THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Report prepared by Corner Brook Pulp & Paper Ltd to address the requirements of the Forest Stewardship Council, National Boreal Standard

2011

THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Wayne A. Brown1

and

E. Doyle Wells2

1 Wayne A. Brown, BScF, RPF, (Retired) Fibre Quality & Continuous Improvement Superintendent, Corner Brook Pulp & Paper Co. Ltd., Howley, NL

2 E. Doyle Wells, PhD, (Retired) Forest Ecologist, NRCan-CFS, St. John‟s, NL

THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The purpose of this report is to provide a knowledge base of the pre-industrial conditions (PIC) of the forest limits of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Limited from which future forest management strategies can provide direction for the maintenance of forest ecosystems in perpetuity. For the purpose of this report, the pre-industrial period covers the time before the year 1890. Prior to that time, sawmilling was common and timber was removed for firewood and lumber. However, forest utilization occurred locally around coastal communities, and the impact on forest ecosystems was minimal.

The completion of the cross-Island railway in the 1890s linked communities and provided access to the vast forest resources of the interior parts of the Island. Consequently, logging and sawmilling increased dramatically. However, the establishment, in 1909, of the first paper mill in central Newfoundland coincided with the decline of the lumber industry. This was followed in 1925 by the opening of the second paper mill in Corner Brook. Unlike the pre-industrial period, the current industrial period that started in 1890 marked a significant increase in both train-related fires and forest harvesting.

Documentation of forest conditions during the pre-industrial period is non-existent. Thus, the assessment of forest conditions prior to 1890 is based mainly on backcasting the present forest conditions and the forest successional predictions that were documented for Newfoundland in the 1960s by Dr. A.W.H. Damman. As well, the opinions of a variety of forestry experts were also incorporated into the report. Considering the lack of documentation of pre-industrial forest conditions, discussions in this report was based on the assumptions that, during the pre-industrial time, fires were fewer, insect outbreaks were similar in both frequency and intensity, logging disturbances were minimal and did not cause significant changes in successional patterns, and that, while remarks about “backcasting” are based on a the proven Damman forest classification, some components of the backcasting might still be considered somewhat hypothetical and the reader is advised to use caution regarding their interpretations.

Palynological results show that, throughout most of the past 10,000 years following de-glaciation, balsam fir, black spruce and white spruce, as well as white birch, had established in western and central Newfoundland. The presence of charcoal in the palynological samples suggests that fires were common in central Newfoundland, but relatively rare in the western region over the past 8000 to 9000 years. Preindustrial period wildfires (pre-1890) were quite common, extensive and predominantly human-caused. However, before colonization (pre-1800s) lightning fires appear to have been very uncommon. Mean fire intervals (MFI) determined for parts of eastern North America outside of Newfoundland suggest that, because of the humid climate that characterizes much of Newfoundland, intervals between lightning fires may have been greater than 200 years.

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Black spruce forests are generally driven by fire, as seen in many areas of central Newfoundland. While large areas of fire-origin spruce stands existed prior to 1890, many stands that presently occur throughout central Newfoundland are most likely due to human and railway-related fires. In the absence of fires black spruce stands on poorer sites tend to remain as stable black spruce types, while many will eventually revert to stable balsam fir types. Balsam fir forests are driven by disturbances from insects, logging and windthrow, and will normally return to their original condition following such disturbances. In the event of fire, balsam fir forests typically regenerate to white birch; but, moderate to poor quality fir sites with a minor component of black spruce will often succeed to black spruce stands. In central Newfoundland, much of the present-day productive black spruce-moss forests that provide the bulk of harvestable spruce for the forest industry may have had their origins in forest types that consisted predominantly of balsam fir.

There is evidence to suggest that the conifer-forested landscape of the pre-industrial period was somewhat different from that of the current industrial period. In the pre-industrial period, forest landscapes would likely have been more extensive, resulting from catastrophic disturbances that ran unabated, left only to the natural controls of rain, wind, and other weather elements. Large- scale disturbances, including fire and insect outbreaks, would have also generated skips and patches throughout the landscape creating a mosaic of age classes and species-related changes in some instances. Disease and blowdown would have been present at endemic levels, especially within the older forests. However, assuming that climatic conditions were similar to those of today, insect outbreaks prior to 1890 would have been similar to those of more recent years. Likewise, it is highly probable that indigenous fungal populations and their interactions with forest tree species were similar to those of the present unmanaged industrial forest.

The current industrial period has seen significant changes in fire protection and management, and impacts from introduced species. For example, while modern fire detection and suppression systems have virtually eliminated fire from most forest ecosystems, the impacts on fire-driven ecosystems are unknown. Introduced insect species such as the balsam fir woolly adelgid are having catastrophic impacts on stands of balsam fir, resulting in many areas of harvested fir stands being replanted to spruce. Harvesting has also played a large role in removing white pine from the landscape; in addition, the (accidentally) introduced white pine blister rust has contributed to the reduction of white pine by impairing natural regeneration. Furthermore, older managed stands (e.g., PCT and plantations) are experiencing some degree of decaying fungi and pathogenic activity. In many areas of the Island, the introduced moose has caused significant damage to regenerating cutovers and balsam fir ecosystems.

In summary, developing forest management strategies to emulate the pre-industrial forest conditions will be challenging. While insects, diseases, wind-throw, fires and harvesting will continue to pose challenges to the future management of forests in Newfoundland, major problems related to introduced species, absence of fire in forest ecosystems, and the unknown effects from climate change may require more innovative and creative solutions.

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ORGANIZATIONS AND INDIVIDUALS CONSULTED

Special Contributor  Mr. Bruce A. Roberts, Wildland Associates Ltd., St. John‟s, NL

Government of Newfoundland & Labrador  Mr. Bill Clark, Regional Ecologist, Eastern Region, Forestry and Agrifoods Agency, DNR  Mr. Basil English, Supervisor of Silviculture & Research, Forest Ecosystem Management Division, DNR  Mr. Boyd Pittman, Supervisor of Inventory, Forest Ecosystem Management Division, DNR  Mr. Eric Earle, Supervisor of Fire Management, Forest Engineering & Industry Services Division, DNR  Mr. Wayne Kelly, Director of Center for Forest Science & Innovation, DNR  Mr. Monte Osmond, (Retired) Supervisor of Inventory, DNR  Mr. Lloyd Belbin, Conservation Officer, Insect and Disease, Forest Engineering and Industry Services Division, DNR  Mr. Derek Inniss, Conservation Officer, Forest Inventory, Forest Ecosystem Management Division, DNR  Mr. Gary Forward, Supervisor of Industry Services Division, DNR  Mr. Wally Skinner (Retired) Small Game Biologist, Wildlife Division, Department of Environment & Conservation

Government of Canada  Dr. Alex Mosseler, Restoration Ecology, NRCan-CFS, Fredericton  Dr. Chris Lucarotti, Insect Pathology, NRCan-CFS, Fredericton  Dr. Bill Meades (Retired), Science Director, NRCan-CFS, Sault Ste Marie  Dr. Gary Warren, Forest Pathology/Mycology, NRCan-CFS, Corner Brook  Dr. Andre Arsenault, Forest Ecology, NRCan-CFS, Corner Brook  Dr. Lucie Royer, Population Dynamics, NRCan-CFS, Quebec City, Quebec  Mr. Brian J. Stocks (Retired), Fire & Climate Change, NRCan-CFS, Sault Ste. Marie, ON  Mr. Dave Stone (Retired), Forest Ecosystem Technology, NRCan-CFS, Corner Brook  Dr. Sylvie Gauthier, Forest Ecology, NRCan-CFS, Quebec City, Quebec  Mr. Kirby Tulk, Parks Ecologist, Terra Nova National Park, NL

Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Limited, Corner Brook, NL  Mr. Stuart Weldon, (Retired) Woodlands Manager  Mr. Tim Moulton, Silviculture and Continuous Improvement Superintendent  Mr. Lorne Flynn, Reforestation Supervisor  Mr. Bruce Coombs, Operations Superintendent

Western Newfoundland Model Forest  Mr. Sean Dolter, General Manager, Western Newfoundland Model Forest, Corner Brook

Université du Québec en Outaouais  Dr. Frédérik Doyon, Professor, Université du Québec en Outaouais

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THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... ii

ORGANIZATIONS AND INDIVIDUALS CONSULTED ...... iv

LIST OF FIGURES ...... viii

LIST OF TABLES ...... xii

1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 1

2.0 METHODOLOGY ...... 4

3.0 DESCRIPTION OF FOREST MANAGEMENT AREA ...... 6 3.1 Timber Limits ...... 6 3.2 Forest Composition ...... 11 3.3 Ecoregions ...... 13 3.3.1 Western Newfoundland ...... 15 3.3.2 Central Newfoundland ...... 15 3.3.3 Northern Peninsula Forest ...... 17 3.3.4 Maritime Barrens ...... 17 3.3.5 Long Range Barrens ...... 18 3.4 Climate ...... 18 3.5 Geology, Physiography and Soils ...... 22

4.0 BACKCASTING THE CURRENT INDUSTRIAL FOREST CONDITIONS TO THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL FORESTS ...... 26 4.1 Introduction ...... 26 4.2 Forest Succession ...... 28 4.2.1 Successional trends in the coniferous forests of Newfoundland ...... 32 4.2.2 Presence of fire in balsam fir forests ...... 32

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4.2.3 Absence of fire in black spruce forests ...... 35 4.3 Forest Fires ...... 38 4.3.1 Holocene Period: 10,000 BP – 1500 BP ...... 38 4.3.2 Early Settlement Period: 1600 – 1890 ...... 42 4.3.3 Natural Forest Fire Cycles ...... 42 4.4 Forest Insects ...... 45 4.4.1 Spruce Budworm ...... 46 4.4.2 Hemlock Looper ...... 48 4.5 Forest Diseases ...... 51 4.5.1 Pathogens ...... 51 4.5.2 Decayers ...... 52 4.6 Forest Blow-Down ...... 54 4.7 Forest Mosaic ...... 55 4.7.1 Age Class Groups ...... 55 4.7.2 Landscape Level Characteristics ...... 58 4.7.3 Stand Level Characteristics ...... 59 4.7.3.1 Wildfires ...... 60 4.7.3.2 Insects ...... 60 4.7.3.3 Disease and Blowdown ...... 61 4.7.3.4 Coarse Woody Debris (CWD) ...... 62 4.7.3.5 Snags ...... 65 4.8 Summary ...... 67

