CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE

AGNES DE MILLE'S DANCE IN THE AMERICAN MUSICAL THEATRE AND ITS INFLUENCE ON BROADWAY

A thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in

Theatre Arts

by

Michelle Arlene Burkow

January 1987 The Thesis of Michelle Arlene Burkow is approved:

Paulette Shafranski, PhD

William H. Zucche~ PhD

Noreen C. Barnes, PhD, Chair

California State University, Northridge

ii DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my mother, who always encouraged me to try and achieve any goal I set for myself; and also to my grandfather Aron, who taught me about life and the joy of learning.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to thank the following people:

Dr. Noreen Barnesforher faith and discerning eye; Dr. Paulette Shafranski for her neverending insights into the psyche as they relate to dance and life; Dr. William Zucchero for his knowledge of the little-known facts of American theatre; James Bell for his unselfish giving in regard to the art of acting; Alice Ashford for her love of the dance and amusing anecdotes; Tom Callas and David Cosio for their wonderful explanations on Broadway dance and music; and especially, Mrs. Walter Prude, for having given the world a part of herself expressed through acting and dance artistry.

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

Dedication ...... iii

Acknowlegement ...... iii

Abstract ...... v

Introduction ...... 1

1. De Mille's Early Dance Endeavors .••••••.••.. 5

2. De Mille's "Country" Shows and Their Revivals 13

A. Revivals ...... 24

3. De Mille's Other Post-Oklahoma! Works ..•.•.• 36

4. De Mille's Influence on Other Choreographers and Future Broadway Musicals .••...... •••.. 44

A. Post-de Mille Choreographers and Future Broadway Musicals •.••.••••..•.••.••• o o 48

Conclusion ...... 57

Works Cited ...... 60

iv ABSTRACT

AGNES DE MILLE'S DANCE IN THE AMERICAN MUSICAL THEATRE

AND ITS INFLUENCE ON BROADWAY

by

Michelle Arlene Burkow

Master of Arts in Theatre Arts

In the twentieth century, many forms of dance have graced Broad- way's stages, but none has achieved the prominence of the classical ballet. Agnes de Mille, in March 1943, became the first choreographer to implement balletic technique into a major dance compo~i~ion-ih;~u~h <' --·---··-,·· -·. ,., •• her work in Rodgers and Harnrnerstein's Oklahoma!. This one achievement led to a complete change of expectations for dance endeavors on Broad- way and set a new and higher standard in terms of compositional accom- plishrnent.

The main goal of this thesis is to survey de Mille's achievements in the choreographic art and attempt to explain how these endeavors enriched and changed the terpsichorean splendor of Broadway during the second half of this century. The secondary emphasis of this view of de Mille's contributions is to establish her place within the annals of Broadway history by looking at the musical productions of the

v post-de Mille era and examining her position within the overall scope of the American musical theatre.

The long-range goal of this thesis is to provide a comprehensive survey on the works of one of America's most giving and talented choreographers, Agnes de Mille, who is usually overlooked in the his­ tory of the musical theatre in America, and who gave the United States'

Broadway theatres an unforgettable gift: classical ballet as a driving force for a musical production.

vi r .

Introduction

During the early years of the American musical theatre, spanning from the 1860's to the early 1900's, there were two widely-used forms of dance entertainment: burlesque and tap/softshoe. However, in 1943, through Agnes de Mille's work, ballet became the vogue and the primary dance form on Broadway. In her shows, de Mille was able to integrate classical ballet with native dances, as well as incorporate the dance styles that had previously been seen on Broadway. This thesis will focus on de Mille's use of ballet and other dance forms as a new style in the American musical theatre and its influence on Broadway.

Prior to the beginnings of burlesque and tap/softshoe, the popu- lar theatre consisted of minstrel shows, which incorporated a "hoe- down" dance; and vaudeville, which utilized slapstick, corny jokes, and physical comedy and was one of the mainstays of the unsophisticated theatre through the early years of the twentieth century. Soon after the introduction of minstrel shows, travesties, which were parodies of classical plays, made their debut in New York. These travesties later became known as burlesques or "leg art" shows when women per- forming in them began to display their arms and legs during the Vic- torian era. Mazeppa (1833) and The Black Crook (1866) were two of these skin-revealing shows which achieved prominence.

During the period that the commercial/popular theatre was

1 2

attaining distinction, tap dance was fast becoming an accepted dance form in the Black communities of the South. Eventually, this form of

dance made its way to Broadway and became a staple in vaudeville shows

and all-Black musicals. Tap/softshoe found a niche in Broadway revues

during the 1910's through the 1920's.

By the 1920's tap had become one of the major styles of Broadway

dance. Song and dance men such as George M. Cohan, Ray Bolger and

Fred Astaire were making their presence felt on the Broadway stage with

their tap/softshoe combinations.

At the same time that tap/softshoe was achieving eminence, bur­ lesque was becoming a "dead" art. The "leg art" which had been the drawing card in the late nineteenth century was slowly becoming passe on Broadway because people were beginning to be fascinated with the talented performers and "routines": songs, dances, and jokes inherent in vaudeville shows and dance revues. As tap/softshoe was gaining acceptance, along with vaudeville, the American popular theatre was cultivating a theatre-going audience that embraced the gifts of the trained entertainers of the stage.

With tap and burlesque on New York stages, where does classical ballet fit within the scheme? Ballet had been introduced in the French court in the seventeenth century, but it did not find its way to Broad­ way until the 1920's, and then usually in performance by an individual such as Marilyn Miller.

Miller was the song and dance sweetheart of Broadway from the late

1910's through the 1930's. She was America's darling, an unrivaled ballet dancer on pointe who drew in the multitudes and had the "abso­ lute choice'' of appearing in such shows as The Passing Show of 1915, 3

Rosalie (1928), Sally (1920), Sunny (1925) and As Thousands Cheer

(1933). In other words, she was able to commission or negotiate to dance in a standard revue or new musical. Marilyn Miller's charm was not strictly in her diminutive presence on the stage, but also in her beauty and talent. She was well-known for her incomparable dancing of ballet solos, usually slow adagios or fast allegros surrounded by a

"chorus line" of other female dancers wearing toe shoes. She was the first coryphee in the ballet vein on Broadway to be lauded for the use of classical dance in a musical show. Miller actually legitimized the utilization of ballet for a piece de resistance in the Broadway thea­ tre, thus setting a precedent for Agnes de Mille to stage a full ballet three decades later.

After the advent of ballet on Broadway, choreographers seasoned in this dance style ventured to get a foothold on the Broadway stage.

Albertina Rasch, like Marilyn Miller, was able to make her own arrange­ ments as to which pieces and/or shows she yearned to dance. Doris

Humphrey and Charles Weidman choreographed for Broadway with tempered success with Lysistrata (1930). Martha Graham composed dances for several of Katherine Cornell's plays, but otherwise steered clear of

Broadway. George Balanchine even had some Broadway triumphs with I

Married an Angel (1938) and On Your Toes (1936), both ballet-based musicals.

The one choreographer who probably had the greatest impression upon Agnes de Mille was Jack Cole. He was the first to set down dance pieces with an ethnic/regional manner of dance. He was a student of

"Denishawn" (school of Ruth St. Denis and Ted Shawn), which integrated ballet technique with avant-garde body positions founded on the dances 4

of the Far East and Africa. Cole developed jazz versions of East In­ dian and South American dances. De Mille admired his strength in the use of rhythm and his style of Broadway ballet--one of simplicity with enormous technique: classical training in addition to knee slides and acrobatic falls. (De Mille, America Dances 187) This form is now called "ballet-jazz" and has served as the groundwork for the composi­ tions of Bob Fosse, Michael Kidd and Jerome Robbins.

tJDuring the same period that Cole was establishing himself on

Broadway in the 1930's, de Mille, then a young ballet-trained dancer, was beginning to experiment with her own choreographic skills.

The following will provide a comprehensive survey on the works of one of America's most gifted and overlooked choreographers, Agnes de Mille, then attempt to establish her position in the annals of

Broadway history based on the influence of her choreographic art on future dance composers. The scope of this thesis will include back­ ground on the dance entertainment on Broadway prior to de Mille, her early dance endeavors, her "country" shows and their revivals, her post-Oklahoma! works, her influence on different choreographers and and future Broadway musicals, and a final section on de Mille's place in the history of the American musical theatre. Chapter 1

De Mille's Early Dance Endeavors

Agnes George de Mille was determined to be a dancer despite the odds against her. Her uncle, Cecil B. de Mille, felt that she was not pretty enough for acting in film and her parents, William and Anna, did not want their daughter in a field which, in their minds, was closely aligned with prostitution. Countering her parents' objec­ tions, Agnes danced whenever she could.

Initially, Agnes had wanted to be an actress and she did, in fact, act in several of her father's and uncle's cinematic produc­ tions. However, in 1913, after she saw a dance concert by Adeline

Genee, Agnes declared that she would be a dancer and started to pre­ sent improvised dance pieces for her parents' dinner guests in the family room when she was just eight years old.

In 1914, when Agnes was nine, the de Mille family moved to

Hollywood from New York. Agnes attended the Hollywood School for

Girls where her favorite class was pantomime. In spite of the fact that there were dance classes offered at the school, Agnes' mother still denied her daughter lessons--as a result, Agnes learned Ruth St.

Denis' and Isadora Duncan's dances third-hand by watching other little girls attempt the combinations. (De Mille, Dance to the Piper 17-8)

Although her mother refused to permit Agnes to enroll in dance

5 6

classes, she did not deny her daughter the opportunity to see great dancers. Agnes saw Anna Pavlova, who was past her prime--yet the cele­ brated ballerina still enchanted the girl. Agnes, when not quite thir­ teen, also saw Vaslav Nijinsky and Isadora Duncan, but she had no comprehension of their stature at the time. (DttP 42,49) Agnes later beheld Alicia Markova and Margot Fonteyn--and considered the latter to be greater than Pavlova. (DttP 44)

~Inspired by Pavlova, Agnes, at the age of eight, choreographed her first dance pageant. It took just a week to compose and was presented in the backyard. Agnes performed a polka (in imitation of Pavlova's

Slavic folk dance) followed by other dances along the stylistic lines of Ruth St. Denis and a classic pas de deux on unblocked shoes in the manner of Isadora Duncan. (DttP 47)

In 1918, when Agnes was thirteen, her sister Margaret was diag­ nosed as having fallen arches: the orthopedic specialist prescribed ballet lessons for Margaret as therapy. Since the family practice was to give both of their daughters an equal opportunity to learn and/or study, they were both enrolled in Theodore Kosloff's School of Ballet in Hollywood.

Kosloff had been a member of the Imperial Russian Ballet and accepted the de Mille girls into his school payment-free as a favor to their uncle. Agnes knew the classes were for Margaret, but she con- sidered them to be her own. She was immediately discouraged by her first class because she was too old, overweight, and had weak ankles and a weak back. (DttP 53) Agnes refused to let her own shortcomings stop her--she never sat down in class (she even fainted a few times), but she never gave up. This perseverence became one of her trademarks. 7

After she had been a student of Kosloff's for approximately one year, Agnes finally met Pavlova and, at the age of fourteen, she was enthralled with the prima ballerina. Only three years later, in 1922,

Agnes saw Pavlova perform for the last time and found the choreography to be ''silly and tasteless" because there was a lack of creativity-­

Agnes perceived that what Pavlova was doing was milking the audience with balletic poses. (DttP 76) By the age of seventeen, Agnes de

Mille had developed a critical eye for choreography.

~After Agnes entered UCLA in 1923, she continued to study ballet and performed in a revue during her sophomore year. In 1926, she went to England to study with Marie Rambert, and to dance with RAmbert's

Ballet Club in London. During the 1930's, de Mille also found time to take a break from the stage and teach herself to compose/choreograph.

