction, 188Ð200 thermochemistry, 218 isotopes, 1150 chemistry, 157Ð212 thermodynamically spontaneous, 669 crystallization of solid salts, 981 unstable, 669 van der Waals forces. See dispersion forces density change with temperature, thermodynamics, 135, 218, 221Ð222, 684Ð685 valence band, 1080 160, 175 thermophiles, 976 valence bond (VB) model A way of dissolving molecular substance, 182 third law of thermodynamics There is no modelling covalent bonding in which electrostatic, 170f pH disorder in a perfect crystal at 0 K, so it electrons are considered to belong to gas, 986 has zero entropy, 675–676 the atoms from which the molecule is general, 157Ð212 Thompson, Lonnie, 1145Ð1146 formed, although the bonding glass, 1003 three-centre bond, 1000 electrons are shared, 383–397, 408 hard, 994 titration A method of quantitative valence electrons The highest–energy ion mobility, 983 analysis that depends on finding the electrons in an atom, ion, or molecule ionic salts, 178Ð179 volume of a solution that contains the that are presumed to govern the ionization, 532 amount of one of reagent that reacts chemical behaviour of the species, 287, molecule, 170Ð 171, 176f, exactly with a known amount of 291–292, 360, 369–370 phase, 442 another, 573–578, 584 valence shell electron-pair repulsion phase diagram, 442 toluene, 791 (VSEPR) model A model for predicting properties, 160Ð165, 176Ð177 top ten chemicals, 977 the orientation of bonds around an pH scale, 532 total internal reflection, 1086 atom in a molecule or ion by assuming solvent, 178Ð187 town gas, 986 that localized regions of electron Watson-Crick model, 1129Ð1131 trans, see cis-trans isomers matter (bonds and non-bonding pairs) Watson, James, 1129 transcription, 1131, 1133Ð1134 attain the orientation of minimum wave transfer RNA, 1133 repulsion, 377, 408 function, 276 transferases, 1123 Ka values, 536t mechanics, 276

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IG-18 Index/Glossary

' wavenumber (v ) The reciprocal of the weak electrolytes Substances of which X-ray crystallography, 306, 307Ð309 wavelength of radiation expressed only some of the molecules ionize on in cmϪ1, 75 dissolving in water, 204 Zaitsev’s rule Rule stating that E2 wave-particle duality The idea weak-field ligands Ligands that interacts elimination reactions normally yield that electrons have properties only weakly with the d orbitals of the major products with more highly of both particles and waves, metal ion, causing small ligand-field substituted alkene molecules, 879 273–275, 297 splitting, 1064 zeolites, 1005 weak acids Acids that are weak weak polyprotic acids, 530 zero-order reactions, 734fÐ735 electrolytes, 194, 204, 529–530, white phosphorus, 1007 zinc chemistry, 1040Ð1042 535–537, 545–555, 576–577, 889 White powder, 49Ð52 zone refining, 1002 weak bases Bases that are weak Wolfenden, Richard, 761 zwitterion, 559, 1115Ð1116 electrolytes, 195, 204, 530, 545–555, Wolfgang, Pauli, 284 580–581, 889 Wothers, Peter, 779

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