5.0 HARVESTING PRACTICES, DISTURBANCES AND MANAGEMENT OF THE CURRENT INDUSTRIAL FOREST ...... 71 5.1 Introduction ...... 71 5.2 Forest Harvesting Practices ...... 72 5.2.1 Lumber Industry ...... 72 5.2.2 Pulp & Paper Industry ...... 75 5.2.2.1 The Early Days ...... 75 5.2.2.2 The Start of Mechanization ...... 76 5.2.2.3 Current Harvesting Practices ...... 76 5.3 Natural Disturbances ...... 78 5.3.1 Forest Insects ...... 78 5.3.1.1 Indigenous Species ...... 78 5.3.1.2 Introduced Species ...... 79 5.3.2 Forest Fires ...... 81

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5.3.3 Forest Diseases ...... 84 5.3.3.1 Indigenous Species ...... 84 5.3.3.2 Introduced Species ...... 85 5.3.4 Moose ...... 87 5.4 Forest Management ...... 89 5.4.1 Forest Management Evolution ...... 89 5.4.2 Government Policy ...... 90 5.4.3 Industrial Development ...... 90 5.4.4 Silviculture ...... 91 5.4.4.1 The Mainstream / Routine Silviculture Program ...... 93 5.4.4.2 The “Non-routine” Silviculture Program ...... 95 5.5 Resultant Forest Mosaic ...... 97 5.5.1 Forest Mosaic Elements ...... 97 5.5.2 Age Class Groups ...... 98 5.5.3 Forest Patch Sizes ...... 102 5.5.4 Forest Succession and Species Composition ...... 102 5.5.5 Landscape Level Characteristics ...... 103 5.5.6 Stand Level Characteristics ...... 106 5.5.6.1 Coarse Woody Debris (CWD) ...... 106 5.5.6.2 Snags ...... 107 5.5.6.3 Managed Forests ...... 108 5.6 Summary ...... 111

6.0 COMPARISONS AND CONCLUDING NOTES ...... 117

REFERENCES ...... 128

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3-1. Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd Timber Limits in Newfoundland ...... 6

Figure 3-2. Corner Brook Pulp & Paper Ltd. Forest Management Area by Land Class ...... 7

Figure 3-3. Tree species composition for the total CBPPL limits ...... 7

Figure 3-4. Tree species composition of CBPPL limits in western Newfoundland ...... 8

Figure 3-5. Tree species composition of CBPPL limits in central Newfoundland ...... 8

Figure 3-6. Map of western Newfoundland (Forest Management District 15) showing a very high proportion of balsam fir, and minor components of hardwoods and black spruce ...... 9

Figure 3-7. Map of central Newfoundland (Forest Management District 06) showing a very high proportion of black spruce with minor components of balsam fir and hardwoods ...... 10

Figure 3-8. Productive Forest Area (green) in Newfoundland and Labrador described as land capable of producing at least 35 cubic meters per hectare (m³/ha) at rotation ...... 12

Figure 3-9. Ecoregions of Newfoundland (I - VIII) and their subdivisions (A, B, C, etc) ...... 14

Figure 3-10. Climatic Zones of Newfoundland: 1. South & South-East Coasts; 1a. South- East Avalon; 1b. Northern Avalon; 2. Central Uplands; 2a. Western Hills and Mountains; 3. East Coast and Hinterlands; 4. Central Lowlands; 5. West Coast; 6. Northern Peninsula ...... 19

Figure 3-11. Total annual precipitation, snowfall and rainfall data ...... 21

Figure 3-12. Annual average number of degree-days above 5oC for July and the mean daily air temperature (oC) for July ...... 21

Figure 3-13. Tectonic Map of Newfoundland showing the Avalon, Gander, Dunnage and Humber Zones ...... 23

Figure 3-14. Map of the physiographic regions of the Island of Newfoundland ...... 24

Figure 4-1. Example of Damman forest type mapping in western Newfoundland ...... 30

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Figure 4-2. Dryopteris-Balsam Fir Forest Type ...... 33

Figure 4-3. Drypopteris-Birch Hardwood forest type ...... 33

Figure 4-4. Black Spruce-Feathermoss Dry Forest Type ...... 34

Figure 4-5. Kalmia-Black Spruce Forest Type ...... 34

Figure 4-6. Mixed species uneven-aged old-growth forest in Grand Lake South, western Newfoundland ...... 37

Figure 4-7. LFDB (Large Fire Database) lightning and human-caused fire distribution by decades for Canada ...... 44

Figure 4-8. Ecozone boundaries and geographical distribution of 1959–1997 LFDB (Large Fire Database) fires across Canada ...... 44

Figure 4-9. A small defoliated patch of forest common to hemlock looper infestations ...... 49

Figure 4-10. Part of a larger hemlock looper patch with a clearly delineated abrupt edge ...... 50

Figure 4-11. Depending on stand conditions and looper numbers, near-total mortality can occur in very large areas ...... 50

Figure 4-12. Mycelial fans of Armillaria under the bark of a killed tree. Armillaria root disease centre, evident by the killed trees ...... 53

Figure 4-13. Ionotus tomentosus fruiting body at base of infected tree ; fruiting body and associated wood defect from Tomentosus rot tree; characteristic white pocket rot associated with Tomentosus root disease ...... 53

Figure 4-14. A small patch in a balsam fir forest created by blow-down ...... 55

Figure 4-15. Large-scale forested landscape that may have been typical of the pre- industrial period ...... 59

Figure 4-16. A blow-down patch in a disease-weakened forest stand ...... 61

Figure 4-17. Cutover with moderate level of coarse woody debris ...... 63

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Figure 4-18. Typical snags that benefit cavity nesting birds such as the downy wood- pecker (primary cavity nester) (top, left) and the black-capped chickadee (secondary cavity nester) ...... 66

Figure 5-1. Water Power Sawmill in Newfoundland ...... 72

Figure 5-2. White pine, the mainstay of the sawmilling industry in the late 1800s and early 1900s ...... 73

Figure 5-3. Pictures of early sawmilling at Millertown, central Newfoundland ...... 74

Figure 5-4. Balsam fir tree infected by balsam woolly adelgid ...... 80

Figure 5-5. Wildfire with water-bomber in foreground (DNR photo credit) ...... 83

Figure 5-6. A prescribed burn to eradicate balsam woolly aphid ...... 83

Figure 5-7. White pine tree infected with blister rust ...... 86

Figure 5-8. Top, left: Moose; Bottom: “Bonsai-looking” balsam fir, heavily browsed by moose; note taller white spruce on sides. Top Right: Balsam fir stocking completely decimated by moose; site herbicided in 2010, to be planted to white spruce in 2011 ...... 88

Figure 5-9. Biomass wood that does not meet pulpwood specifications ...... 92

Figure 5-10. Break-down of CBPPL Silviculture program by treatments ...... 92

Figure 5-11. Thirty-year old balsam fir stand that was pre-commercially thinned at age 15. Note presence of smaller stumps remaining from time of thinning ...... 93

Figure 5-12. Cumulative area of PCT ...... 94

Figure 5-13. Number of seedlings planted on CBPPL limits from 1891-2010 ...... 94

Figure 5-14. Number of hectares planted on CBPPL limits between 1981-2010 ...... 95

Figure 5-15. Planting of white spruce on a burned site ...... 96

Figure 5-16. Tree species planted on Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Limits from 1981 to 2010 ...... 97

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Figure 5-17. Age class chart of the total defined forest area of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd ...... 98

Figure 5-18. Current Broad age class distribution typical of western Newfoundland ...... 99

Figure 5-19. Current Broad age class distribution typical of central Newfoundland ...... 100

Figure 5-20. Age class map of Wildcove Pond / Black Lake area on the Baie Verte Peninsula showing a large area of age class 7 (121+ years) (dark green) with “intrusions” of 0–20 yr and 21–40 yr age classes (purple and pink areas, respectively) ..... 101

Figure 5-21. Typical balsam fir landscape showing mosaic of various age classes ...... 104

Figure 5-22. Pre-commercially thinned balsam fir stand with crown closure ...... 105

Figure 5-23. Snag and coarse woody debris retention following harvesting ...... 107

Figure 5-24. Old decomposing stump in a managed balsam fir stand ...... 109

Figure 5-56. Pre-commercially thinned stand of balsam fir killed by moose browsing ...... 110

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 4-1. Present-day Damman forest types, disturbances and succession trends “backcast” to the pre-industrial forest conditions ...... 31

Table 4-2. Results of pollen analysis for lake sediments in central and western Newfoundland for the time period 10.0 Ka to ca. 1.5 Ka ...... 40

Table 4-3. The major root and butt rot decay fungi affecting balsam fir, black spruce and white spruce in the Boreal forest ...... 54

Table 6-1. Comparison of the Pre-Industrial and Current Forest Conditions ...... 118

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THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the early 1990s, the indiscriminate clearing of tropical rain forests became a global environmental issue, serving as a catalyst for environmental groups, governments, and forest industries to work together and set out protocols for managing forests in a more sustainable manner. The resulting concept of Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) marked a turning point in the management, utilization and sustainability of forest resources throughout the world. While definitions for SFM vary somewhat, it is generally agreed that it aims to maintain and promote the economic, social and ecological (or environmental) values of all types of forests for the benefit of future generations. Recognizing the difficulty in definition, Criteria and Indicators for monitoring SFM were established internationally (Montreal Process 1995) and nationally by the Canadian Council of Forest Ministers(CCFM, 1997). These criteria and indicators were based on forest stakeholder consultation and used by governments to report nationally and internationally on progress towards SFM. Subsequently, these criteria and indicators were expanded to form certification standards for operational forest management.

An environmental mechanism for monitoring and evaluating sustainable forest management values, as well as the overall performance and sustainability of forest operations, is forest certification. Implemented by third party organizations like the Forest Stewardship Council, the Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI), the Canadian Standards Association (CSA), and the American Tree Farm System (ATFS), the forest certification programs officially recognize those companies and landowners who voluntarily operate well-managed, sustainable forestland according to predefined criteria. Following its implementation in the early 1990s, forest certification quickly became a market-based mechanism that encouraged forest companies to improve their land-management practices to ensure that forest operations were conducted in a sustainable manner.1,2,3

One of the requirements for forest certification outlined by the National Boreal Standard of the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) of Canada is an assessment of pre-industrial forest conditions. Knowledge concerning the forest condition prior to the commencement of the forest industrial era may be used to identify forest management objectives or strategies necessary to ensure that composition, structure, diversity, and integrity of forest ecosystems are maintained in perpetuity. However, establishing exactly when “pre-industrial forest conditions” ended and “industrial forest conditions” commenced can be problematic. In most instances, a pre-industrial forest was one that was undisturbed, or disturbed by natural conditions (e.g., fire, wind-throw), or was minimally disturbed by human influence. And, given the extent, complexity and varying history of the boreal forest across Canada, the pre-industrial condition will, in all probability, vary from

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one region, or forest, to the next. For example, the FSC National Boreal Standard defines a pre- industrial forest as one that:

“..evolved before large scale harvesting began. This occurred at different times in different areas of the boreal forest. The character of the pre-industrial forest, specifically the proportion of species and age classes, was variable over time, affected by disturbance, succession and minor changes in climate. Accordingly, the current forest should be compared with the forest represented by the "average" or "representative" condition of the preindustrial forest. This comparison will be used to help guide the determination of the "future forest" that management is trying to create.” (FSC National Boreal Standard, Intent, 6.1.5, p. 65).4

In the mid to late 19th century, cutting and/or logging for firewood and lumber was a common practice in forests throughout much of Canada, especially in areas that were proximate to towns and communities; and, as a consequence of these activities, forest fires often occurred, sometimes resulting in large areas of the landscape being burnt. Yet, early logging activity, while locally intensive, was not mechanized and generally not extensive across the landscape. And, in the absence of fires, its impacts on forest conditions and/or forest succession were probably minimal.