During the early thirties, she also saw Argentina, a Spanish castanet danseuse of extreme lyricism/musicality with an understated style pre­ sented in continuous gestural design. (DttP 127) Argentina was known for the use of her arms, legs, castanets and swinging skirts moving in an architectural design of composition in relation to the music.

(DttP 127-8)

There was one major outside influence on Agnes de Mille which contributed to her training as a dancer and choreographer. She had an acquaintance by the name of Douglass Montgomery who fostered her ambi­ tions. Montgomery prompted Agnes to work on a new dance style based on pantomime and character sketches. (DttP 105) This bolstering stimulation led to Agnes developing the style which eventually made her famous.

Agnes de Mille's philosophy on the dance would derive from her 8 ,, .

own experiences. From her ballet classes, she learned to never sit down or give up: she persevered despite the odds. Another aspect of her philosophy is that a person must learn everything possible and to use one's own abilities to create. For example, de Mille used to test new dances on herself before presenting the ideas or concepts to her dancers. If she was unable to execute a movement, then she could not expect the company to do it either, and she would re-work the material until it was satisfactory.

Agnes de Mille's all-important philosophic concept is that dan­ cing is a higher medium expression than acting. De Mille was told that she was an actress, but she herself believed that to be an ac­ tress was to be less than a dancer, and this philosophy permeated most of her successful choreographic choices for the Broadway stage and her dance concerts. (DttP 128) De Mille explains further in her book,

America Dances, that her goal was "to introduce a new excellence into the standard of performing, using experts of all techniques and de­ manding acting quality and musicality", thus taking acting into the higher realm of dance.(189)

Agnes de Mille's drive and her philosophy led her to try choreo­ graphing pieces before she set her eyes on composing for Broadway.

Her primary initiation into the choreographic art was a dual-piece composition: Ballet Class and '49, which were both presented in a

1928 dance concert in New York and were de Mille's only significant professional experiences prior to The Black Crook in 1929. Ballet

Class was based on Dega~' impressionistic portraits of dancers pre­ paring for ballet class. '49 was, to de Mille's knowledge, the first piece choreographed that utilized American folk material on the 9

concert stage. (DttP 106) However, according to Jane Sherman in

Denishawn, the first Americana piece seen on a dance stage was Around the Halls of Texas, choreographed by Ted Shawn in 1927. (66) Sherman also feels that Shawn's piece served to influence de Mille's composi­ tions, especially Rodeo and Oklahoma!. (133)

The audience reaction to Ballet Class and '49, which were danced by de Mille and Jacques Carter, was entirely unanticipated: de Mille discovered that she was a comedienne when the audience laughed with her while she was dancing. John Martin of the New York Times called her "undoubtedly one of the brightest stars now rising above our na­ tive horizon." (DttP 118) De Mille continued to give concerts over the ensuing years while preparing for her Broadway adventures of 1929,

1939 and 1941.

The Black Crook, which had been a burlesque entertainment of the nineteenth century, was revived on Broadway in March, 1929. De Mille not only choreographed for The Black Crook, but she also danced in the production, and for this she received rave reviews. John Martin, in his New York Times write-up praised de Mille for her staging of the

"grand ballets," her classical pas de deux, pas de cinq, her pastoral

Germanic "May Day" character dance of the first act, and above all, her ability to present these different vogues of dance without bordering on the burlesque. (New York Times Theatre Reviews, 1929, Mr 17, X:8:1)

On April 7, 1929, J. Brooks Atkinson reinforced Martin's senti­ ments. Atkinson wrote that those who wished to see a burlesque show would be disappointed--the "leg show" was practically nonexistent in the revival. He deemed that de Mille's travesty/burlesque style solos would revive the spirit of the original production and possibly lead 10

to a new style of dance that would replace the current "gymnastic"

(burlesque/revue) trend. De Mille was also commended for her lovely

dancing. (NYTTR, 1929, Ap 7, X:1:1)

The Black Crook was a very successful endeavor for de Mille. She

had begun to make her impression as a choreographer for the legitimate

stage; however, the ineluctable road did not execute the promise of

success.

De Mille took a self-imposed exile after quitting as choreographer

of Flying Colors in 1932 and was replaced by Albertina Rasch. De Mille also spent this hiatus from the Broadway stage developing a friendship with Martha Graham, the grand dame of avant-garde modern dance.

During the next seven years (1932-1939), Agnes de Mille was teaching herself the art of choreography and revising a list of "seven rules for choreographers." This list was actually devised by Robert

Alton, de Mille's successor, who gave them to her after viewing one of her rehearsals--it was his assessment of her method:

1. Begin with something technical and definite. 2. Begin on time. Be prompt. 3. Do not let the chorus sit down. 4. Never let them make a mistake. Do not pass over a fault. Stop them in the middle of a bar if necessary and correct. 5. Polish as you go along. 6. Never seem in doubt. 7. Never let the bosses see anything unfinished. If you have only eight bars to show them, show them this much and no more. If you have not this much, get up yourself and demonstrate. (DttP 239)

These rules became the basis for composing that de Mille utilized be- ginning with Swinging the Dream and concluding with 110 in the Shade.

Swinging the Dream, a musical variation of A Midsummer Night's

Dream, opened on Broadway in November, 1939. This show marked de 11

Mille's return to the Broadway stage and she was called a "dance arran­ ger," not choreographer. There was no "choreographer," just a Mr.

Charell who staged the production. The generic difference between a dance arranger and a choreographer is that a dance arranger is respon­ sible for the look of the dances, which are composed by the choreo­ grapher. However, in 1939, the word "choreographer" was still a novelty--the term was synonymous with "dance arranger." De :Hille arranged jitterbugs for the ensemble, rhythm numbers for Bill Bailey and the rest of the cast. This production was one of the first all­

Black legitimate musical adaptations of Shakespeare to reach Broadway.

Brooks Atkinson, in his review, mentioned Benny Goodman, Butterfly

McQueen and Louis Armstrong; unfortunately, nothing was written about de Mille's contribution to the production. (NYTTR, 1939, N 30, 24:2)

Not quite two years later, in May 1941, Agnes de Mille choreo­ graphed American Legend for the American Actors Company. Brooks

Atkinson commented that de Mille was of great assistance to the show, especially when she was performing character pieces based on rural society (i.e. '49 vein). Her "aquatics-form" dancing (in a piece en­ titled "Clipper Sailing" where de Mille was a sea nymph/mermaid showed great skill, but the highlights were the enchanting country dance which opened the show and the frontier dance at the conclusion. (NYTTR, 1941,

My 12, 13:2)

In these first Broadway shows, Agnes de Mille was trying to dis­ cover where her choreographic talents lay. She composed classical pieces, ethnic pieces, "aquatic-style" pieces and country/frontier style pieces. The latter was to become the basis of the American/ nationaistic style for which de Mille is known, and which comprised the 12

most important element of her contribution to the art of the American musical theatre stage whichcommencedwith Oklahoma! in 1943. This style, with its use of elements of both classical ballet and modern dance, is the essence of Agnes de Mille's influence on the American musical theatre in the twentieth century. Chapter 2

De Mille's "Country" Shows

and Their Revivals

Prior to Oklahoma!, de Mille choreographed two pieces based on a

Midwestern American theme: '49 and Rodeo, composed in 1928 and 1942, respectively. Rodeo was of importance, not only because it was based on Colorado cowboy movements, but because this composition led to de

Mille being chosen as choreographer for Oklahoma!.

Rodeo was danced by Agnes de Mille with an ensemble of American,

British and Russian dancers including Lubov Roudenko, Frederic Franklin,

Casimir Kokitch, Anton Vlosoff, Dorothy Etheridge and Milada Mladova.

Rodeo debuted in October, 1942 and was enthusiastically given twenty­ two curtain calls by the audience on opening night. Unknown to de Mille at the time, Theresa Helburn of the Theatre Guild was sitting in the audience the night of Rodeo's opening and was very impressed with the compositional skills of the choreographer. Helburn wired to de Mille the next day: "We think your work is enchanting. Come talk to us on

Monday." (DttP 306) De Hille had already expressed a desire to compose the dances for the new Americana musical to be produced by the Theatre

Guild. The success of Rodeo secured her the position of dance director for what was to become Oklahoma!.

Agnes de Mille was commissioned by Lawrence Langner and Theresa

13 14

Helburn of the Theatre Guild to choreograph a new musical based on life in the early West with music and lyrics by Richard Rodgers and

Oscar Hammerstein II. The show was as yet untitled, but the score had been written and the book adapted from Lynn Riggs' Green Grow the

Lilacs. Since de Mille would not compose without the music being available, she was pleased and ready to begin work when she had access to a pianist and the score after hearing it played by the composers.

It had been her practice in the past to compose only if the melodies were procurable and this mode of operation continued during her Broad­ way career. De Mille's general reaction to the score was positive; however, she recommended that "People Will Say We're in Love" be dropped from the production--she never explained her reason for suggesting the omission of this song from the show.

After her introduction to the score of the yet unnamed Oklahoma!, de Mille brought in three of her dancers: Joan McCracken, Bambi Linn and Diana Adams. The director, Rouben Mamoulian, disagreed with de

Hille's "ballet girl" choices and made it extremely difficult for her to pursue her livelihood: he wanted her and her dancers out of his way while he was working. De Hille was able to keep her dancers, but as a result, there was a hostile relationship between director and choreographer.

De Hille began to rehearse the dancers according to the rules that had been set forth by Robert Alton for her to follow. She knew she had to compose dances to fit the storyline, preserve character, match period atmosphere, style, and make transitions a fine art.

(DttP 317) To accomplish this, de Hille went back to her compositional technique. First, she visualized the dances in terms of color and 15

and costumes of the characters. Next, she tried to find a gestural

style suitable to the piece being choreographed. At this point, the

general scenario was completed and the dance pattern ideas could be

set down in notation. (DttP 309-10) De Mille also states, in Dance to the Piper, that everything she ever learned about composition carne

from her knowledge of folk dances. (311)

After the homework was completed, she was ready to enter the re­ hearsal hall and start composing. She used suggestions from the dan­ cers for gestures and dance movements and then experimented with the ideas on her test dancers. All the dances for the show initially known as Away We Go were set within two weeks, including the ballet.

By the time it hit Broadway, the show had been renamed Oklahoma!.

Oklahoma! opened on Broadway on March 31, 1943 at the St. James

Theatre. The musical opened witha slow melodic song "Oh, What a Beau­ tiful Morning," followed with the tap/softshoe/ragtirne "Kansas City" and the first act ended with the "Laurey Makes Up Her Mind" dream ballet. The second act included the Rodeo-inspired "The Farmer and the Cowman" dance composition and closed with the rousing theme song

"Oklahoma!." The opening night audience was in shock--their initial reaction was complete silence, followed by an outburst of tumultuous applause. The silence occurred because the members of the audience were not quite sure how to accept and judge this musical which was different from what they had come to expect of the Broadway stage.

Musicals prior to Oklahoma! had opened with "chorus line"-style num­ bers and the format had consisted of a scene followed by a song and then to a different scene. A Broadway show had never opened with a slow song without dance accompaniment before "Oh, What a Beautiful 16

Morning." American musicals, in the audiences' mind, were supposed to consist of show-stopping songs and dances apart from the context of the musical--not part of the storyline. Oklahoma! marks a departure from this concept. De Mille's dance compositions were an integral part of the musical - they moved the storyline along - an innovation that American theatregoers had never seen previously.

The critics of the opening night performance seemed to be able to pinpoint the unique aspects of the show. Lewis Nichols wrote that de

Mille's most inspired dances point up the sly humor of the show and that there was "more comedy in one of her gay little passages than in many of the other tom-tom beats together." (NYTIR, 1943, Ap 1, 27:1)

In a later article, Nichols drew the parallel between Rodeo and the dream ballet. (NYTTR, 1943, Ap 11, II:1:1)

John Martin,who had earlier reviewed '49, wrote about the impact of de Mille's dances in Oklahoma!. He pointed out the finish and sen­ sitivity of her dances and was quick to mention that.her long ballet

"Laurey Makes Up Her Mind" which closed Act I was an advancement over her previous works. He presented an argument that the ballet was the first time she had created a totally objective work; usually de Mille choreographed with herself in mind, so that the other dancers looked like imitations of her. (NYTTR, 1943, My 9, II:6:4)

The most important dance in Oklahoma! was, of course, the dream ballet "Laurey Makes Up Her Mind," at the end of the Act I song "Out of My Dreams." The significance of this piece is that it marked a change from the dances of the past: there was no tap, musical extra­ vaganza, or vaudeville dance incorporated into it. Instead, de Mille used ballet with a modern influence for Curly and Laurey (the ''good 17 guys") and burlesque/ can-can style for Jud and "his girls" (the "bad guys"). As a result, the dance becomes a dichotomy of good and evil from which Laurey needed to decide which path to explore. She needed to weigh the possible consequences of attending the social with either

Curly or Jud and then make a conscientious decision which plan of action was right for her. The arabesque lifts and ethereal quality of the

Laurey-Curly relationship was in complete contrast to the violent woman- handling and bumps and grinds of Jud and "his girls." It was through the distinct dance qualities of these two groups that de Mille showed how differing dance styles could be integrated to move along the story- line and yet be consistent in quality, texture and presentation.

Following is a description of "The Ballet:"

In the fading light Curly appears at the other side of the clearing. He stands for a moment looking across at Laurey. She has risen and is facing him. Then out of the mist Curly's ballet counterpart comes and stands beside him, and Laurey's ballet counterpart is standing beside her. These are figures fading into Laurey's dream. Now the real Curly and the real Laurey back away into the grove and their ballet counterparts move toward each other and into an embrace. They are dancing ecstatically when a young girl appears, sees them and rushes off to spread the news. Soon a crowd of boys and girls have danced into the scene. Two of Curly's cowboy friends stroll in and attract his attention. He kisses Laurey and follows them. Now the little girl has brought Laurey a nosegay and broken into tears as she presents it. A bridal veil comes floating down from the skies and groups of girl friends dance on to kiss Laurey and help her arrange the veil. Now Curly takes his place and awaits his bride, as she marches down an aisle the girls have formed. But now the ballet counterpart of Jud walks in and grabs the veil from Laurey's head. When she looks up, expecting to see Curly, it is Jud who is staring down at her. Horrified she backs away. Her friends and Curly, too, their faces set and hard, walk away from her. She is alone with Jud. Jud starts to dance with Laurey, but his attention is soon diverted by the appearance of three dance hall girls who look very much like the Police Gazette pictures on the walls of the smokehouse. A few of the cowboys stroll in and whistle at the girls, who have broken into an amusing and satirically 18

bawdy dance. When the Police Gazette girls have danced away Laurey and Jud are again alone. Curly comes back. The long-awaited conflict with Jud is now unavoidable. Curly, his hand holding an imaginary pistol, fires at Jud again and again, but Jud keeps advancing slowly upon him, immune to bullets. Jud lifts Curly in the air and throws him to the ground. A fierce fight ensues. The friends of Laurey and Curly run helplessly from one side to the other. Just when the tables seem to have turned in Curly's favor Jud gets a death grip on his throat! He is killing Curly! Laurey runs up to him and begs hin to release her lover! It is clear by her pantomime that she will give herself to Jud to save Curly. Jud drops Curly's limp body, picks up Laurey and carries her away. Over Jud's shoulder she blows a feeble, heart-broken kiss to Curly's prostrate from on the ground. The crowd surrounds Curly and carries him off in the dark. Now the lights are up again. The real Jud is shaking the real Laurey out of her dream. (Mantle, Best Plays of 1942-43, 397-8)

Martin also noted that de Mille's choreography was entirely void of "routines"--instead, de Mille composed for her dancers' abilities, thusly giving the dancers' characters a sense of persona rather than of automated robotics. (NYTTR, 1943, My 9, 11:6:4) De Mille also em- ployed this natural approach with the other dances in Oklahoma!, using tap, folk and western dance in various musical numbers in the show.

"Kansas City" was the first song in Oklahoma! with an American- style composition. The character of Will Parker, through a mixture of tap dance, softshoe, clogging, western-style dance, jazz, and modernized ballet delivers a soliloquy on what new innovations he experienced in

Kansas City, Missouri. The significance of this compositional dance is that is thoroughly integrated the American style of Western clogging

(also known as "Cowboy-type" tap dance) with the technique of classical ballet: the emphasis on second position echappes and various pas de bourrees (from the ballet), and time steps, "two-steps," buffalos, shuffles, and flaps (from tap dance/softshoe/clogging). The two were 19 integrated so well that it was literally impossible to separate the ballet from the western tap.

The first truly comedic piece in the show was "I Can't Say No," the song by the earthy and addled Ado Annie. The choreography was down-to-earth and very innocently comedic to fit her character. There were no wild dance steps, just a comic walk with a few gestural innu­ endos.

"Many a New Day" relied on a simple ballet with gestures: echappes, fouettes, sissonnes, balances, poses, and quiet changements.

The simplicity was in the style; the dancing did not look like tradi­ tional classical ballet--it looked natural.

Two other dances in Oklahoma! also made contributions to the dance of the American musical theatre: "The Farmer and the Cowman" and the title song "Oklahoma!." "The Farmer and the Cowman," as de Mille stated in an interview on 60 Minutes, used compositions based on five steps of Western dance: a heel down, a side-to-side shuffle, a horse­ riding position (leaned-back front attitude), a two-step, and a hoe­ down style. She adapted these steps in various combinations to achieve the unified dance structure for this particular piece. The dance style for "The Farmer and the Cowman" is very similar to the choreography de

Mille had utilized previously in Rodeo and '49.

The finale song "Oklahoma!" also had a part in advancing dance in the American musical theatre. Instead of a standard "chorus line" or major showpiece to end the production, de Mille re-integrated the various styles of dance from the show to create a unified composition of ballet, modern, and western dance complete with gestures and shoul­ der lifts and a rousing choreographed shout of "Oklahoma!" to bring 20

down the house.

The impact of Oklahoma! and its dancing was felt immediately on

Broadway: Agnes de Mille had set a new professional standard for inte­

gration of choreographic composition in the musical theatre and, as a

result, many choreographers for the Broadway stage attempted to imitate

the de Mille style. At the same time others were trying to incorporate

de Mille's techniques, she was attempting to duplicate the success of

Oklahoma! with subsequent Broadway shows capitalizing on her "American"

style.

Oklahoma! was the first of de Mille's "country" shows--musicals

whose main characters were average people in rural areas full of dis­

tinctly native pride and spirit. Other de Mille shows in this vein

include Carousel, Brigadoon, and Paint Your Wagon.

Carousel was the second "country" show choreographed by Agnes de

Mille and composed musically by Rodgers and Hammerstein. The musical

was based on Molnar's Liliom, and set on the New England coast at the

turn of the century. The theme of the production was somber in con­

trast to Oklahoma! and de Mille's dances reflected the stillness and

quietness of the waltz music that permeated Carousel.

There were two main dance pieces choreographed by de Mille: a

light and gay hornpipe (very reflective of New England seacoast life)

and a ballet seen from heaven by Billy Bigelow while the townspeople

sing "You'll Never Walk Alone" to his daughter. As in Oklahoma!, the

dances of Carousel were integrated into the story of the play and not

separate from it. In Carousel, Agnes de Mille also put speech into

some of the dances such as "This Was a Real Nice Clambake" and the

"Carousel Waltz." Characters spoke while they danced, just as they 21 [l • would do naturally. (De Mille, And Promenade Home 239)

Carousel opened in April, 1945, just two years after the opening of Oklahoma!. When Carousel opened on Broadway, its predecessor was

playing right across the street, minus Bambi Linn, who had joined the

Carousel company. Linn was one of de Mille's choice dancers and she received recognition for her work as Aggie in Oklahoma! and Louise in Carousel. The overall reaction to Carousel and de Mille's delight­ ful work was that it was as impressive as the previously seen compo­ sitions of Oklahoma!. The production of Carousel continued to alter the traditional model of the Broadway musical. It was neither a show of lighthearted dance nor loosely connected musical numbers; it had a low-key theme and dances which reflected this mood.

The third "country" show of the series was Brigadoon, which reached Broadway in March, 1947. Brigadoon was the whimsical tale of a Scottish town which emerged out of the mist for only one day every hundred years. It marked the first time de Mille worked with compo­ sers Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe and also the first time she choreographed a Broadway show with a non-American, yet nationalistic form of dance. Once again, her dance compositions were considered to be an outstanding element of the production.

Agnes de Mille was able to take the music of Lerner and Loewe and choreograph appropriate dance pieces to fulfill the demands called upon by the score. She used Scottish highland and lowland flings for the Scottish characters, technical ballet pieces for the romantic situations, fiery ballet dances with a Scottish flavor for dramatic intrigue, and Isadora Duncan-style pieces for the young lassies: each had its place in Brigadoon. 22

Each dance in Brigadoon can be seen as a creation with its own native flavor. The highland and lowland flings seen in "I'll Go Home

With Bonnie Jean" and the wedding sequence dance were adapted by de

Mille to fit the individual characters dancing in the two pieces.

"Come to Me, Bend to Me," which is essentially a marriage proposal be­ tween Tommy and Fiona was presented as a highly technical ballet with gestures, strong line and composition. "The Heather on the Hill" was presented in almost the same manner for romantic effect. "The Sword

Dance" with its exquisite exercise in swordsmanship and "The Chase" give the ballet danseur the opportunity to show off his virtuosity and raise the psychologically dramatic levels that drive the storyline to its logical denouement. The same comic style that de Mille used for

Ado Annie in Oklahoma! was again utilized for the character of Meg

Brockie in Brigadoon in such songs as "The Real Love of My Life" and

"Mother's Wedding Day." As before, the dance compositions fit the dis­ positions of the assorted characters.

The fourth and final "country" show was Paint Your Wagon which opened on Broadway in November, 1951. It was the second Lerner and

Loewe musical that de Mille choreographed and she received exalted re­ cognition for her endeavors. However, the critics were not as recep­ tive or overwhelmed by the dance compositions as they had been with

Oklahoma!, Carousel and Brigadoon. Drama critic of the New York Times,

Brooks Atkinson, wrote in his review of November 13, 1951 that "Agnes de Mille has composed the ballets with plenty of gaiety. They range from rowdy barroom festivity to the exquisite numbers danced by Gemze de Lappe and James Mitchell; and as a matter of fact, there is more dancing in the middle of the show than you actually need. Paint Your 23

Wagon has taken the philosophy of abundance a little too literally."

(NYTTR, 1951, N 13, 32:3)

It seems that Atkinson believed that de Mille had taken her vogue

of ballet dance and infused the majority of the composition into the

center of the musical, rather than dispersing the choreography through­

out the show, which had been her previous practice. This led to the

impression that the storyline was broken by an overabundance of dance

in sections of the production when plot development should have been

most important. This is a problem that seemed to be inherent in the

script which was not strong enough to support de Mille's compositions.

Not quite a week later, Atkinson revised his initial review of

Paint Your Wagon and de Mille's choreography. He notes in his second

critical analysis that "she has an extraordinary enthusiasm for period

ballet, but since she has a sense of humor she is not pedantic about

it ..•• Her ballets tend to overweigh Paint Your Wagon, but as ballets

they are superb; they communicate the roistering and rpmantic tones of

the production .•.• They are genuinely creative and wonderful theatre."