The introduction of railways across Canada in the late 19th century also brought inadvertent fires that consumed large portions of the forests, and in some instances, probably led to changes in forest composition and forest cover. While the actual forest harvesting activities at that time consisted of axes, saws, horses and sleds that removed large trees for lumber, it was not mechanized and could not be considered as “industrial”. The trains, on the other hand, were mechanized and, while not participating in actual forest harvesting activities, were sometimes employed in transporting logs to their final destination. Thus, while providing access to much of our forests, trains indirectly resulted in the destruction by fire of large areas of our forest. This could make an argument for the time of their arrival as the commencement of “industrial conditions” in some of our forests in Canada.

Knowledge about forest conditions that existed prior to the commencement of the forest industrial era is important in developing forest management strategies to maintain and promote the economic, social and ecological (or environmental) conditions associated with forests and forest activities well into the future. In forests where logging or extensive forest harvesting occurs, some forests may not return to their original character. In most instances, such as in western Newfoundland, disturbed balsam fir (Abies balsamea) types will return to their original condition; and, in forest stands where natural disturbances or processes such as insect activity, wind, or fire have been present, the character of these present-day forests were likely similar to forests that existed hundreds, or even thousands of years ago.

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Since the advent of industrialization, disturbances have not always been natural. Forest harvesting, in particular clear-cutting, has been common throughout the entire boreal forest and fires have occurred (either deliberately or accidentally) through human activity in places where fires would not normally or naturally have occurred. For example, railway fires have had a very significant impact on the ecology and landscape of the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, particularly in the central and western regions of the Island.

During the latter part of the industrial period, natural disturbances such as wildfires and insect infestations were no longer left to progress unabated. While suppression of fire and insect activity increased considerably during this time, large losses of timber still occurred. However, on the positive side, such disturbances have helped to maintain natural forest ecosystem processes and ecosystem biodiversity. One could make a valid argument that management for fire or insects may sometimes be unnecessary, since there are still significant areas where natural processes will occur despite our best effort to control them.

Another confounding factor that may have influenced natural succession patterns over time is the introduction of non-native species of flora, fauna and fungi. Some of these introductions have been made deliberately (invariably to deal with some other problematic species), while others arrived through natural vectors including wind currents, ice movement, or transported goods. In any case, many of these introduced species have had significant impacts, both at economic and ecological levels.

While removal of timber for fire wood and saw logs for lumber characterized much of the social fabric of Newfoundland in the 19th century, especially in areas close to the many settlements along its coastline, the true “industrial forest conditions” that saw large areas of the forest removed coincided more with intensive forest harvesting to supply the pulp and paper mills that were established early in the 20th century. For example, the first successful paper mill began operations in 1909 at Grand Falls, central Newfoundland, by the Anglo Newfoundland Development Company. Since documentation of forest conditions at the turn of the 20th century is sparse to non-existent, an assessment of pre-industrial conditions in Newfoundland is based mainly on documentation of ecological forest types and their successional trends.

The purpose of this report is to provide an ecology-based description of the pre-industrial forest limits of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Limited, particularly for the period from the time of European settlement in the mid 18th century to the late 19th century (1890). The report will focus on the various forest site types and the natural disturbances that have shaped the forested landscape over time. The impact and significance of introduced species on the integrity of the province‟s boreal forest ecosystems will also be addressed. And, the report will provide a knowledge base from which to guide harvesting and forest management practices in a manner that maintains the integrity of natural forest ecosystem processes into the future .

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2.0 METHODOLOGY

The Forest Stewardship Council‟s Boreal Standard defines the requirements of characterization of a pre-industrial condition as:5

. A description of major disturbance factors, including discussion of their distribution and frequency; assessment of the size and extent of residual patches within fire boundaries, and description of stand structure types and natural landscape patterns (e.g., patch sizes of disturbances as well as forest stands) associated with the various types of disturbance;

. Estimated mean distribution and/or composition of tree species, forest cover types and/or forest units, as appropriate;

. Estimated mean and ranges of stand-replacing disturbance intervals by landscape unit and/or forest zone; and where applicable, by forest unit, forest ecosystem or forest cover type;

. A calculation of average fire return interval determined through fire history mapping and assessment of time since disturbance, including ground-truthing; and,

. Estimated typical age class distribution, including full characterization of the age range of old forests, by:  Landscape units and/or forest zones  Forest cover types or forest units  Forest ecosystems or generalized landforms.

Given the disturbances, utilization and different environmental conditions that characterize the boreal forest across Canada, assessing the condition of pre-industrial forests can vary considerably throughout the country. Historical records of land surveys, inventories, and forest fires, as well as early documentation by travellers or settlers are very useful, but often unavailable. Other approaches include documented re-construction of disturbance history in old growth stands, sedimentary pollen and charcoal analysis, the construction of theoretical models based on documented fire history, and the assumption that forest stands of the current industrial period are representative of many of the forests that existed during pre-industrial times.

Several examples that illustrate different approaches to assessing pre-industrial conditions are as follows: 1. In the Mauricie Administrative Region of Kruger, Quebec, gap analyses and the use of age classes, forest cover and species composition were used to describe the pre-industrial condition of the forest;6 2. By removing all industrial feature polygons from the vegetation

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inventory data of Alberta Pacific Industries forest limits, the remaining undisturbed forest cover was designated as representative of pre-industrial forest conditions. The approach was justified because the forest harvesting operations on Al-Pac limits are relatively young and there are no second-rotation deciduous areas harvested within the FMA area;7 3. Pre-industrial forest conditions in the Model Forest Area, Pine Falls Forest, Manitoba, were determined by simulating (modelling) impacts of natural processes (wildfires, insects, wind) over time, using the current forest as a point of departure;8 and, 4. For the Domtar Inc. Pineland Forests of the Chapleau – Timmins Districts of Ontario, pre-industrial conditions were assessed by analyzing (i) fire records, (ii) historical land surveys, and employing (iii) theoretical spatial and non-spatial models9.

Documentation of forest composition and cover, fire size and frequency, disturbance history, and stand age and structure are non-existent, or very rare, for the pre-industrial time period in Newfoundland. Thus, for the purpose of assessing the pre-industrial condition of the forests limits of Corner Brook Pulp & Paper, this report will focus on:

 Reports and documents relevant to forestry and forest conditions in Newfoundland;

 Post-glacial pollen analyses and vegetation cover following deglaciation about 10,000 yr B.P. 10,11,12 Analyses of pollen samples from the bottom of lakes and peat deposits provide a picture of the Holocene post-glacial period that followed deglaciation, especially the establishment of major tree species on the landscape of Newfoundland.

 The Damman Forest Classification:- based on a forest classification system that was developed in the early 1960s by Dr. A.W.H. Damman.13,14 It emphasizes both edaphic and vegetative parameters, the ecological position of each forest type with respect to moisture and fertility, and the successional status of each forest type after major disturbances from insects, fire and/or logging. Thirty-five forest types were described for the forests of Newfoundland, including 11 balsam fir types, 12 black spruce types, and 12 types comprising hardwoods, hardwood thickets and/or heath types

 Backcasting: - the technique of describing forest conditions that existed in the past (e.g., pre-industrial) based on present-day forest conditions.

5 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

3.0 DESCRIPTION OF FOREST MANAGEMENT AREA

3.1 TIMBER LIMITS

The Forest Management Area (FMA) of Corner Brook Pulp & Paper Ltd (CBPPL) is located mainly in western Newfoundland, with a smaller component in the east-central region of the Island (Figure 3-1). The limits comprise approximately 1.6 million ha of forest land (Figure 3-2) of which a little more than 0.5 million hectares contain productive forest. The remainder of the land consists of bog, barren, water and scrub land. The forest harvesting landbase which produces timber for the mill is approximately 640,000 hectares. The remaining productive forest stands occur in isolated, steep and inaccessible areas, or on environmental reserves.

The dominant tree species, or working group, on the total CBPPL limits (Figure 3-3) is balsam fir which comprises some 357, 293 ha, or 55.5% of the land area. In western Newfoundland, balsam fir comprises 265,818 ha, or 74%, of the land area while black spruce (Picea mariana) comprises 37,624 ha, or 10% of the landscape (Figure 3-4 & Figure 3-6). However, in central Newfoundland, black spruce is the more dominant species, comprising 154,089 ha, or 54%, of the land area while balsam fir comprises 91,474 ha, or 32% of the land (Figures 3-5 & Figure 3-7).

Figure 3-1. Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd Timber Limits in Newfoundland.

6 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Land Classes CBPPL Limits (Total) Forested Regulatory, Other NP, 96,031 ha 145,676 ha Bog, 178,224 ha Forested Operation Alienations, 57,999 ha

Scrub, 320,701 ha

Forested Harvesting Landbase, 640,048 ha

Water, 139,012 ha

Figure 3-2. Corner Brook Pulp & Paper Ltd. Forest Management Area by Land Class. Forested Regulatory = land excluded from harvesting, e.g., in parks, buffers; Forested Operation Alientations = areas in limits but isolated, steep slopes, etc.; Other NP = Non-productive Lands.

Tree Species Composition CBPPL Limits (Total)

sH = 59,025 ha wB = 10,232 ha

hS =24,324 ha

bs = 191,713 ha bF = 357,293 ha

tA = 288 ha

Figure 3-3. Tree species composition for the total CBPPL limits. Legend: bS = black spruce; bF = balsam fir; wB = white birch; tA = trembling aspen; Hs = hardwood-softwood; Sh = softwood-hardwood .