(NYTTR, 1951, N 18, 11:1:1)

The primary importance of de Mille's contributions to the American

musical theatre can be seen in the four "country" shows for which she

composed dances between 1943 and 1951. The compositions Agnes de Mille

introduced had a basis in classical ballet and it is this major inno­

vation that marks her importance in the history of Broadway. As a re­

sult of her ballet-style endeavors which began in Oklahoma!'s "Laurey

Makes Up Her Mind" dream ballet, she encouraged a new vogue in dance which set the standard for Broadway musicals of the future.

Another important facet of Agnes de ~1ille's dance compositions is 24 in the level of characterization achieved through the dances. Each piece was choreographed with a specific persona in mind and each was developed thoroughly without forsaking the technical integrity which was to become one of de Mille's trademarks. For example, the dances designed for Ado Annie in Oklahoma! could never be used for Laurey because each dance was created to enhance the physicality of the char­ acter for whom each dance was formulated.

Above all, the choreography set down by Agnes de Mille in her

"country" shows established an example of what heights could be accom­ plished on the Broadway stage. None of the dances were routines, chorus lines or novelty acts. What was presented was dance: unpre­ dictable, exciting, gay, energetic, enticing, and most important: "re­ gional"--no matter where the musical was set: Oklahoma, New England,

Scotland or California. Each of the dances was designed to reflect the spirit of the people of the individual geographic locations with­ out being overly theatrical.

Revivals

Three of de Mille's ''country" shows were so popular with theatre­ goers that they have been revived professionally numerous times in order to give younger generations a chance to see them in all their splendor. The oft-revived "country" shows are Oklahoma!, Carousel and

Brigadoon.

Oklahoma! was given its first national touring company in 1943 and it toured the country for eight years before it returned to New

York and the Broadway Theatre in May, 1951. By this time, Oklahoma! had become a classic of the Broadway stage and the show was welcomed back as a fresh theatrical production full of vitality in the 25

characterizations, storyline, songs and, of course, dances. The moun­ ted production was hailed as being beautifully simple and Brooks

Atkinson critiqued the engagement as if he had just viewed a brand-new musical. He gave rave reviews to the production staff of Rodgers,

Hammerstein, Mamoulian, and de Mille and complimented the cast for preserving the "lyrical innocence of a theatre work that we all have great affection for." (NYTTR, 1951, My 30, 15:2) Atkinson also commended de Mille and Mamoulian for giving the show performance abili­ ty to go with "such effortless grace and good humor." (NYTTR, 1951,

My 30, 15:2)

The first revival of Oklahoma! was presented in New York at the

City Center as part of Rodgers and Hammerstein Week in September, 1953.

In comparison to the original of a decade before, this show was con­ sidered to be fairly lacking in all areas of production. The major complaint with the choreography was that de Mille's compositions had been duplicated by Jerome Whyte and Betty Gaur, and, as a result, the dances suffered. Atkinson was the first to point out that de Mille's masterpiece--the "nightmare ballet," as he called it, "was danced sloppily •••• There cannot be a full-textured Oklahoma! without some very skilled dancing ••.. De Mille made a contribution to the Rodgers and Hamrnerstein material that enriched it and cannot be secondary now."

(NYTTR, 1953, S 1, 19:1) In short, Atkinson was stating that de

Mille's dance compositions were an integral part of Oklahoma! and should be given equal time and direction before being presented on the stage.

A week later, Atkinson was brutally honest about the re-creations of de Mille's dances and the dancers performing in the compositions.

------~-~------26

He felt that the dancing fell woefully short of perfection and that

the peddlar's dancing had "degenerated into random clowning." (NYTTR,

1953, S 16, II:1:1) In conclusion, as a complement to de Mille, At­

kinson lashed out at the revival staff and suggested that restaging by

secondary sources was not in the best interest for Oklahoma!, and that

the freshness needed to be preserved in order to keep this musical as

an important contribution of the American stage.

In June, 1955, the perennial show found its way to the Theatre

Champs-Elysees in Paris as part of a "Salute to France" program. This

production starred two of America's brightest young actors as Curly

and Laurey: Jack Cassidy and Shirley Jones. The show, and especially

de Mille's lively dances, were very well received by the French people.

The biggest applause was heard for one of de Mille's largest dance

compositions: the title song "Oklahoma!" which closed the show.

Arthur 0. Sulzberger observed that "musical plays of the Oklahoma!

type are almost unknown in France, and judging from the audience re­

action, they have been missed." (NYTTR, 1955,Je 21, 37:7)

The French people's acceptance of Oklahoma! opened the door for

other American musicals of this caliber to be presented in France due

to the encouragement and willingness of the French government to have

a cultural exchange with the United States. This exchange allowed

for a development and appreciation of the American musical theatre

style established by Rodgers, Hammerstein and de Mille--to many the

epitome of perfection.

., Oklahoma! was reborn again on Broadway at the City Center in March, 1958 with de Mille's dances staged by Gemze de Lappe. She was

faithful to de Mille's compositions and gave them back the freshness 27 which had been lost in earlier revivals. De Lappe even took it upon herself to dance the ballet-based compositions to show the grace, ele­ gance and beauty Agnes de Hille had originally created.

The February, 1963 revival of Oklahoma! saw de Mille stage the dances, with Gemze de Lappe as her assistant. As stated in a previous review in the New York Times, dated Septembe~ 1, 1953, the dances were of secondary importance in relation to the score. Once again, the production staff did not do the show justice in staging the musical pieces within the play.

Three months later, in May, 1963, the show re-opened at the City

Center after some minor changes had been made. De Mille re-created her original compositions, this time assisted by Mavis Ray. Louis

Calta remarked that the show was able to stand up in score, acting and dancing after a span of more than twenty years. He maintained that de Mille's choreography was untouched and untainted by the test of time. (NYTTR, 1963, My 16, 40:1)

Oklahoma! 's next notable revival was in December, 1965 at the

City Center. This show was reviewed by Louis Calta who called it

"bouncy and animated." Gemze de Lappe was praised for her restaging of de Mille's compositions under the latter's supervision. The dances were described as "zestful and airy and especially delightful was the ballet danced to the song "Many a New Day," which had the delicate quality of fine porcelain." (NYTTR, 1965, D 16, 62:1)

The next resurrection of Oklahoma! on Broadway was in July, 1969 and its critique focused on de Mille's dances. Following is an ana­ lysis of her style:

Agnes de Mille's dances, perhaps the richest, highest- 28

riding, most caressing dances ever done for a Broadway mu­ sical, are out of mind from revival to revival. We think we remember them; but we have them all mixed up with the dozens of imitations that came after. A general style lingers as an echo, but not the precise surprise, the shocking grace, of a girl bunched on the ground only to be scooped high in air, still bunched, of hands dappling the air as they trail the body. The dances are not everything they once were, but de Mille has been fortunate in having Gemze de Lappe to re­ member for her on this occasion: de Lappe was one of the loveliest lead dancers de Mille ever gave us, and the love­ liness lingers in the sweetness and the shining aspect with which she has restaged the numbers here. (NYTTR, 1969, Jl 6 II:l:l)

This in-depth look at the beautiful lyricism of de Mille's dances made it almost a certainty that remembrances of their attractiveness would not be forgotten.

The most recent resurgence of Oklahoma! took place in 1979 at the

Palace Theatre and the show was eagerly received by the critics. De

Lappe restaged the dances under de Mille's supervision and the compo- sitions were again welcomed as fresh works that would enrapture a new generation of theatregoers. Here is a collection of ~xcerpts from various New York reviews:

And the dances, bless us, have been refashioned by Agnes de Mille in person--with the assistance of the unforgettable Gemze de Lappe--which means that when a girl runs in abrupt, tiptoe steps to place her head submissively against a male chest, then extends one leg to begin a twirl to the floor and a breathtaking lift to the man's shoulder, the whole mysterious sequence becomes surprising again. We know it by heart, perhaps, but where better? An unerring aim sends it straight home. (Walter Kerr, New York Times, 1979 December)

But in a way what was more important, and what made Okla­ homa! such a landmark in the musical theatre, was its new homogenity, its specific blend of music, drama, and dance, and its new seriousness. Some of this was at least foresha­ dowed in Rodgers and Hart's controversial Pal Joey, and Okla­ homa! was the breakthrough. Curiously enough when the show was new in 1943 the critics of the time liked it well enough but had little idea of its implications or revolutionary spirit. Stark Young, for 29

example, wrote "reminds us at times of a good college show ••• " and when Oklahoma! made it to London four years later, although the reviews were more enthusiastic, the then senior reviewer, James Agate, was still able to sum it up as: "Bouquet, yes. Body, no." •... Agnes de Mille's choreo­ graphy has been recreated by Gemze de Lappe, and de Mille herself has personally supervised the entire show. This is totally appropriate, for de Mille's contribution to the musical's entire fabric was, and is, essential. The curious thing is that the long ballet sequence, that special dream ballet "laurey Makes Up Her Mind," is the one part of the musical that seems dated. The rest of the dancing, beautifully melded into the production is exemplary and was, in its time, trail blazing. (Clive Barnes, New York Post, 1979 December 14)

Revisiting Oklahoma! increases the admiration for de Mille's enormous composition--not only for the high jinks of fun and games and the dramatic ballets but for choreographic grace notes by fine dancers. They are the essential ele­ ments of an innovative musical that has become dated, but a period classic. the lilacs grow green in Oklahoma!. (John Beaufort, Christian Science Monitor, 1979 December 18)

The current revival is a buoyant and winning show, even if it lacks a certin inner resonance and depth. Oklahoma! is remembered as the revolutionary 1943 show that broke the mold of the old musicals, thanks in good part to Agnes de Mille's choreography, which raised the "folk" behavior of the characters to the dimensions of ballet. But it's the first-act ballet in which Laurey dreams that the malign bad man, Jud, kills her sweetheart Curly and carries her off, that now seems dated . ..•• Still outstanding are her tap-ragtime numbers danced with vaulting gusto by Harry Groener to "Kansas City." And the ballets for the girls danced to the melting "Many a New Day" and the beautiful waltz, "Out of My Dreams" are still velvety and enchanting as they limn the coquetry of Laurey and her friends. (Jack Kroll, Newsweek, 1979 December 24)

Even with encouraging notices, the high cost of production and sky- rocketing ticket prices closed the show before it had the chance to become a revitalized hit.

Carousel also had a lucrative production history of revivals be- ginning in January, 1949 at the New York City Center; but in this in- stance there was no recognition of de Mille's achievements other than

"dances by Agnes de Mille" in the New York Times criticism of the 30

return engagement.

The June, 1950 London premiere of Carousel at the Theatre Royal

at Drury Lane won accolades for de Mille. Bambi Linn's ballet dancing

in Act II stopped the show. The Daily Mail stated that "the poetic motion of the dancing (Agnes de Mille's magic touch again) cannot be

too highly praised." (NYTTR, 1950, Je 8, 37:2) Generally, the London

critics felt that the plotline was secondary to the music and dancing.

In June, 1954, Carousel returned to Broadway and the City Center with Robert Pagent restaging de Mille's choreography. Brooks Atkinson

felt that Pagent's compositions were a little mannered after an inter­ val of nine years and that de Mille would probably have fresher ideas

for this particular staging. (NYTTR, 1954, Je 3, 32:2) The reason the

dances may have seemed contrived is that Pagent did not create the

dances under the supervision of de Mille, instead, he restaged them on his own accord.

By the introduction of the September, 1957 version of Carousel

starring Howard Keel and choreographed by Robert Pagent at the City

Center, under the watchful eye of Agnes de Mille, the dancing had once more achieved notice on the Broadway stage. De Mille's hornpipe

ballet, which was lyrical, entertaining and fast-paced was described as being a "sheet of music dancing" because it brought the music to life. (NYTTR, 1957, S 12, 38:2) Atkinson did not comment on the rest of the dancing, but he did give commendations to the actors whose characters dance within the context of Carousel.

The show saw light once more in August, 1965 at the New York State

Theatre with de Mille recreating the dances assisted by Gemze de Lappe.

John Canaday, the reviewer for the New York Times, observed that the ~-~-~-- ~~--~- -·~------~ ------·- ---'------·---·---

31 compositions from the 1965 production were still sensational over twenty-two years after de Mille had introduced her "Americanization" of ballet into musical theatre. He stated that the ballet in Carousel that was presented in 1965 looked "dated." (NYTTR, 1965, Ag 11, 39:1)

The more accurate word to use would be "historical" because the dance and performance were of expert quality.

Carousel's most recent New York production was in December, 1966 at the City Center, with de Lappe restaging de Mille's dances. Dan

Sullivan reviewed the show and his only comment was that the dance pieces were fine--nothing spectacular. (NYTTR, 1966, D 16, 58:2)

It is surprising that the show that is considered to be Rodgers and Hammerstein's musical masterpiece has not been seen on Broadway since 1966. The tunes are lovely, the dances gorgeous, the theme universal and yet, the play is not mounted. Without Carousel being re-introduced to the theatregoing community, there is an inevitability that a complete generation will reach adulthood without having the opportunity to view a "waltz" classic during their lifetime.

The last of the oft-revived de Mille "country" shows is Brigadoon.

It has been on the Great White Way eight times since 1947 and is also a staple musical for colleges and community theatres alike. Brigadoon has seen renewed life on Broadway during the seasons of 1950, 1957,

1962, 1963, 1964, 1967, 1980 and, most recently, 1986.

In May, 1950, the show returned to New York and the City Center for a three-week engagement and Brooks Atkinson finally made an un­ equivocable declaration!: it was de Mille's dances that were the pulse and livelihood of the show. Atkinson wrote that "her ballets in this show go deeper into the foundations of the whole work than any of the 32

others she has composed for Broadway ..•• The show does not really get its feet on the stage until the fiercely patterned sword dance con­ cludes the wedding scene." (NYTTR, 1950, My 3, 36:2) He also proclaims in the same article that the most overwhelming scene is the death dance in the glen to the wailing notes of the bagpipe. In the review's con­ clusion, Atkinson notes that de Mille's ballets were the real source of distinction which made Brigadoon a classic musical. In the past, ballets had been very neatly blended with music and book (i.e. Okla­ homa!), but the ballet was the heart of the sorcery in Brigadoon. De

Mille had shown it more dramatically that either Lerner or Loewe with their libretto and score.

Brigadoon reappeared on Broadway in March, 1957 for an engagement of two weeks. James Jamieson restaged de Mille's dances relatively well with kudos going to Matt Mattox for his first-rate interpretation of the sword dance. Jamieson also assisted de Mille in the May, 1962 version of the show. As before, the three ballets: the sword dance, funeral dance, and wedding dance were applauded; as was Edward

Villella, the ballet danseur playing Harry Beaton, who nearly stopped the show with his phenomenal power in executing breathtaking pas de chats, grand jetes, sissonnes, cabrioles, and changements en tournant.

(NYTTR, 1962, My 31, 21:4)

The same cast and production staff who were involved in the May,

1962 Brigadoon were responsible for the return engagement at the City

Center in February, 1963. Howard Taubman, critic for the New York

Times, wrote that de Mille's dances were fresh and played a vital part in sustaining the fragile quality of fable that must permeate Briga­ doon. Once more, Villella was praised for his bravura performance as 33

Harry Beaton. (NYTTR, 1963, F 1, 6:2)

Brigadoon was mounted on Broadway once again in December, 1964 at the City Center with de Mille herself recreating the dances assisted by James Jamieson. The sword dance and chase received plaudits as did

Villella for his execution of de Mille's dance technique. (NYTTR, 1964,

D 24, 9:1) Three years later, in December, 1967, Villella played

Harry Beaton in another revival choreographed by de Mille and restaged by Gemze de Lappe and Dennis Cole at the City Center. Clive Barnes, a critic who was seeing Brigadoon for the first time, wrote that one of the most interesting aspects of the show was in the emphasis placed on de Mille's dances. (NYTTR, 1967, D 14, 59:2)

In 1980, Brigadoon was given a renewed chance at life on Broadway at the choreographic hands of James Jamieson under de Mille's super- vision. New York critics felt that the production was animated and energetic, yet it lacked de Mille's finesse. Following are a sampling of the critiques:

Of course, in more than any other musical before West Side Story, the dancing is of prime importance in Brigadoon. In­ deed, the villain of the piece, the frustrated Harry Beaton, is simply a dancing role with a few lines of dialogue. This was here played by John Curry, the Olympic gold medalist skater, making his Broadway debut, without his skates. He showed considerable romantic presence, danced crisply, and gave the famous Chase scene, where the villagers are trying to prevent him from reaching the outside world, a haunted, hunted despair. (New York Post, 1980 October 27)

The strength of Brigadoon is in its songs and dances. Lerner and Loewe struck a rich melodic vein in voices as throated cast mines every time one of Agnes de Mille's dances and ceremonies that might be carved in bas-relief on the stone temples. Two stando~ts: the Sword Dance, done with steely balletic precision by John Curry of ice-skating fame, and the Funeral Dance, performed with melancholy fury by Marina Eglevsky to a dirge of bagpipes. (T.E. Kalem, Time, 1980 October 27) - -~--~~----~- __ :.. _____ --~-~-:..------~ -~------

34

De Mille's contribution to the show cannot be underesti­ mated. Her dances, here recreated by James Jamieson, make gestures in the direction of the Highlands, but their sty­ lized simplicity have the grace of classic American folk art. Like her choreography of Rodeo and Oklahoma! the ballets of Brigadoon are not as innocent than one at first assumes since de Mille has a way of tempering even the most romantic visions with a sense of explicit Freudianism. (Frank Rich, New York Times, 1980 October 17)

Most of the critics felt that the choreography fulfilled the needs of

the show, but the spark that characterized de Mille's original campo-

sitions was wanting.

The most recent rendition of Brigadoon on Broadway took place in

March of 1986. Agnes de Mille's dances were re-done by James Jamieson

and some reviewers made inferences about this version presented under

the auspices of the New York City Opera as an inaugural for the spring

season. Here are excerpts from a few of the reviews:

Like its model (Oklahoma!), Brigadoon has a winning freshness of spirit. It also has the imaginative choreo­ graphy of Agnes de Mille, her dances here recreated by her original Brigadoon assistant, James Jamieson. Oddly, and despite their graceful performances with Camille Ross and Tinka Gutrick as the principal soloists, they seem unduly protracted at times--perhaps through overfamiliarity with the de Mille style. Still, the "Sword Dance" still pro­ vides a striking first-act finale. (Douglas Watt, Daily News, 1986 March 3)

To achieve its total effect, however, the show depends on de Mille's choreography (here recreated by James Jamieson). Brigadoon celebrates movement, whether in the charming fe­ male ensembles, in such striking specialities as the sword dance (featuring electric Luis Perez) and the funeral dance by Tinka Gutrick, or in the tense excitement of the second­ act chase. (John Beaufort, Christian Science Monitor, 1986 March 6)

The impact of the revivals of Oklahoma!, Carousel and Brigadoon

were not as significant as the original productions. However, they

fortunately gave critics the opportunity to re-evaluate de Mille's

dance compositions and to assess how they were integrated into their 35 ~ '

respective musicals. The revivals also allowed newer generations to experience three of the greatest musicals of the last fifty years.

It is unfortunate that the fourth de Mille "country" show, Paint

Your Wagon, has never had a major professional revival. This could possibly be attributed to a lacklustre and uninspired story or perhaps the problems of re-creating Agnes de Mille's dances without overpower­ ing the script and/or score. Paint Your Wagon may also have never been revived because the initial production was not as successful a commercial endeavor as Oklahoma!, Carousel or Brigadoon and oftentimes the premiere presentation of a musical determines whether a show will be considered for renewed life on Broadway. Hopefully, more of de

Mille's shows such as Paint Your Wagon will be restaged in order to preserve the legacy of her heightened awareness in terms of choreo­ graphy; although the productions were not lauded when originally pre­ sented. Chapter 3

De Mille's Other Post-Oklahoma! Works

In addition to the four "country" shows which have a significance in the American musical theatre, Agnes de Mille created dances for several other Broadway shows which have their own place in New York's history. Each of the musicals which will be briefly discussed in this section was composed after Oklahoma! and will be analyzed in terms of its own contribution whether the show itself was a critical success or failure.

The first of these productions was One Touch of Venus, which de­ buted on Broadway at the Imperial Theatre in October, 1943, just six months after the opening of Oklahoma!. In creating the dances for One

Touch of Venus, de Mille had to deal with two elements she did not have to contend with while choreographing Oklahoma!: that of being a "suc­ cessful" choreographer and that of a ballet that never seemed to work.

De Hille's success gave her the determination to keep revising the troublesome ballet instead of giving up and trying to deal with fail­ ure and an attitude of self-pity. There were five revisions of the ballet, which involved a solo by Sono Osato, before the show opened on

Broadway. The conceptual realization of the reworkings from "rapid flashing dancing" to a "slow parade of suspended and floating goddes­ ses" paid off for de Mille: One Touch of Venus was a hit and received

36 37 more favorable reviews than Oklahoma!. (APH 113, 115) Lewis Nichols of the New York Times felt that the show was not another Oklahoma!, but was probably one of the best musicals to open on Broadway since its predecessor six months earlier. He also noted that de Mille's dances were seemingly new and cheerful and that her comedic sense had been heightened since her last endeavor. (NYTTR, 1943, 0 17, II:1:1)

One year after One Touch of Venus, de Mille choreographed another period production, Bloomer Girl, which was presented at Broadway's Shu­ bert Theatre. This musical was set during the Civil War and gave de

Mille the opportunity to devise a ballet in crinolines (or "hoop­ skirts"). Once again, there were multiple revisions, this time of what was to be called the "Civil War" ballet.

First, she decided to be serious with the ballet theme, since she was composing a piece on Civil War women for a contemporary audience in the midst of World War II. The dance needed to reflect the anguish of women waiting for their men to come home from the war. De Mille accomplished this through a dance composition of female characters reaching to God with outstretched arms as a gesture of prayer. The ballet had an earthy quality expressed through the Southern folk dances of the women. The movements consisted of ballet steps such as attitude and chasse, which were movements that could be easily seen with women wearing long dresses.

Secondly, the major reason for the revision was that the producers felt that an insertion of the tragic ballet near the end of Act II would destroy their show. This decision was made prior to viewing the fourth revision, which was the first to be presented in full costume.

The audience reaction to this version of the "Civil War" ballet was 38 exactly what de Mille had hoped for--thunderous applause and uncon- trollable weeping. With this one ballet, she had won the admiration of the public and producers for staying with her convictions; in addition, the critics applauded her for her choreography of ballets, a pageant, an "Uncle Tom" show and a comedic piece for Joan McCracken, late of the Oklahoma! chorus. Bloomer Girl's success gave de Mille the recognition that she had deserved for her original work in Okla- homa!, for her inate ability to create both period ballets and charac- ter pieces for a single production.

In October, 1947, de Mille took it upon herself to choreograph and direct Allegro, the new Rodgers and Hammerstein musical at the

Majestic Theatre. In this dual capacity, de Mille was able to blend music and ballet into one "singing" pattern of narrative. (NYTTR, 1947,

0 11, 10:2) This resulted in a new folk musical along the lines of

Oklahoma!: more integrated, but unfortunately less successful.