7 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Tree Species Composition CBPPL Limits (Western) sH = 37,195 ha wB = 3,941 ha

hS = 13,266 ha

bS = 37,624 ha

tA = 48 ha

bF =265,818 ha

Figure 3-4. Tree species composition of CBPPL limits in western Newfoundland. Legend same as in Figure 3-2.

Tree Species Composition CBPPL Limits (Central) sH=21,830 ha wB = 6,291 ha

hS= 11,059 ha bF= 91,474 ha

tA = 240 ha bS=54,089 ha

Figure 3-5. Tree species composition of CBPPL limits in central Newfoundland. Legend same as in Figure 3-3.

8 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Figure 3-6. Western Newfoundland (Forest Management District 15) showing a very high proportion of balsam fir, and minor components of hardwoods and black spruce.

9 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Figure 3-7. Central Newfoundland (Forest Management District 06) showing a very high proportion of black spruce with minor components of balsam fir and hardwoods.

10 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

3.2 FOREST COMPOSITION

The forests of Newfoundland form the most eastern part of the Boreal Forest Region of North America15. A synthesis of the Global Forest Inventory16 shows a breakdown of the Island of Newfoundland (106,000 km2) into productive forest (34%), scrub forest (22%), soil barren (15.2%), peatlands (14.3%), fresh water (10.1%), rock barren (3.4 %), and cleared land (1%). A further summary17 from the first Global Inventory indicated that the major tree species occurring in the productive forests were 48.6 % balsam fir, 34.0 % black spruce, 11.1 % white birch (Betula papyrifera), 2.2 % other hardwoods (mainly trembling aspen (Populous tremuloides), 2.0 % white spruce (Picea glauca), 1.6 % eastern larch (Larix laricina) and pine, and 0.5 % ashes, poplars, cherries, etc; furthermore, 94% of the tree volume consisted of the three species, balsam fir (49%), black spruce (34%), and white birch (11%). Productive forest land capable of producing 35 m3 ha-1 occurs throughout western, central and parts of northern Newfoundland (Figure 3-8). Non-productive (non-timber) scrub forest occupies about 25% of the land surface of the Island. Of the various factors that prevent good forest growth in these areas, the most significant are excess soil moisture, insufficient nutrients, severe wind, exposure and very shallow rocky soil.

Balsam fir, often referred to as an “insect-driven” species, is the dominant tree species, particularly in the western and northern regions of the Island. On well-drained fertile sites, balsam fir can attain heights in excess of 14 meters at 70-100 years. In central Newfoundland, where fire has been more common than in western Newfoundland, the most predominant tree species is black spruce. White spruce, eastern larch and white birch form minor components of most forest stands throughout the Island.

In western Newfoundland, large areas of balsam fir forests have developed from naturally- occurring insect infestations that, periodically, kill much of the older and larger forest cover. In most instances, severe insect infestations kill most of the trees resulting in the development of even-aged stands, where less severe insect infestations can create smaller, irregular gaps across the landscape. Following harvesting disturbances where most of the trees are removed, balsam fir usually regenerates prolifically, and silvicultural thinning treatments are often required to open up the stands to promote growth.

A study designed to examine the relationship between recurrent spruce budworm and hemlock looper herbivory and stand structure in a landscape-level, insect-mediated chronosequence of naturally regenerated balsam fir forests in western Newfoundland found18, 19 that the diversity of stand structure was a function of three processes: “1. Insect-mediated mortality and stand initiation; 2. stand development and active self thinning; and, 3. density-independent mortality and stand-breakup. While these forest stands were driven by frequent insect outbreaks, their development (stand initiation, stem exclusion, stand re-initiation and transition old-growth) spanned only 100-120 years.”

11 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Figure 3-8. Productive Forest Area (green) in Newfoundland and Labrador described as land capable of producing at least 35 cubic meters per hectare (m³/ha) at rotation.20

12 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

In much of northern Newfoundland, fires are uncommon but insect infestations do occur. Much of the forest is driven by gap dynamics in which standing trees die, then snap off or blow over, creating small- or micro-scale disturbances, or “holes”, in the mature canopy allowing, in turn, for new growth to re-establish from tree seeds or advanced regeneration in the understory.21 Furthermore, the combination of tree and seedling bank size and age structure provide strong evidence of quasi-equilibrium, small scale, gap dynamic old-growth boreal forest stands.22

Given its long history of naturally-occurring forest fires, central Newfoundland is characterized by extensive even-aged stands of black spruce. The extensive areas of this tree species occur naturally as a result of wildfires in the latter part of the 19th century and early part of the 20th century. Since fire suppression has, for the most part, greatly reduced the incidence of forest fire, re-planting of black spruce seedlings following forest harvesting has, to a large degree, emulated the natural regeneration of spruce that would most likely have occurred following a natural disturbance like fire. Black spruce has a very high tolerance for unfavourable conditions, and is common on very wet and dry sites. It also grows well on fertile sites, but is a poor competitor among faster growing hardwoods.

While hardwoods have not formed a major component in any forest ecosystem in Newfoundland, white birch and trembling aspen can form significant components of mixedwood and hardwood stands on better forest sites throughout the Island, especially in the deep river valleys of the western Long Range Mountains and the Humber River and Red Indian Lake watersheds.

3.3 ECOREGIONS

The Island of Newfoundland is sub-divided into nine ecoregions within which relationships between species and habitat are basically similar (Figure 3-9). The regions are separated primarily on differences in regional climate, as well as differences in toposequence of vegetation types, structure and floristic composition of the vegetation, and information on plant distribution.23,24 The ecoregions are not necessarily aligned with the traditional boundaries that define western, central, northern and eastern Newfoundland, nor are they aligned with the forest regions defined for Newfoundland.25 For example, the forests of the Bay d‟Espoir (sub-region) area are described under the Western Newfoundland Forest eco-region because of their similar characteristics, even though this area is not at all in the proximity of what would normally be considered Western Newfoundland.

Overall, the ecoregions are a reflection of patterns in forests and vegetation, soils, geology, climate and landscape characteristics. Their boundaries form an ecological framework within which vegetation units, such as forest types, may be more easily defined and/or separated. Since the timber limits of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper overlap with five of the nine ecoregions, brief synopses are presented only for those ecoregions.

13 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Figure 3-9. Ecoregions of Newfoundland (I - VIII) and their subdivisions (A, B, C, etc).26

I. Western Newfoundland II. Central Newfoundland A. Serpentine Range Subregion A. Northcentral Subregion B. Corner Brook Subregion B. Red Indian Subregion C. Port au Port Subregion C. Portage Pond Subregion D. St. George‟s Bay Subregion D. Twillick Steady Subregion E. Codroy Subregion F. Bay d‟Espoir Subregion III. North Shore

14 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

IV. Northern Peninsula Forest A. Coastal Plain Subregion VII. Eastern Hyper-Oceanic Barrens B. Beaver Brook Limestone Subregion C. Northern Long Range Subregion VIII. Long Range Barrens V. Avalon Forest A. Southern Long Range Subregion B. Buchans Plateau-Topsails Subregion VI. Maritime Barrens C. Northern Coastal Subregion A. Northeastern Barrens Subregion D. Eastern Long Range Subregion B. Southeastern Barrens Subregion C. South Coast Barrens Subregion IX. Strait of Belle Isle D. Central Barrens Subregion

3.3.1 Western Newfoundland (I)

The Western Newfoundland Ecoregion contains some of the most favourable sites for forest growth although there is considerable variation due to altitude and proximity to the coast. The region is characterized by a humid climate and a relatively long frost-free period; and, the absence of prolonged dry periods and presence of herbaceous growth appear to have excluded fires from all but the most coarse-textured soils. Consequently, balsam fir rather than black spruce is the dominant forest cover. White birch and yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) are common in protected valleys below 200 m elevations, and red maple (Acer rubrum) is more common and robust in this ecoregion than any other on the island of Newfoundland.

The dominant soils of the forested uplands and slopes are orthic humo-ferric and ferro-humic podzols some of which are gleyed in the lower B horizon. 27,28 The presence of limestone and shale bedrock and tills derived from these calcareous substances and soil seepage are the most important factors for tree growth.29 A prominent feature of this region is the presence of marl ponds sometimes called living limestone ponds. Significant soils in these areas are orthic regosols and rego gleysols often with a mucky phase with very low (machine) trafficability. The Ecoregion is subdivided into five subregions, four of which overlap the Corner Brook Pulp and Paper timber limits.

The Corner Brook Subregion (I B, Figure 3-9) is hilly to undulating and supports some of the most productive forest stands in Newfoundland. The St. George’s Bay Subregion (I D, Figure 3- 9) differs in its soil types and consequently, serious growth and regeneration problems are often encountered. The Codroy Subregion (I E, Figure 3-9) is characterized by steep slopes and climatic conditions that are the most favourable for vegetative growth in Newfoundland. Consequently, a large portion of the area has been cleared for agriculture.

15 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Extending from the Bay of Islands there are two significant alpine rock barren areas known as the Serpentine Range Subregion (I A, Figure 3-9) that consists of North Arm Mountain and the Blow-Me-Down Range. The soils in this sub-region are orthic regosols and gleyed regosols with horizon development restricted by frost churning.30 While the rich magnesium content in the soils is toxic to most plants, the area is characterized by a sparse alpine flora that has adapted to these toxic conditions. The areas are also important from a geological point of view and attract people from all over the world.

3.3.2 Central Newfoundland (II)

The Central Newfoundland Ecoregion has the most continental climate with the highest summer temperatures and lowest winter temperatures of any part of Newfoundland. Due to the warm summer temperatures and high evapotranspiration losses, soils in the northern part of this ecoregion generally display a soil moisture deficiency. As a consequence, forest fires have played a very important role in the natural history of the region, resulting in balsam fir being replaced by black spruce as the dominant tree in the landscape.

Fire stands of black spruce and, to a lesser extent, white birch, cover extensive areas especially in the northern and eastern parts of the region; much of the balsam fir-feathermoss forest types have been converted to black spruce and some of the richer site types to hardwood forests dominated by white birch and aspen. Although aspen occurs in other regions, it is most abundant and vigorous in this ecoregion. Yellow birch is absent primarily because of the short frost-free period. Red pine (Pinus resinosa), designated as rare in Newfoundland, is most common in the Central Newfoundland region where it occurs as small patches.

The Central Newfoundland Ecoregion consists of four sub-regions, differentiated mainly on the basis of climatic and vegetation differences. Two of these subregions occur within the limits of Corner Brook Pulp & Paper Ltd. The North Central Subregion (II A, Figure 3-9), which occurs on the Corner Brook Pulp & Paper DFA, has the highest summer maximum temperatures in Newfoundland and a lower rainfall than any other sub-region; forest fires and black spruce stands are common. In the Red Indian Lake Subregion (II B, Figure 3-9), summers are cooler, precipitation is higher and the vegetation season is shorter than in the previous sub-region. Rolling topography with heavily forested areas of balsam fir characterize most of the landscape. Similarly, heavily forested balsam fir forests cover most of the rugged topography of the Portage Pond Subregion (II C, Figure 3-9) which also occurs within the limits of CBPPL. Much of the terrain in this sub-region is characterized by elevations up to 677 m. The Twillick Steady Subregion (II D, Figure 3-9) occurs in the southern part of the Ecoregion in the upper part of the Bay d‟Espoir valley. Balsam fir is also common in this area, but trembling aspen is absent.

16 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

3.3.3 Northern Peninsula Forests (IV)

This ecoregion comprises the forested lowland areas and the upland barren areas of the great Northern Peninsula (Figure 3-9). Forest fires are rare and, subsequently, balsam fir is abundant throughout most of the region, especially in the deep valleys of the Long Range Mountains. On the western side of the Northern Peninsula, the ecoregion consists of very little forested land above 200 m in elevation, whereas on the more protected south-eastern side of the Peninsula, stands of balsam fir and black spruce extend up to 450 m in elevation. Limestone underlies much of the western part of the region, with acidic rocks more common on the eastern side of the peninsula.

The growing season of 110-150 days is short, compared to 145-170 days for most other ecoregions. While precipitation is also lower than in other regions, the low summer temperatures and the shorter vegetation season help to maintain an adequate soil moisture supply. Limestone underlies most of the region, with acidic rocks more common on the eastern side of the peninsula. The ecoregion is characterized by a reduction in plant species compared to the floral complement of other ecoregions. For example, forest trees such as white pine, yellow birch, red maple and trembling aspen reach their northern limit at, or near, the southern boundary of the ecoregion. In total, about 100 plant species are excluded from this ecoregion presumably because of the difference of climate.31

The Northern Peninsula Forests Ecoregion consists of four sub-regions (Figure 3-9), of which only one subregion overlaps the timber limits of Corner Brook Pulp & Paper Ltd. The Eastern Long Range Subregion occurs on the forested lower slopes of the Long Range Mountains to an elevation of about 450 m. It is dominated by balsam fir with a high content of black spruce. Exposure on northern slopes causes a notable productivity drop, as does shallow to bedrock sites.

3.3.4 Maritime Barrens (VI)

The Maritime Barrens ecoregion occurs extensively throughout eastern, southeastern and southern Newfoundland and extend westward as a narrow coastal strip almost to Port aux Basques. The region is characterized by extensive areas of dwarf shrub heath barrens, bogs and fens and isolated stands of stunted balsam fir. In the sheltered valleys, productive stands of balsam fir are more common, becoming more extensive in the northern parts of the region near to the southern boundary of the Central Ecoregion. The Ecoregion consists of four sub-regions, of which a small portion of one, the Central Barrens Subregion (VI D, Figure 3-9), lies within the timber limits of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd. This subregion includes the barrens and patches of forests between the Central Newfoundland Ecoregion (II) and the foggy areas of the south coast. In this area, summers are warmer, fog is less frequent and winter snow cover is more reliable than in other sub regions.

17 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

3.3.5 Long Range Barrens (VIII)

The landscape of the Long Range Barrens ecoregion consists mostly of mountainous areas on the Long Range Mountains. Trees occur mainly as krumholz (stunted trees of poor form shaped by wind, salt spray and ice) usually dominated by black spruce, balsam fir and eastern larch, while small patches of forest may occur in sheltered valleys. Small portions of Corner Brook Pulp & Paper Ltd timber limits occur in three subregions: A. Southern Long Range Subregion; B. Buchans Plateau-Topsails Subregion; and, C. Northern Coastal Subregion.

3.4 CLIMATE

The climate of the Island of Newfoundland is characterized by cold winters and short, warm summers. Given its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean currents, the climate is also moderated by ocean currents; while the mild gulf stream-North Atlantic drift ocean current system encountered some 600 km to the south influences the climate, many of the climatic characteristics are attributed to the cold “ex-Arctic” water that encircles the island.32

Six major climatic zones described for Newfoundland (Figure 3-10) show major differences in climatic parameters for the Island 33. Several of these zones (2, 3, 4 & 5) overlap with the forest management area of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper (see Figure 3-1). The Central Lowlands (Zone 4) is characterized by the greatest continentality of all the regions. Annual precipitation ranges from 900-1100 mm (Figure 3-11), winters are cold and drier than that of either western or central Newfoundland, and 65-75% of the precipitation falls as snow (Figure 3-11. As a result, forest fires have been a common feature of this region for a long time.

The West Coast (Zone 5) is characterized by a moderate annual precipitation at sea-level (1000- 1200 mm) (Figure 3-12), with amounts of precipitation increasing rapidly with elevation. Winters are cold and snowy, and summers are moderately warm and sunny and, in contrast to the Central Lowlands Zone, fires are rare. One of the most important physiographic features that affect the climate of the western parts of the Island of Newfoundland is the Long Range Mountains (elevation 400-800 m) that stretch from the southwestern tip of Newfoundland to the northern part of the Great Northern Peninsula.34 The Western Hills & Mountains (Zone 2a) is similar to the Central Uplands Zone (Zone 2) which is characterized by annual precipitation ranging from 1250 to 1600 mm (Figure 3-12), except that the highest terrain has lower temperatures and increased precipitation, with continuous and complete snow cover from December to April.

18 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Figure 3-10. Climatic Zones of Newfoundland: 1. South & South-East Coasts; 1a. South-East Avalon; 1b. Northern Avalon; 2. Central Uplands; 2a. Western Hills and Mountains; 3. East Coast and Hinterlands; 4. Central Lowlands; 5. West Coast; 6. Northern Peninsula.35

19 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Figure 3-11. Total annual precipitation, snowfall and rainfall data (from Atmospheric Environment Service, Environment Canada) synthesized for wetland regions in northern, central, western, southern and southeastern Newfoundland.36 Comparison with Climatic Zones (above): Northern =6; Central = 4, 3; Western = 5, 2a; and, Southern = 1, 2. Southeastern = Ecoregion VII (Eastern Hyper-Oceanic Barrens, Fig 3-9).

Note: Precipitation (mm) should read Rainfall (mm).

20 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Figure 3-12. Annual average number of degree-days above 5oC for July37 (top) and mean daily air temperature (oC) for July38 for the Island of Newfoundland.

21 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

3.5 GEOLOGY, PHYSIOGRAPHY AND SOILS

The island of Newfoundland is divided into four major tectonic zones: Humber, Dunnage, Gander and Avalon (Figure 3-13).39 The Humber Zone represents the ancient continental margin of eastern North America, or the western margin of Iapetus, an ocean that formed approximately 600 million years ago and disappeared with continental collision around 300 million years ago. The zone stretches from the southwestern tip to the northern tip of the Island of Newfoundland, including all of the Northern Peninsula, and “...contains perhaps some of the most spectacular geology and physiography in Atlantic Canada, prompting Neale (1974)40 to hail it as the eighth wonder of the world!”41 The Dunnage Zone of central Newfoundland represents the vestiges of Iapetus, the Gander Zone represents the eastern margin of Iapetus, and the Avalon Region is of African affinity, having originated somewhere east of Iapetus. The timber limits of Corner Brook Pulp & Paper fall mostly within the Humber and Dunnage zones of northern, western, and central Newfoundland.

The terrain of Newfoundland is characterized by rugged mountains in the west that rise to an elevation of over 700 m while a broad plateau between 350-400 m in elevation characterizes most of the Island to the east. Of the 12 physiographic regions that characterize the Island42 (Figure 3- 14) the timber limits of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd occur mostly within six of these regions. Thus, the discussion in this report will consist of comments on the landscape and/or edaphic features that affect site productivity and tree growth.

In southwestern Newfoundland, the CBPPL timber limits occupy within “West Coast Lowlands” (Region #2). The terrain in this region is mainly low and flat with elevations rarely above 100 m. However, the eastern edge of this region is characterized by deep protected valleys adjacent to the more rugged terrain of the Long Range Mountains. Two of the more common geomorphological features are glacial till with moderately coarse-textured, well-drained orthic humo-ferric podzols, and glaciofluvial terraces with mainly coarse-textured gleyed humo-ferric podzols, and imperfectly-drained gleyed ferro humic podzols, as well as well-drained orthic humo-ferric podzols. This region contains both productive forests and agricultural lands.

The more northern region of the west coast timber limits occur within the southern part of the “Long Range Mountains” (#5), the “Grand Lake – White Bay Basin” (# 7) and parts of the “West Coast Calcareous Uplands”. The Long Range Mountains Region (#5) consist of a southern part and a northern part that runs the full length of the Northern Peninsula, both parts of which are separated by the “Calcareous Uplands. The forests of the southern part of the Long Rang Mountains Region (#5) are predominantly highly productive and well-stocked fern-rich bF forest with white birch, yellow birch & white spruce as regular components. However, the “West Coast

22 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Figure 3-13. Tectonic Map of Newfoundland showing the Avalon, Gander, Dunnage and Humber Zones.43

23 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Figure 3-14. Physiographic regions of the Island of Newfoundland.44

24 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Calcareous Uplands”, which are hilly, generally about 300 m above sea level, and covered with a mixture of limestone till and colluviums, are also characterized by very productive balsam fir stands. The “Grand Lake – White Bay” Region (#7) is characterized by extensive areas of fluvial deposits in glacially-scoured basins; also, thick till deposits, lacustrine and organic areas are common. The region contains some of the best agricultural farmland in Newfoundland.

In central Newfoundland, the CBPPL timber limits occur within three main physiographic regions. The first region, the Burlington Peninsula (#8), is a flat to gently rolling plateau that occurs mainly about 300 m above sea level. The main soils are orthic humo-ferric podzols. The second region, the Northeast Trough (#9), occurs predominantly throughout the northern parts of the central Newfoundland geological “Dunnage” Zone. This region includes the areas drained mainly by the Exploits, Gander, Terra Nova and Gambo Rivers. The topography consists primarily of a flat to gently rolling plain of low relief, while numerous islands, drowned valleys and small rocky peninsulas characterize the coastline. Parent materials vary from alluvial materials, to coarse-textured glaciofluvial deposits to extensive, deep organic deposits.45 The region is characterized by higher summer maximum temperatures, relatively lower rainfall, prolonged drier spells, and greater natural forest fire frequency than in most other areas of Newfoundland. As a result, black spruce stands are more common in this region. The third region is the Central Plateau of south-central Newfoundland. This region is characterized by a gentle relief with an average elevation of about 250 m. Drainage is poor, and much of the landscape is dominated by slope bogs and Atlantic ribbed fens.