In Allegro, de Mille was able to introduce many original ideas including large group compositions/ballets that were "social class" pieces rather than "rural" or "ethnic" pieces. They were not show- stoppers or musical numbers; they seemed to burst forth from the narrative, even more than they had in Oklahoma! or Carousel. Brooks

Atkinson wrote the following about Allegro:

Agnes de Mille has given the play fresh direction with a number of original and clarifying ideas that leave the stage wide open for dancing. Although she has composed a number of beguiling ballets, it is difficult to recall them as music-hall numbers, for they open spontaneously out of the narrative. Kathryn Lee dances the most memorable one. (NYTTR, 1947, 0 11, 10:2)

The authors and Agnes de Mille have also had the good taste to select a cast of fresh young actors, singers and dancers who communicate the fable selflessly. There is a 39

modest, accumulative glory in this first and longer half of the evening. (NYTTR, 1947, N 2, 11:1:1)

Allegro failed to garner the critical or commercial success of an

Oklahoma! or Carousel because the second half of the musical seemed to

be lacking the enchantment of music, lyrics and dance of the first act.

The show dealt with the events during a man's life from 1905 to 1940, including the Stock Market crash of 1929, which opened Act II. This division in Allegro may have also attributed to the show's inability to achieve elevated status in the eyes of the reviewers and public.

The importance of de Mille's involvement in Allegro was that she was the first woman and first choreographer in the history of Broadway to direct and compose dances for the same show. She not only set a precedent for the equality of women in production, but she was also an inspiration to other choreographers by showing that it was possible to direct as well.

Two years after Allegro, in December, 1949, de Mille's newest choreographic venture, Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, opened on Broadway at the Ziegfeld Theatre. This musical was composed as a burlesque- style piece because the subject of the show was Lorelei Lee, the flapper golddigger of the Twenties. For this show, de Mille was able to compose light ballets with technically precise dancing laced with uplifting improvisations without losing her American folk style of dance. Brooks Atkinson wrote:

Agnes de Mille has done the ballets with a light touch-­ managing somehow to combine precision dancing with gay im­ provisations in her pleasant folk style. Anita Alvarez sweeps in and out of the show with a whole series of impish dances, performing one of the best with Kazimir Kokic. As a matter of fact, there is a lot of entertaining and expert dancing through the many scenes of this plausible burlesque of one of the most ancient rackets of the world. (NYTTR, 1949, D 9, 35:3) -- 40

Agnes de Mille, choreographer for some of our most en­ lightenend shows, has been able to fashion dance turns and ballets that are joyous without being hackneyed. She under­ stands that the old formula is humorous in its own right and she has been able to dominate it. (NYTTR, 1949, D 18, 11:3:1)

She was able to keep the burlesque-style compositions within strict

lines without interrupting the storyline or detracting from the charac- terizations. Her ability to capitalize on the humor and burlesque of

Lorelei Lee helped to make Gentlemen Prefer Blondes a commercial success.

One of Agnes de Mille's less promising endeavors was The Girl in

Pink Tights, which opened in March, 1954 at the Mark Hellinger Theatre.

It was not that de Mille composed poorly, but that she did it for a weak script. The "Pas de Deux" in the first act was hailed as "an ex- quisite number as spontaneous as a lyric." (NYTTR, 1954, Mr 6, 13:2)

In the same review, Brooks Atkinson commented that "Agnes de Mille has arranged some ballets in her second-best manner." He went on to ad- monish the script and songs for being mediocre, yet de Mille's chorea- graphy managed to receive a higher level of praise. It permitted Jean- maire a chance to display her talent and gave Charles Goldner a ballet in which to demonstrate his comedic skills; thus showing de Mille's ability to compose around an insufficient script and lacklustre songs.

Another unsuccessful musical choreographed by de Mille was Goldi- locks, which was written by Walter and Jean Kerr. The show opened in

October, 1958 at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre, and as with The Girl in

Pink Tights, the libretto was lacking. According to Brooks Atkinson, it was "uninteresting," yet the de Mille ballets rose above the in- auspicious script; some were considered to be tender and charming.

One, a ballet in Goldilocks that followed a nursery-style song, was a 41 Q ' dainty, simple child-like composition. (NYTTR, 1958, 0 13, 33:1)

The next choreographic opportunity for Agnes de Hille presented itself in a musical version of Sean O'Casey's Juno and the Paycock entitled Juno, which premiered at the Winter Garden in March, 1959.

Like Carousel, Juno was a somber musical with a desperate plea for hope.

However, Juno was unable to live up to the reputation of its predeces­ sor. The show was musically unintegrated, but each element held up on its own merits, including de Mille's dances. Once again, she relied on her ability to compose "ethnic" dances and her festive ballets for Juno were able to encompass the decorous realm of the folk dances of Ireland.

One complaint made by Brooks Atkinson on March 15, 1959 inferred that the location of the ballets in Juno interrupted the flow of the musical and made the show more like and upbeat musical comedy. It seems that the placement of the ballets were in sections of the play where the message called for somber pieces rather than felicitous combinations.

The critic did not denounce the dances, just their placement within the context of Juno. (NYTTR, 1959, Mr 10, 41:1)

After Juno, de Mille took another leap into a previously uncharted realm on Broadway. In October, 1961, she composed African-style dances for Kwamina, which was directed by Robert Lewis and presented at the

54th Street Theatre. This was the first time a choreographer had tried to create African tribal dances in as close to an authentic style as was physically possible without having witnesses or experienced the dances firsthand. It was also the first time that de Mille choreo­ graphed pieces which were not integral to the storyline. According to

Howard Taubman, "The Sun is Beginning to Crow," "Seven Sheep, Four Red

Shirts and a Bottle of Gin," and "One \-life" were routine dance 42 ,, ' production numbers that could fit into any musical or revue. (NYTTR,

1961, 0 24, 42:1) The dances were explosive, including the spear and ceremonial dances of the first act and a lyrical nuptial dance in the second act which honored Africa. De Mille was praised for presenting something different and honest: a return to nationalistic dance that reflected the deep tones and moods of past conflicts and present prob- lems. These themes included tribal rituals set in opposition to scien- tific freedom and enlightenment; and an inter-racial relationship in a

West African village. Walter Kerr of the New York Herald Tribune described de Mille's dances:

As often as possible choreographer Agnes de Mille is rushed into the breach, and as often as she is rushed in she delivers. From an opening work-song witha hammering beat, through a dance of welcome in which graceful right shoulders are dipped in sinuous homage, and on to a final, brilliantly conceived (though verbally interrupted) summons to death during the nightlong vigil, the movement is muscular and the patterns are powerful. There are contrasts between the animals pulses generated by leaping male bodies and the delicate finger-play of a circle of softly writhing girls in a nuptial dance is a mira­ culous whisper of sighing, retreating bridesmaids, and the climactic juxtaposition of terror-stricken firelit faces be­ fore which threatening painted demons begin to assemble is the evening's boldest evocation of the difference of cultures it means to show. (Walter Kerr, New York Herald Tribune, 1961 October 24)

Although Kwamina was not a commercial success, it was an ensemble masterpiece. The cast had no stars and each person held his/her own in the de Mille compositions. There were no de Mille dancers listed in the production playbill as had been a previous practice. The major success of Kwamina was in de Mille's dedication to present as authentic an

African dance style as had never been seen on Broadway, outside of Jack

Cole's compositions in the earlier part of the twentieth century.

Through her proficiency in surpassing Cole's compositions, de Mille 43 achieved new heights in her choreographic endeavors.

The last new show de Mille composed for Broadway was 110 in the

Shade at the Broadhurst Theatre in October, 1963. Critics panned it, but the public loved it. The musical was based on N. Richard Nash's

The Rainmaker and was unsuccessfully adapted by the author. For the first time, de Mille's compositions were not above criticism. Howard

Taubman, reviewer for the New York Times, felt that "the now familiar stylw of Agnes de Mille, who has done this sort of dance movement a good deal more eloquently in the past" could not pull the musical out of its mediocre state. (NYTTR, 1963, 0 25, 37:1)

The significance of Agnes de Mille's non-"country" shows can be measured in terms of the compositional advancement she was able to rea­ lize. De Mille was able to achieve prominence in revising her ow~ dan­ ces, choreographing pieces to fit within a ready-made storyline

(adaptations of theatrical masterpieces), composing dances of multi­ tudinous ethnic styles, and above all, setting new goals as the first choreographer/director of Broadway musicals. Chapter 4

De Mille's Influence on Other Choreographers

and

Future Broadway Musicals

By initiating the vogue of using classical ballet as a major re- ;\ A source for choreographing dances, Agnes de Mille was able to influence (yA many other choreographers including Michael Kidd, Hanya Holm, Helen {/

Tamiris, and Jerome Robbins. This section will focus upon their achievements and how they were influenced by de Mille.

Michael Kidd was a ballet trained choreographer who showed his virtuosity in his very first choreographic endeavor for Broadway,

Finian's Rainbow (1947), which tied with de Mille's Brigadoon for the first Antoinette Perry (Tony) Award for Best Choreography in a Musical.

Throughout Finian's Rainbow, the character of Susan the Silent dances every emotion and gesture for the audience to see. Kidd's use of grand jetes, attitudes, and arabesques for her seem to indicate that Kidd's approach was very similar to de Mille's. Kidd composed dances to appropriately suit the characters within the context of the show and this can be seen in other shows that Kidd choreographed such as Guys and Dolls (1950 and Can-Can (1953).

After a brief stint in Hollywood as a choreographer for film ver- sions of musicals, Kidd returned to New York to compose the dances for

44 45

L'il Abner (1956), and direct and choreograph Destry Rides Again (a

Western musical in the de Mille vein) in 1959, Wildcat in 1960, and

The Rothschilds in 1970. After de Mille's pioneering effort of doing

both composing and directing for musicals, Michael Kidd was one of the

earliest of her contemporaries to follow her lead.

De Mille has her own way of describing Kidd's approach. In Amer­

ica Dances, she states that "his dances are lively fun and of extra­

ordinary brilliance and speed." (192) The best examples of this

observation can be seen in the "Luck Be a Lady" number in Guys and

Dolls and the title song in Can-Can.

"Luck Be a Lady," which is set at an underground crap game, con­

sists of fast spinning changes of levels, arabesques en tournant, various jumps, and gymnastics performed by a versatile male ensemble.

"Can-Can" is comprised of a series of fast, bawdy high-kicks presented

by a female cast in simulation of the Folies Bergere-type showgirl.

Both dances present intricate patterns of dance that are very difficult

to duplicate. "Luck Be a Lady" and "Can-Can" also reflected the story­

line and helped move the plots along to their respective ends.

A second choreographic contemporary, who was a student of de

Mille's, was Hanya Holm. Her first major success was Kiss Me Kate

(1948), which she then followed up with Out of This World (1950). De

Mille directed the latter and it was because of the faith that de Mille had in Holm's work that she was commissioned to compose choreography

for this musical.

Hanya Holm's two greatest successes, choreographed in 1956 and

1960, respectively, were My Fair Lady and Camelot. In both shows,

Holm composed waltzes and character pieces ranging from "Get Me to the 46

Church on Time," "With a Little Bit of Luck," and "I Could Have Danced

All Night" in My Fair Lady to "What Do the Simple Folk Do" and "The

Merry Month of May" in Camelot. She also choreographed The Golden

Apple and Ballet Ballads which de Mille feels were Holm's best works.

(de Mille, AD 193) Hanya Holm's dances were gestural in style and con­ tained some of the folk-style and comedic elements that de Mille fre­ quently used in her shows.

Another important choreographer was Helen Tamiris whose two major works were Annie Get Your Gun (1946) and Inside U.S.A. (1948). She also composed for Up in Central Park (1945) which had a "Skating

Ballet" as an intimate part of the show. Up in Central Park had the setting of a Currier and Ives print and the choreography was done in a period style similar to de Mille's. Annie Get Your Gun, which followed Up in Central Park, was a very successful musical which allowed Tamiris to compose delightful comic pieces to "Anything You

Can Do," "I'm an Indian, Too," and the big showstopper "There's No

Business Like Show Business." Inside U.S.A. gave Helen Tamiris an opportunity to choreograph a Mardi Gras piece along with other folk pieces such as "Blue Grass" and "My Gal is Mine Once More." Tamiris, like Holm, had Agnes de Mille's gift for composing pieces on native

American themes.

The most important of de Mille's contemporaries was Jerome

Robbins. Robbins was not only a marvelous dance composer, but a successful director of musical plays. Like Holm and Tamiris, he was a student of de Mille, having appeared in her Three Virgins and a Devil in the early Forties. This experience gave Robbins the knowledge to base dances on regular movements, in a manner closely aligned with de 47

Mille's and also to compose dances with a ethnic feel, thus establish­ ing his prowess in choreographing West Side Story. His background as a de Mille danseur gave him an idea of what a good choreographer needs to do to achieve success, not only as a composer of dances, but also as a director.

Robbins' first Broadway show was On the Town in 1944 and it marked his debut as a dance composer at the age of twenty-five. Like de

Mille's choreography for Oklahoma!, which was derived from her '49 and

Rodeo; Robbins' On the Town was based on his own ballet for Ballet

Theatre, Fancy Free. the primary dance style utilized for On the Town was classical ballet, but it was stylized to fit the tunes and the characters in the musical.

His second show was also a success: High Button Shoes (1947). In this musical production, Robbins introduced his Mack Sennett ballet, which became the hit of the play. After High Button Shoes, he choreo­ graphed The King and I (1951) and received recognition for his Siamese dances which de Mille says "were miracles of good taste and invention."

(AD 193)

Robbins' biggest triumph was West Side Story in 1957. Between

The King and I and West Side Story, Robbins directed and/ or choreo­ graphed Jule Styne's Peter Pan (1954), The Pajama Game (1954) and Bells

Are Ringing (1956). With these musicals, he established himself as the premier choreographer/director of the American musical stage.

Beginning with West Side Story, for which Robbins served as choreographer/director, de Mille's gift for dance composition was taken by him to the epitome of what she had hoped to accomplish in Allegro.

Robbins was able to achieve fusion of dance and drama in a new balletic 48 form: a style of story-ballet with dialogue and songs in which much of the action was nonrealistic dance pantomime--a "ballet d'action" with dialogue (AD 192) With this one production, Robbins was able to realize the potential of de Mille's pioneering effort as director and choreographer as Allegro, ten years earlier.

Robbins' later works as director and/or choreographer include

Gypsy (1959), A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1962),

Fiddler on the Roof (1964) and Funny Girl (1964). What he was able to achieve in these shows as well as in his previous productions was a sense of integrated tragedy/comedy and lyricism in the musical comedy medium. De Mille feels that Jerome Robbins is a master of both of the above. She also readily acknowledges that Robbins is the best-known

American choreographer in the international musical theatre. (AD 192)

These four contemporary choreographers of de Mille were each able to effect a change in the American musical theatre because they were able to assimilate de Mille's techniques and harmonize her balletic style with their own styles and utilize both for their creations.

Kidd, Holm, Tamiris, and especially Robbins, took de Mille's ballet­ based style and/or her use of folk-style dance and were successful in composing at least one Broadway musical that became a standard. The important contributions of these dance composers were recorded by de

Mille in her book, America Dances; these were four people whom she felt deserved special praise and recognition for their achievements.

Post-de Mille Choreographers and Future Broadway Musicals

De Mille's lyrical style of dance which combined classical ballet and modern dance with other generic forms such as tap, folk dance, and jazz, became the basis and a goal for other choreographers of 49

consequence to follow. This section will look at the post-de Mille composers and attempt to establish her influence on them in terms of composing style or approach to designing dances for the Broadway stage.

In addition, there will be a look at dance integration in musicals in­ cluding a discussion of the American Dance Machine, which is preserving musical theatre dance; and some modern productions which have in some way adapted de Mille's style of choreography and updated it to suit the individual shows being produced will be examined.

The two choreographers who have had the greatest impact after de

Mille, Kidd and Robbins were Bob Fosse and Gower Champion. Both men learned their strengths from their own stage dance experiences; how­ ever, neither of them has composed a "ballet" for Broadway. They both choreographed dazzling showstoppers which have made their way into the annals of Broadway dance history. Both men were choreographer/ directors and achieved considerable fame in both areas. Like de Mille, they were capable of establishing tone and pace for a musical and their sepctacular dance pieces fit within the scheme of the whole show.

Gower Champion was originally a vaudeville dancer with his wife,

Marge, but he achieved his greatest acclaim as a choreographer and director of musicals. He had his first Broadway triumph with Bye, Bye,

Birdie in 1960. The big musical number was "The Telephone Hour" in which Champion was able to fit a group of teenagers into a beehive set and design an artistic series of movements depicting a whole town of these young people having a phone conversation. Carnival (1961) was also a success for Champion, but his greatest achievemnet was accom­ plished with Hello, Dolly (1964). According to Martin Gottfried, this show was one of the best directed musicals in Broadway history. so

(Gottfried, Broadway Musicals 140) It is difficult to argue this

point because of Hell~ Dolly's simplicity in movement and complete

use of all levels on the stage. Gower Champion choreographed every movement including dance crosses at the ends of ballads and during

scenes.

After Hello, Dolly, Champion choreographed/directed I Do! I Do!

(1966), The Happy Time (1968), Sugar (1972), and the revival of Irene

(1973), but none of these were hits in Champions' mind. 42nd Street

(1980), on the other hand, was the last and ultimate hit of his long and illustrious career. The dances were spectacular (in a pre-de

Mille fashion)--a flurry of non-stop production numbers, including the title tune, that showed off the versatility of such stars as Lee Roy

Reams, Jerry Orbach, and Tammy Grimes. The most unfortunate circum­ stance pertaining to this show is that Champion did not live to see it become the success he had hoped it would be because he died on August

25, 1980, the day the show premiered on Broadway.

Bob Fosse was not a de Mille danseur, but he was considered the heir apparent to Jerome Robbins. Fosse's belief was that the old

"razzle-dazzle" was the key to dance; not concepts, ballets, or thema­ tic dances because Fosse's aim was commercialism. The major influ­ ences on Fosse were Jack Cole, burlesque and vaudeville.

Cole's influence on Fosse is almost as apparent as Cole's influ­ ence on de Mille. De Mille had derived her regional style of dance from an understanding of acrobatic jazz dance, rhythm, and a "common man's" dance style from Cole; Fosse applied these same principles when he developed his own style which is now familiar to theatregoers.

Fosse displayed the Cole influence in The Pajama Game (1954), the 51 first show he choreographed, especially in the "Steam Heat" number.

Fosse's typical movements included angular jerks, derby-hat pumping, inward toe points, knee-knocking, dancing on the knees, and his trade­ mark: the pelvic bump. This dance style is in complete contrast to de Mille, who used classical line as one of her trademarks.

In How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (1961), Fosse was given the opportunity to demonstrate his virtuosity at composing a softshoe dance. "A Secretary is Not a Toy" was the object of his attempt and it became an audience favorite. New Girl in Town (1957),

Redhead (1959), Little Me (1962), and Sweet Charity (1966) were addi­ tional Fosse adventures into musical comedy. Pippin began his associa­ tion with conceptual story-ballets similar to those of Robbins, the man who gave him his start as a dance composer. With Pippin (1972) at the

Imperial Theatre and his later musical Chicago (1975), at the 46th

Street Theatre, Fosse did not abandon his juxtaposed style, instead he utilized it to effect a thematic image which helped to move the mounted productions to their final moments.

Other modern choreographers of the post-de Mille era to have some impact on the Broadway stage include the following:

1. Peter Gennaro, who started as a collaborator with Jerome

Robbins on West Side Story (1957). His independent work was charming and lovely and could be seen in The Unsinkable Molly Brown (1960),

Fiorello (1959) and Annie (1977). According to de Mille, his style is somewhat derivative. (AD 194)

2. Danny Daniels, a dance composer whose background was in tap dance. He performed in Robbins' Ballet U.S.A. and the Broadway produc­ tion of Flora, the Red Menace (1965). His main compositional endeavors 52 could be seen in All American (1962), Walking Happy, and an Annie Get

Your Gun revival.

3. Onna White, who according to de Mille and Gottfried, was one of Broadway's classiest choreographers. (AD 195, Gottfried 149) Her accomplishments in dance composition were evident in such musicals as

The Music Man (1957), Irma le Douce, Oliver, 1776 (1969), and Marne

(1966).

4. Patricia Birch, who made her mark as choreographer of Music Is

(1976), Pacific Overtures (1976), A Little Night Music (1973), You're a

Good Man, Charlie Brown, Over Here (1974), and Grease (1972). Prior to becoming a dance composer, Birch served as a soloist for both Martha

Graham and Agnes de Mille and, as a result, de Mille believes, Birch was able to combine several styles in her own work. (AD 195) Her versa­ tility enabled her to compose for contemporary shows because she had an ability to understand the psychological drives contained in a musical and then could see each element within the production as a separate en­ tity with its own importance. She was a master of discarding the non­ essentials in a dance when composing for a show.

5. Michael Bennett, who choreographed A Chorus Line (1975),

(which will be analyzed later in conjunction with Dancin' and the new generation of dance musical) started out as a chorus boy and taught himself how to compose dances, similar to the manner that de Mille had used to teach herself the same craft. His first shows were flops, but

Promises, Promises in 1968 became a hit. He also received credit for working on Company (1970), Coco (1969), Follies (1971) and Seesaw

(1973). After A Chorus Line, Bennett choreographed Ballroom (1978), a two-million dollar disaster. However, the mounted production itself 53 was impeccable, based on patterns of paired ballroom dance with the contextual style of Twyla Tharp, a major innovator of modern dance.

(AD 195)

Some choreographers who may yet be "heirs apparent" to this illustrious group of dance composers include Tommy Tune, Donald McKayle,

Gregory Hines, Joe Layton, and Robert Tucker. Only time will tell whether any of these choreographer/directors will be able to achieve the compositional heights of their predecessors. At the present time, only Tune seems to be on the verge of entering into this esteemed group with his work in My One and Only, The Best Little Whorehouse in

Texas (1978) and Nine.

Indirectly, de Mille influenced Fosse, mainly because they both were spiritual disciples of Jack Cole; and Michael Bennett, whose 1978

Ballroom marked a return of stylistic and lyrical dance to Broadway, similar to de Mille's classical dance which was the standard of 1940 1 s and 1950's musicals. Every major choreographer after de Mille may be considered to be influenced by her since she set the standard for the epitome of dance composition achievement on Broadway.

Earlier, when discussing dance revivals of de Mille's masterpieces,

I expressed concern over the possibility of losing her precious dance compositions because of a lack of modern revivals of her shows. At this time, there is a glimmer of hope for preservation of the classics of Broadway dance. The American Dance Machine, under the direction of

Lee Theodore, has been in existence since 1978 and is dedicated to re­ creating the major dances of the New York stage. As of 1980, they had mounted thirty-eight dance numbers by nineteen choreographers, including de Mille. 54

In 1978, the American Dance Machine performed on Broadway and pre- sented a program of some of the dances that they had chosen to preserve.