25 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

4.0 BACKCASTING THE CONDITIONS OF THE PRESENT-DAY FOREST TO THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL FOREST

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, and their ultimate residency in Newfoundland, the forests had been utilized by aboriginal people who used fir and birch bark to make dwellings, storehouses and containers. Wood was used in the making of tools, weapons and household items, and other forest products were used for food and medicinal purposes.46 Following the discovery of Newfoundland in 1497 by John Cabot, and the arrival of the European fishing boats over the next couple of centuries, fishing became the mainstay of the Newfoundland economy. Until the early part of the 19th century, it was known as the transatlantic migratory fishery. Since the fishermen were not permitted to over-winter in Newfoundland, they arrived in May or June of each year and returned late in the fall to their homes in England, Ireland, and Scotland, etc. However, in the early 1800s, when fishermen were allowed to reside in Newfoundland all year round, the fishery changed to a resident fishery which resulted in the forests of the Island being used almost exclusively as a support for the fishery.

The resident fishery created a greater demand for wood and wood products, especially for the construction of homes, boat, and stages and flakes for splitting, salting and drying codfish. It became a tradition for fishermen to regard the coastal zone as their reserve to which they had free access. By 1583, when Sir Humphrey Gilbert had claimed Newfoundland as England‟s first overseas colony, parts of the coastal forests, particularly in eastern Newfoundland, had already been removed by burning and human disturbance,47 and the forest received little protection or management.

For the purpose of this report, the pre-industrial period in Newfoundland is defined as any time dating back from the year 1890. Prior to that date, sawmilling was common and timber was removed for firewood and lumber, although forest utilization was small in comparison to that of the industrial period. For example, most of the timber was used for construction of homes and boats, especially along the coastal areas adjacent to the more populated communities. The year, 1890, coincided with the timing of the construction of the cross-Island railway through much of central Newfoundland. The railway opened up the interior of the Island, leading to a marked increase in accessibility of timber, and the construction of sawmills and production of lumber on a significantly larger scale than before. Removal of trees for mine pitprops was also common (locally) in the mid to late 1890s48. However, it was not until 1905, following the construction of the first paper mill in Grand Falls, Newfoundland, that forest harvesting increased extensively throughout the central areas of the Island.

26 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

The process of “backcasting” implies that present-day forest conditions can be used to describe forests that existed in the past. While the Damman classification presents a very comprehensive description of forest types and their successional trends following disturbances, it also forms a strong basis for backcasting to the pre-industrial time. Yet, in the absence of documentation about forest conditions at that time, interpretation of forest types, disturbances and successional trends that existed over 120 years ago requires a number of assumptions. Thus, backcasting of present day forest conditions and successional trends to the pre-industrial forest condition are based on the following assumptions:

1. Fires: The number of forest fires was fewer during the pre-industrial time than after the 1890s when the railway was completed across Newfoundland and the interior of the country was opened up.

2. Insects and Pathogens: Outbreaks and impacts of indigenous insects and pathogens on forest ecosystems during the pre-industrial time were, in all probability, similar to that of the industrial period, representing much of what may be considered natural disturbances in forests.

3. Logging / Forest Harvesting: With the exception of local forested areas close to coastal villages, logging and timber removal during the pre-industrial time (prior to 1890) did not significantly impact the overall structure, composition and succession of forests at that time. Forest harvesting for lumber and firewood was not an uncommon practice prior to the start of the major industrial era in 1890, especially in and around the more populated coastal areas; however, it was mostly localized and scattered throughout the forests, unlike the more intensive (and extensive) forest harvesting that followed the start of the lumber industry in 1890, and the establishment of the first pulp and paper industry in 1906. While harvesting disturbance is an important successional factor in most present-day coniferous forest ecosystems, the impact of logging or harvesting disturbance is not a consideration in determining the status and/or condition of forests during the pre-industrial time.

4. Time: The discussions of present-day forest types and their successional trends are intended, where applicable, to describe the pre-industrial forest conditions. However, Damman notes that succession is a very slow process that requires a considerable length of time for completion and/or verification ...and that, since “such a method is subjective ...it should be realized that the remarks on natural succession are hypothetical”49. Thus, in the absence of documented evidence regarding the pre-industrial forest ecosystems, it should be noted that, while remarks about “backcasting” are based on a proven forest classification, some components of the backcasting might still be considered somewhat hypothetical, and the reader is cautioned about their interpretation for this report.

27 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

4.2 FOREST SUCCESSION

The purpose of this chapter is to create a picture of “pre-industrial” forest conditions in Newfoundland prior to 1890. With the exception of a few studies that describe pollen from coniferous trees that had established during the Holocene, documentation of pre-industrial forest conditions are non-existent for Newfoundland. Descriptions of present-day forest types, and their successional trends following natural disturbances, were “backcast”, where applicable, to create a picture of pre-industrial forest conditions prior to 1890. This approach was based on a forest classification system that was developed in the early 1960s by Dr. A.W.H. Damman. Known as the Damman site classification system, it was the first such ecological forest site classification system that predicted successional relationships in forest ecosystems.50,51 It emphasizes both edaphic and vegetative parameters, the ecological position of each forest type with respect to moisture and fertility, and the successional status of each forest type after major disturbances from insects, fire and logging. Thirty-five forest types were described for the forests of Newfoundland, including 11 balsam fir types, 12 black spruce types, and 12 types comprising hardwoods, hardwood thickets and/or heath types.

The Damman forest site classification system contributed significantly towards our understanding of forest ecosystems, and formed the basis for many forest management strategies employed today in Newfoundland. Completed first for Central Newfoundland, then western Newfoundland, and further synthesized for management purposes for all of Newfoundland,52, 53 it developed into a comprehensive ecological forest classification that links ecological concepts with forest management and silvicultural prescriptions. Much of the later biophysical mapping,54,55,56 forest and soil capability classification,57,58 and application of forest ecological classification and mapping for ecosystem management59 were based on the works of Damman. Following the second Royal Commission on Forestry in 197060 and the Report of the Newfoundland Federal- Provincial Task Force on Forestry in 197361, awareness and importance of forest management issues increased, as well as the need for improved site classification methodologies to provide support for forest management decision-making.

Over the past few decades, forest management in Newfoundland has progressed mainly from a fibre-based approach that fulfilled the requirements of the pulp and paper industry to an ecosystem-based approach that addresses ecological, environmental, social, recreational, and industrial needs from the forests. Given the need to better understand and manage forest ecosystems, Meades and Moores62 produced a “Forest Site Classification Manual” as a comprehensive field guide to the Damman forest types of Newfoundland. The Manual was based on perceived needs by forest managers to: 1. identify optimum sites for silvicultural treatments; 2. decrease losses due to soil erosion and poor road construction practices; 3. minimize losses to vegetation competition through preventative management; 4. identify optimum tree species to site

28 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

matching; and, 5. identify potential conflicts with other forest users through the environmental assessment process. The manual includes a vegetation and soil key to 33 forest types, fact sheets that provide brief descriptions of stand composition and soil characteristics, as well as management interpretations for factors such as productivity, succession, harvesting sensitivity, trafficability, natural regeneration and species suitability for artificial regeneration. Meades and Moores further indicate that, “..because the Damman forest site classification identifies nutrient and moisture relationships between component forest types, the Manual can be used to predict successional trends following disturbance by logging, fire and insect infestation.”

The Damman forest types may be mapped for operational purposes; but, given the large variation in size of many of the forest types, their application for forest management presents some limitations. The size of the ecological forest types may vary from several hectares to hundreds of hectares in size, and may form part of a toposequence from hill top to valley that includes as many as 3-4 smaller forest types within the overall larger forest type. Figure 4-1 shows the location and distribution of the major primary forest types that occur in part of the limits of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper in western Newfoundland. It is presented only as an example of how the Damman forest types can be applied and interpreted. However, it is important to note that the boundaries of these mapped ecological forest units are not necessarily consistent with the boundaries of the forest regions described for Newfoundland63, nor are they consistent with the boundaries of the forest management districts outlined for the Province64, or the boundaries or polygons used in forest operational plans.

The successional trends in forests in Newfoundland and the major disturbance vectors (e.g., fire, insects, blow-down) that impact these forests are discussed in this chapter. Given the assumptions described in section 4.1 regarding fire, insects, forest harvesting and time, and the descriptions of the disturbance vectors, conditions of forest types in the current industrial period are backcast in an attempt to describe the conditions of the pre-industrial forests. Table 4-1 illustrates the probable “backcast” forest types that existed in the pre-industrial period, while Figures 4-2 to 4-5 show some typical Damman forest types in Newfoundland.

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Figure 4-1. Example of Damman forest type mapping in western Newfoundland.65

Fdh = Dryopteris-Hylocomium-bF; Fh = Hylocomiun-bF; Fp = Pleurozium-bF; Fdr = Dryopteris- Rytidiadelphus-bF; Ft = Taxus-bF; Fr = Rubus-bF; SM/R = bS-Feathermoss/Bedrock; SM/B=bS- Feathermoss/Bog; SO = Osmunda-bS; Sk = Kalmia-bS; Z = Organic Bog & Bedrock; O = Organic Deposits; K = Kalmia Heath.

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Table 4-1. Present-day Damman forest types, disturbances and succession trends “backcast” to the pre-industrial forest conditions (synthesized from Damman66,67; Meades & Moores68).