De Mille's pieces from Carousel and Brigadoon were among the selections, and the following are a few of the critical reviews:

and most affectingly of all, Agnes de Mille's en­ chanting "Corne to Me, Bend to Me" followed immediately by the "Funeral Dance," both from the first Lerner-Loewe success, Brigadoon •••• and another from de Mille "June is Busting Out All Over" from Carousel is included. And, as someone has said before, all of the choreographers owe a debt of grati­ tude to Jack Cole, who started it all. (Douglass Watt, Daily News, 1978 June 15)

•.•• And the dances, reconstructed when possible in con­ sultation with the original choreographer, have remarkable vitality and power. The most notable are the ones created by Agnes de Mille for Brigadoon, danced with an amazing sense of grace and sensuality by Janet Eilber. (Howard Kissel, Women's Wear Daily, 1978 June 15)

The entire company is one of agile Dionysiacs. But some celestial potter who fashions divinity from clay must be responsible for Janet Eilber. She is a long-stemmed American beauty of absolute skill and mesmeric presence. In Agnes de Mille's "Funeral Dance" from Brigadoon (1947) she turns a young widow's grief into a threnody of rage, and in "Come to Me, Bend to Me'' from the same musical she wondrously conveys a bride-to-be's hot blood and apprehensive ecstasy before the marriage bed. (T.E. Kalem, Time, 1978 June 26)

The major problem the American Dance Machine has faced is a lack of funds. In the United States, there does not seem to be a burning desire to finance cultural endeavors which do not appear to be commer- cially solvent. In the past few years, national endo~~ents and public broadcasting companies have been helping to preserve Broadway dances by including the American Dance Machine on public television specials which are focusing on the history of the American dance musical. It is comforting to know that there is some monetary support available to help preserve the Broadway dances that have become the classics of the

American musical theatre stage. 55

With the continued preservation of Broadway dances, adaptations of the classical styles also become prevalent. Fosse's Dancin', Bennett's

A Chorus Line and Gillian Lynne's Cats can all be considered adaptations of de Mille's style to some extent because each one has utilized the techniques available to make its own dance compositions fulfill the re­ quisites of their respective choreographers.

De Mille was able to choreograph ballets that could stand on their own as compositional pieces. Fosse took her concept a step further when he composed an all-dance musical called Dancin'. He choreographed an entire show based on the concept of dancing, including tap, softshoe, and song and dance. This show is not really a musical--it is a fast­ paced dance program that went through a series of revisions resulting in the elimination of poorly composed pieces and the addition of Fosse­ style trademark pieces. The composition "Percussion" with its sensual presentation of dancers using sound, angular movements, and an over­ powering sense of stylish and slick rhythms is an example of Fosse's virtuosity as a consummate dance composer.

Bennett's A Chorus Line is closer to a de Mille style show than

Fosse's Dancin'. A Chorus Line capitalizes on various forms of dance from ballet to tap to jazz to "chorus line." The "gypsies" or Broadway dancers come from different backgrounds and have a varying degree of dance education to complement their environmental surroundings. This show developed out of a workshop situation and is now the longest running show in the history of Broadway. Songs such as "At the Ballet" and "What I Did For Love" reflect the heartbreak of being a gypsy while the songs and dances that accompany "The Music and the Mirror" and "One" show the joy of dancing on Broadway. This show is more of an audition- 56 piece musical of various styles with crowd-pleasing tunes and dances within the "gypsy" theme, but it is not integrated as a whole.

Cats, a British import choreographed by Gillian Lynne, is the closest successful musical show to emulate de Mille's style of composi­ tional dance. Thw show does not have a storyline, but it does have character dances in a feline vein which reflect the moods and images present in T.S. Eliot's poetry. Each cat has his or her own gestures, personality traits and character. The dance compositions reflect and demand an integration of ballet, jazz, and modern dance that has not been seen since de Mille choreographed Brigadoon in 1947. This fusion of dance styles in Cats is an advancement over de Mille's work because it is a complete integration of ballet, jazz, and modern dance. The only element lacking is the viable storyline; if there was a true story­ line then Cats, as a whole, could possibly surpass Oklahoma! as the most innovative show utilizing classical dance during the twentieth century.

As of this writing, there has been no recent Broarlway musical which comes close to de Mille's shows in terms of choreographic achieve­ ment and the integration of that accomplishment into a musical story­ line. There is always the possibility that a show or shows in the near future may try to emulate and/or surpass de Mille's compositional tech­ niques because classical dance is now an important part of today's dancers' training and today's dancers can eventually become tomorrow's choreographer/directors. Conclusion

The previous observations lead to the question raised by this the­ sis--what is de Mille's ultimate place in the American musical theatre?

To anwer this, one must look at the obvious and then search beneath the surface to project where Broadway may ne going in terms of dance.

De Mille's Oklahoma! masterpiece: the "Laurey Makes Up Her Mind" dream ballet changed the course of musical dance in the theatre. It was the first time classical ballet was integrated into a Broadway musical without disrupting the storyline. The dream ballet enhanced the psychological dilemma facing· Laurey and it served as the dramatic resolution for her hopes and fears.

De Mille introduced the general public to the world of the classi­ cal ballet with its arabesques, Cechetti-third position arms, dramatic lifts, and facial and physical gestures. The dream ballet was a break from the classical repetoire and set a new standard for dance achieve­ ment in characterization, technique, mood, tone, and innuendos which has yet to be matched by any other choreographer in the history of the

American musical theatre.

De Mille's ballets were revolutionary in nature with their mixture of folk, tap, and modern dance. The influence of her folk, period or native dances can be seen in the works of Kidd, Robbins and Birch; tap can be seen in the compositions of Fosse, Hines and Tune. As of this time, no choreographer/dance composer has been able to combine ballet

57 58

and modern dance in the same mode as de Mille.

Her success as a composer of this mixed breed/hybrid style of

dance led to a change on Broadway during the 1940's and 1950's. Dan­ cers, male and female, began to train in the de Mille style, which meant getting a background in ballet and modern dance; thus leaving tap, acrobatics, vaudeville and burlesque behind. Line dancers and

"specialty" performers were replaced by well-rounded men and women who were capable of dancing the classical pieces in addition to character stylization dances.

The 1960's and 1970's saw a change back to the pre-Oklahoma! conditions of non-classical dance on Broadway. Choreographers like

Fosse, Bennett and Champion were composing audience-pleasers consisting of set dances which were oftentimes frivolous, unattached, purposely decorative and acrobatic in nature. During these two decades, choreo­ graphers/dance composers seemed to be more interested in commercial successes, rather than developing composition accomplishments.

The 1980's has led to a resurgence of the "renaissance" performer: a person who can "do it all" including ballet, tap, modern dance, jazz, gymnastics, and even circus specialties including juggling, wire­ walking and unicycle riding. Current musicals that reflect the utili­ zation of ballet and modern dance include Cats and the revival of On

Your Toes. My One and Only, Sugar Babies and The Tap Dance Kid show the use for tap dancers who are versatile in other forms of dance.

Even movies and television shows are demanding dancers with a back­ ground in classical ballet and modern dance. Some examples of this phenomenon include the movie and television show Fame, the television show Hot Shoe, and the movies The Turning Point and White Nights. At 59

the present time, it is very difficult for a dancer of the 1980's to

get a job without command of both ballet and modern dance--even being an actor or singer with a classical background is advantageous because it shows a dedication to the artistic craft of performing on the stage.

By analyzing the state of Broadway dance during the 1980's it is easier to evaluate de Mille's place in Broadway history. Her fusion of ballet and modern dance, which was in vogue during the 1940's and

1950's, and which nearly disappeared during the 1960's and 1970's, has been revived again through the staging of Oklahoma! in 1979 and Briga­ doon in 1980 and 1986. With the successful revivals of these produc­ tions in recent years, there has been a demand for men and women who are able to adapt to the modern dance and balletic styles being imple­ mented in shows such as Cats. It is the resurgence of the ballet/ modern dance form that de Mille utilized for the first time within the context of Oklahoma! that has become the staple for the 1980's-style

Broadway shows--and therein lies the importance of de Mille's dance in the musical theatre of the United States. Agnes de Mille was a primary innovator and forerunner of a new integrated style of dance that was shocking to the critics and the public when it was first pre­ sented in 1943, but is now a classic style of dance fully accepted in the American musical theatre. Works Cited

Atkinson, Brooks. "Allegro." New York Times Theatre Reviews 11 Oct.

1947: 10:2.

"American Legend." New York Times Theatre Reviews 12 May 1941:

13:2.

"The Blonde Mantrap." New York Times Theatre Reviews 18 Dec.

1949: II: 1 : 1.

"Brigadoon Comes Back to Town." New York Times Theatre Reviews

3 May 1950: 36:2.

"The Cast: Carousel." New York Times Theatre Reviews 3 Jun.

1954: 32:2.

"The Cast: The Girl in Pink Tights." New York Times Theatre Re­

views 6 Mar. 1954: 13:2.

"The Cast: Goldilocks." New York Times Theatre Reviews 13 Oct.

1958: 33:1.

"The Cast: Oklahoma!." New York Times Theatre Reviews 30 May

1951: 15:2.

"The Cast: Oklahoma!." New York Times Theatre Reviews 1 Sep.

1953: 19:1.

"Oklahoma is Back." New York Times Theatre Reviews 16 Sep. 1953:

II:1:1.

"Swinging the Dream." New York Times Theatre Reviews 30 Nov.

1939: 24:2.

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[untitled article] New York Times Theatre Reviews 7 Apr. 1929:

X:1:1.

"The Cast: Paint Your Wagon." New York Times Theatre Reviews 13

Nov. 1951: 32:3.

[untitled article] New York Times Theatre Reviews 18 Nov. 1951:

II: 1:1.

"The Cast: Juno." New York Times Theatre Reviews 10 Mar. 1959:

41:1.

"Vocation of a Man." New York Times Theatre Reviews 2 Nov. 1947:

II: 1:1.

Barnes, Clive. "Oklahoma! is Still as High as an Elephant's Eye."

New York Post 14 Dec. 1979.

"Villella Steals Show at City Center Revival." New York Times

Theatre Reviews 14 Dec. 1967: 59:2.

Beaufort, John. "Musical 'Brigadoon' Enchants Anew." Christian Science

Monitor 6 Mar. 1986.

" •.• Oklahoma! Back on Broadway." Christian Science Monitor 18

Dec. 1979.

"Brigadoon Returns in Full Bloom." New York Post 27 Oct. 1980.

Calta, Louis. "The Cast: Oklahoma!." New York Times Theatre Reviews

16 May 1963: 40:1.

"John Fearnley Staged Revival of Musical." New York Times

Theatre Reviews 16 Dec. 1965: 62:1.

Canaday, John. "John Raitt and Eileen Christy in Leads." New York

Times Theatre Reviews 11 Aug. 1965: 39:1.

"The Cast: Gentlemen Prefer Blondes." New York Times Theatre Reviews

9 Dec. 1949: 35:3. 62

II: 1 : 1 .

New York Times Theatre Reviews. New York: New York Times, 1880-

Nichols, Lewis. "Lerner-Loewe Show Back at City Center." New York

Times Theatre Reviews 24 Dec. 1964: 9:1.

"Oklahoma!." New York Times Theatre Reviews 1 Apr. 1943: 27:1. 63

"Music in the Air." New York Times Theatre Reviews 11 Apr.

1943: II : 1 : 1.

Rich, Frank. "Brigadoon Dances In." New York Times 17 Oct. 1980.

Safer, Morley, interviewer. "De Mille Interview." 60 Minutes CBS-TV,

1980?.

Sherman, Jane. Denishawn. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1983.

Sullivan, Dan. "Modern Classic is Still Whirling Along." New York

Times Theatre Reviews 16 Dec. 1966: 58:2.

Sulzberger, Arthur 0. "Audience in Paris Sees Oklahoma!." New York

Times Theatre Reviews 21 Jun. 1955: 37:7.

Taubman, Howard. "The Cast: 110 in the Shade." New York Times

Theatre Reviews 25 Oct. 1963: 37:1.

"Kwamina in Debut at the 54th Street." New York Times Theatre

Reviews 24 Oct. 1961: 42:1.

"Revival at City Center Has Old Magic." New York Times Theatre

Reviews 1 Feb. 1963: 6:2.

Watt, Douglas. "Brigadoozie! ." Daily News [New York] 3 Mar. 1986.

"Fun Gathering of Gypsies." Daily News [New York] 15 June.

1978.