Insects Fire Forest Type Abbr. C W N C W N Balsam Fir Forest Types A. Balsam Fir Herb-Rich Forest Types Equisetum-Rubus-bF Fre Fre Fre Br Br Rubus-bF Fr Fr Fr Fr SM/M Br Br Clintonia-bF Fc Fc SM/D Taxus-bF Ft Ft SM/M B. Balsam Fir Fern-Rich Forest Types Dryopteris-Hylocomium-bF Fdh Fdh Bdc Dryopteris-bF Fd Fd Fd Bd Bd Dryopteris-Rhytidiadelphus-bF Fdr Bd Bd Dryopteris-Lycopodium-bF Fdl Fdl Bta C. Balsam Fir - Black Spruce Moss-Rich Forest Types SM/M > Fh Hylocomium-bF Fh Fh BtA > Fh SM/D > Fp Pleurozium-bF Fp Fp SK > SK (>Fp?) Black Spruce Forest Types Sphagnum-bS Ss SKn SKn Ss bS-Feathermoss/bedrock SM/R SK SM/R > K > SM/R

bS-Feathermoss/very dry SM/vD SKc SM/vD SMD > Fp bS-Feathermoss/dry SM/D SK SK > Fp bS-Feathermoss/bog SM/B SKs SKn SM/B bS-Feathermoss/moist SM/M Fh Fh SM/M Kalmia-Black Spruce Forest Types Kalmia-bS SK SK SK SK SM/D SM/D SM/D Cladonia-Kalmia-bS SKc SKc SKc SKc SKc Nemopantus-Kalmia-bS SKn SKn SKn Sphagnum-Kalmia-bS SKs SKs SKs SKs SKs C = Central Newfoundland; W = Western Newfoundland; N = Northern Newfoundland > = Probable succession in absence of additional fire disturbances Hardwood Forest Types: Br = Rubus-Birch; Bd = Dryopteris-Birch; Bdc = Dryopteris-Clintonia-Birch; BtA = Birch-Aspen;

31 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

4.2.1 Successional Trends in the Coniferous Forest Types of Newfoundland

Most of the coniferous forest types of Newfoundland are characterized by stable, or climax, successional forest types that are normally driven by disturbances from insect, fire, logging, and windthrow, and generally develop into the same type after disturbance69,70 (see bolded “Stable / Climax” Forest Types: e.g., Fre, Fr, Fc, Ft, Fp, SM/B, SM/M; Table 4-1). For example, in most areas of western and northern Newfoundland, large areas of stable balsam fir stands are common. These stands normally return to their original condition following disturbances from insect and/or logging. And, in central Newfoundland, large areas of black spruce forests are also common. It is generally understood that these spruce forests have developed from spruce stands following fire. The presence of fire in balsam fir stands and the absence of fire in black spruce stands generally lead to the development of forest types that are considered uncommon throughout most of central, western and northern Newfoundland. However, the extent to which these various fire-succession forest types occurred in the pre-industrial landscape depends on the nature and extent of fires that occurred during that period, (i.e., frequency, severity, size, type). While a number of fires occurred during the pre-industrial period as a result of human activity, lightning-caused fires appear to have been relatively infrequent during that period; furthermore, mean fire intervals may have been in excess of 200 years in some areas.71 Thus, the following discussion will attempt to address the question of how these various fire-succession stand types develop over such time periods.

4.2.2 Presence of Fire in Balsam Fir Forests

Fire is considered rare in balsam fir stands in Newfoundland. On moist, nutrient-rich sites, its occurrence strongly decreases or eliminates balsam fir, leading to a variety of successional possibilities. In most instances, fire-burnt balsam fir sites will succeed to white birch stands (e.g., Fre > Br; Fr > Br; Fdh > Bdc; Fd > Bd; Fdl > Bta; Table 4-1); and, in the absence of further fire activity, these birch stands will revert to their original balsam fir stands (Table 4-1).

Moderately to poorly productive balsam fir stands that have a significant component of black spruce will often succeed to black spruce stands following fire, especially if the fir forest has a poor seed supply. For example, the Pleurozium-bF forests (Table 4-1) will normally succeed to black spruce forests (on sandy loams and loamy sands) (SM/D, Table 4-1) and can remain that way for long periods of time. The Hylocomium-balsam fir forests (Table 4-1), which occur predominantly throughout central and southern Newfoundland, and more rarely in western Newfoundland, on seepage gleysolic soils, will also succeed to white birch (BtA) or black spruce forests (SM/M) (Table 4-1) when disturbed by fire. Both birch and spruce forests will eventually revert to the original fir stands if left without further fire disturbance over very long periods of time.

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Figure 4-2. Dryopteris-Balsam Fir Forest Type.

Figure 4-3. Drypopteris-Birch Hardwood forest type (from Meades and Moores72)

33 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

Figure 4-4. Black Spruce-Feathermoss Dry Forest Type.

Figure 4-5. Kalmia-Black Spruce Forest Type.

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The forests of Central Newfoundland are characterized by areas of both balsam fir and black spruce. Damman73 indicates that, in Region B28a74 (central Newfoundland), “balsam fir occupies the major part of this forest section, although extensive fire-stands of black spruce occur in the eastern half. In undisturbed forests, balsam fir occupies all soils except the extremely dry and wet ones, which are covered with either black spruce stands or alder swamps. Hardwood forests restricted here to stands of white birch, trembling aspen and pin cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica), are always of fire origin.” Considering that Central Newfoundland has had a long history of pre- industrial fires extending back over thousands of years75, there is a high probability that many of these fires occurred in stands dominated by balsam fir. Furthermore, given that balsam fir comprises a major part of the Central Newfoundland forests, this species was, in all probability, very prevalent during the pre-industrial period. Thus, the present-day productive black spruce- moss forest types that provide the bulk of harvestable spruce for the forest industry may have had their origins in forest types that consisted predominantly of balsam fir.

4.2.3 Absence of Fire in Black Spruce Forests

In general, black spruce forests are driven by fire disturbances, and return to their original condition following fire. Damman76 indicates that “all black spruce forest types are able to perpetuate themselves after fire ....and, will only develop into other types owing to somewhat abnormal conditions during the regeneration period. Stocking and quality of spruce sites are improved when fires create good seedbed conditions (presumably when fire severity is sufficient to remove an adequate level of organic matter)”. However, Damman also notes that “repeated fires will reduce almost any forest into waste land…and degradation becomes easier the poorer the site is. For example (Table 4-1), Sphagnum-Kalmia-bS forests (SKs), Cladonia-Kalmia-bS forests (SKC), bS-feathermoss forests on hydromorphic humus podzols (SM/B), bS-feathermoss forests on sand and gravels (14, SM/vD), bS-feathermoss forests on sandy loam and loamy sands (SM/D), as well as bS-feathermoss forests on lithosols (SM/R) are all stable, or near-stable, forest types that normally develop into the same type if left undisturbed, or are disturbed by fire. While the black spruce forest on lithosols (SM/R, Table 4-1) normally develop into the same type (SM/R) following fire, a “severe” fire will completely destroy the raw humus layer, making the shallow soil unsuitable for tree growth, but suitable for succession to Kalmia barrens (K).

In the absence of fire, black spruce forests may be affected somewhat by insect infestations. In the drier and more nutrient-poor forest types (SM/R, SM/vD, SM/D, SM/B; Table 4-1), insect disturbances will generally lead to increased presence of Kalmia and/or Cladonia, and a conversion to a Kalmia-black spruce forest (SK), Cladonia-Kalmia-black spruce forest (SKc), or a Nemopanthus-Kalmia-black spruce forest type (SKn). On the mid to upper seepage slopes, the black spruce sites (SM/M, Table 4-1) generally return to Hylocomium-balsam fir forest type (Fh).

The east-central region of Newfoundland is covered by extensive areas of black spruce forests. The prevalence of shallow, coarse-textured, nutrient-poor soils may have pre-disposed much of the region to black spruce cover types. According to Damman, such sites would have been “stable to black spruce” and include such site types as Cladonia-black spruce and Kalmia-black

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spruce. These sites would tend to remain as black spruce over the long term, even in the absence of fire. However, large areas of the remaining black spruce forests are mostly the result of human-caused fires, including the many railway-related fires that began at the end of the 19th century following the completion of the railway across the Island. Thus, it appears that the level of fires and associated spruce stands in the region may not have been as prevalent or dominant on the landscape of central Newfoundland during the pre-industrial period (pre-European settlement) as they have been during the current industrial period. Nevertheless, the fires that did occur from natural causes would likely have been significantly larger, and burned for longer periods of time. As a result, large spruce stands would have covered the landscape during the pre-industrial time, albeit to a lesser extent than the industrial period.

Boreal forests dominated by shade-tolerant fir and spruce complexes are particularly well-adapted to the development of long-term old-growth continuity in the absence of large-scale disturbance.77 In the Canadian boreal forest, conditions that promote the maintenance of self-perpetuating forests through long-term gap dynamics certainly exist. Theoretically, boreal forests in cold, wet environments that are not disturbed by fire or insect herbivory for long periods of time will revert to multi-cohort, self-perpetuating, gap-driven forests.78 Gap disturbance is driven by treefalls and the production of standing dead trees. Trees die from insect, disease, and meteorological vectors, remain standing as snags or fall to the ground to create a canopy gap. This single or multi-tree gap may initiate a new period of recruitment depending on the presence of seed or advance regeneration and the availability of site resources. Trees die standing, snap off, or uproot. The particular process of death affects not only the spatial characteristics of gap formation, but also the type of microsite produced and the potential resources available to gap regeneration.79

If we have, for example, a black spruce-moss forest type that regenerated after fire during the pre- industrial period, we can expect the stand to live for maybe 100 years or so after which it starts to break up, perhaps by root diseases such as Inonotus tomentosus and blowdown, creating increased light and exposed mineral soil in the case of windthrow. Depending on nearby seed sources, these gaps would likely recruit black spruce, white pine, and white birch as well as balsam fir seedlings. Over time this process continues with more and more of the original spruce stand being replaced by a mixture of species including the original spruce species, filling in gaps as they become available. This process would continue gradually over the next 100 or 200 years, by which time we would have developed a relatively stable, old-growth, multi-cohort, uneven- aged forest. If we then have another fire event, the area would likely return to a dominant spruce stand again, completing the cycle. Meades confirmed that this scenario is quite plausible but only for what he referred to as “the zonal site in Central Newfoundland – not too rich, not too poor, not too wet and not too dry fir-spruce mixtures on slopes”. White pine was probably a constant companion in many of the black spruce fire stands of the central ecoregion. The white pine component of this scenario would also be more likely to play out if this spruce-moss forest was on the drier end of the spruce-moss forest type scale with either coarse or well-drained sandy loams which are more favourable for pine establishment (Figure 4-6). The richer end of the spruce-moss forest types would likely develop a much higher fir component and be more vulnerable to insect infestation and mortality

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Figure 4-6. Mixed species uneven-aged old-growth forests (with white pine) in Grand Lake South, western Newfoundland.

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The long-term scenario (extended periods in absence of fire) would play out much differently with the much poorer black spruce-Kalmia types on both the drier (Cladonia-Kalmia-black spruce) and wetter (Sphagnum-Kalmia-black spruce) ends of the site spectrum. According to Damman, these site types are relatively stable to black spruce. As both site types tend to be somewhat open, in absence of fire, they would eventually fill in with spruce layers. Over very long time periods, the taller, older trees would give way to the new cohorts from layers.80 In the event of fire, both forest types would eventually return to their stable, original condition provided the fire had sufficient severity to create an adequate seedbed and there was an adequate seed source. If the fire was not severe, as is often the case with spring fires, such areas may revert to dwarf scrub and higher levels of Kalmia.

4.3 FOREST FIRES

4.3.1 Holocene Period: 10,000 BP – 1500 BP

Palynology, or pollen analyses, is a widely used research method for „reconstructing former vegetation by means of the pollen grains it produced.81 While this technique is based on the assumption that the number of pollen grains deposited per unit of time, at any given point, is directly related to the abundance of the associated species in the surrounding vegetation82, the pollen data require careful interpretation because different species produce different amounts of pollen, and some pollen grains are more widely dispersed than others.83, However, in general, pollen grains are abundantly produced, are widely and evenly dispersed, have extremely resilient exines which allow for their survival in deposits where other fossils types would normally not survive, and are easily quantified.84

In Newfoundland, pollen grains have been analyzed for lake sediments85,86,87 and organic deposits at the bottom of deep bogs.88,89,90 This research provides us with a snapshot of vegetation cover at various points during the Holocene, a period of time that started approximately 12,000 years BP (before present day) following the retreat (or, melting) of the Wisconsin ice sheet that had covered most of Newfoundland. This period was marked by significant differences in climate and, subsequently, differences in the time of establishment and growth of vegetation. In North America and Europe, the Holocene is subdivided into five time intervals, based on climatic fluctuations: [ka = 1000s of years, BP]

1. Pre-Boreal (10 ka – 9 ka) 2. Boreal (9 ka – 8 ka) 3. Atlantic (8 ka – 5 ka) 4. Sub-Boreal (5 ka – 2.5 ka) 5. Sub-Atlantic (2.5 ka – present)

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While past climates varied somewhat between and within North America and Europe, and methods used to date and characterize these climatic intervals may have provided different dates and features, it is generally understood that the Pre-Boreal climatic period (10 ka – 9 ka) marked a warming transitional period from the cooler climates that prevailed following deglaciation to the warmer Boreal Period (9 ka – 8 ka). In general, the Pre-Boreal period was characterized by the establishment of tree species such as birch and poplars, then pines. During the Boreal period, establishment of pines continued, along with more hardwoods such as oak, elm and linden. This was followed by the Atlantic period (8 ka – 5 ka) which was characterized by the warmest and moistest climatic interval during the Holocene – a period commonly referred to as the Holocene Climatic Optimum. The Sub-Boreal interval (5 ka – 2.5 ka) that followed was also moist, but cooler than that of the preceding Atlantic interval. The last climatic period, the Sub-Atlantic (2.5 ka – present) marked a colder, wetter climatic phases, during which peat growth increased. It also marked a period in which extensive clearing of forest began in Europe and, later, in North America.

The climate and vegetation that characterized much of Newfoundland during the Holocene was reconstructed using pollen analyses91 (Table 4-2). While limited in its ability to provide detailed descriptions of forest cover, forest types or forest conditions during the Holocene, the following four climatic periods (or, intervals) provide us with a time frame as well as the role that climate played in the establishment of forest tree species on the landscape of Newfoundland.

Earliest Holocene to 8.0 ka Picea was one of the earliest conifers to establish in southwestern Newfoundland (around 10 ka). White spruce expanded before black spruce and, within a few centuries, was followed by the arrival and expansion of balsam fir.92 Furthermore, in the Southwest Brook Lake site (Table 4-2) there is evidence for the establishment of pine at approximately 8.5 ka, suggesting that summer temperatures may have already reached or surpassed modern levels in locations remote from windward coasts.

8.0 – 6.5 ka By 8.0 KA, the major components of the present vegetation were present throughout most of the island of Newfoundland93. Furthermore, both summer temperatures and length of growing season had increased to levels comparable to that of present day. Consequently, birch (Betula) and ash (Fraxinus) became more common. Elevated concentrations of charcoal in samples taken from central Newfoundland suggest a greater frequency of warm, dry summer weather and an increase in forest fires. In western Newfoundland, pine pollen is present for Joe‟s Pond and Southwest Brook Lake, but absent from Robinson‟s Pond near the coast. Furthermore, while pine had established in the warmer inland sites, lower ocean temperatures may have prevented it from establishing near coastal sites94.

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Table 4-2. Results of pollen analysis for lake sediments in central and western Newfoundland for the time period 10.0 Ka to ca. 1.5 Ka (modified from Macpherson 199595).

Holocene Western North Central Climatic Intervals Robinson's Joe's SW (ka BP) Bishop's Falls Pond Pond Brook Lake 1 2

A 0.0 t l S 0.5 a u n 1.0 Pinus b t X i 1.5 c 2.0 Picea X Abies X 2.5 Abies Abies Betula B o WETLAND WETLAND Pinus S 3.0 r u e Alnus b 3.5 Alnus Pinus X a Betula l 4.0 Pinus 4.5 X Pinus 5.0 X WETLAND A t 5.5 X l a 6.0 Abies X n Pinus X t 6.5 Pinus i Betula c 7.0 Fraxinus X 7.5 X

B o Betula Betula X r 8.0 e a Picea Picea l 8.5 Betula Betula B 9.0 Abies o Abies Abies P r r Abies e e 9.5 Picea Picea Picea a Picea

l

10.0

Holocene Climatic Intervals: 1. Generalized; 2. Newfoundland (MacPherson 1995)

Intensity of colour indicates relative warming and cooling trends Arrows indicate increase or decrease in pollen grains X Indicates high charcoal in samples ka BP years (x 1000) before present

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6.5-4.0 ka The 6 ka time-horizon “marks the beginning of the period of greatest Holocene warmth on the Island of Newfoundland.”96 During this climatic interval (6.5-4.0 ka), both white pine (Pinus strobus) and red pine spread to their present limits in central and western Newfoundland. Samples taken in central Newfoundland were marked overall by high charcoal input, although the period was marked by a reduction in fire importance at 6.5-4.5 ka, and again at 4.5-4.0 ka. The forest fires were related to the widespread presence of pine (and increased fuel accumulation with increased tree density) rather than to increased drought. In fact, the interval was characterized by “increased moisture, as indicated by increases in Sphagnum at sites in all regions ....and by an increase in Abies in both central and western regions. While the increased fire frequency may be attributed to increased fuel accumulation (litter, blow-down, etc), central Newfoundland is also characterized by drier, warmer summers, coarse shallow soils, and a long history of lightning- caused forest fires.97

4.0 ka to ca. 1500 This climatic period was characterized by decreasing summer warmth and length of growing season, and an increase in precipitation, as well as a reduction in fire activity. As precipitation increased and temperatures decreased, the period from 3.0 ka to 2.5 ka also marked a point at which Sphagnum growth and peatland development significantly increased throughout most areas of Newfoundland.98 It also marked a decline in both white pine and red pine values, both of which never fully recovered. Indication of cooling also occurred in the interval 4.5-4.0 ka at northeastern and western near-coastal sites, in the form of a decline of pine or tree birch, depending on the location.99

In summary, the palynological results (Table 4-2) show that balsam fir, black spruce and white spruce, as well as white birch had established in western and central Newfoundland as early as 9.5 Ka. However, both white pine and red pine did not spread to their present limits in central and western Newfoundland until the warmer “Atlantic” climatic interval (6.5-4.0 Ka). Fire was a key factor in central Newfoundland where samples were marked overall by high charcoal input from about 8.0 Ka to 1.5 Ka. Since black spruce is a fire-tolerant species that can generally reproduce following fire disturbances, its distribution throughout the boreal forest of North America is generally linked with past fire disturbances. While the large areas of black spruce in central Newfoundland are generally associated with fire disturbances in the past, any link between the high charcoal in central Newfoundland samples and large areas of black spruce in that region between 8.0 Ka and 1.5 Ka is purely speculative. However, it does indicate that, throughout most of the Holocene, fires were more common in the central Newfoundland region than in the western region.

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4.3.2 Early Settlement Period: 1600 - 1890

Fire records from the early settlement period in Newfoundland begin as far back as 1619 when it was reported that 5,000 acres were “burned by fishers”.100 These fire records, which consist of 167 entries from 1619 to 1900, make reference to multiple fires ongoing at or about the same time with remarks such as, “a succession of devastating fires”, “many large fires”, “a number of very severe fires in the vicinity”, and “numerous fires in progress since May”. Very few of the records from this particular time period provided any measure of fire size, other than being subjectively described as “huge” or “extensive”. With the exception of the first fire record of 5,000 acres, a fire at Fermeuse in 1622 noted the fire to be “10 miles in circumference”, and a fire at Gander Lake in 1867 “that covered approximately 2,000 square miles”. There were also few indications of the cause of the fire, although given that most of these fires were in the more populated areas of the province, it is likely that most can be attributed to human activity. A fire in Gambo in 1877 was the only one confirmed to have been started by lightning, although it is quite likely there were others. In any case, it is apparent that the incidence of forest fires increased with the general development of the province and the subsequent increase in population.

4.3.3 Natural Forest Fire Cycles

The charcoal data of the pre-settlement period101 clearly shows that the central part of Newfoundland has a very long history of fire occurrence. However, meaningful data on either fire frequency or Mean Fire Interval (MFI), defined as the mean number of years between two fires averaged over a reference time period, is not available for any region of Newfoundland. Assuming that the principal cause of fires during this period was lightning, the fire frequency would most certainly have been significantly lower than that of the later “industrial” period (after 1890). From an ecological perspective, this would have had a significant influence on the presence, distribution and development of fire-driven forest ecosystems such as black spruce forests.

The mean fire interval (MFI) for a case study area in Quebec102 varied from 92 to 360 years when portioned into three periods delineated by substantial changes in climate and human occupation history. The purpose of the study was to investigate the long-term variability in the mean fire interval (MFI) of a boreal landscape in eastern North America and its implications on forest management strategies and targets that would accommodate this natural variability in MFI. The results were based on sedimentary charcoal from three lakes and dated by means of C and Pb isotopes. The study concludes that, “this variability highlights the fact that no single MFI value can be used as a unique reference.”

In the absence of such detailed data for Newfoundland, it is difficult to determine if MFI ranges would be similar to those of the Quebec study area. Newfoundland‟s moist Maritime oceanic climate would probably have been different than that for Quebec, and many of the forest

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landscapes of Newfoundland may be been less contiguous or more interrupted with bogs, scrub forest and water bodies. Stocks (pers. comm.)103 indicates that MFIs in the 200 year range for specific study sites are not uncommon although the spatial and temporal resolution of lake sediment core data taken from various places in Eastern Canada do not always line up on a landscape level and must therefore be treated with caution when making such extrapolations. Furthermore, given the moist climate that characterizes much of Newfoundland, it would be not unrealistic to surmise that the range of such MFIs for the Island may be even greater than the 200 year range.

The Large Fire Database (LFDB) for large forest fires in Canada (1959–1997)104 indicates (Figure 4-7) that 97% of the area burned in Canada results from fires greater than 200 ha. Compiled and summarized for some 17 ecozones across the country (Figure 4-8) and assessed on such factors as fire size, frequency, season and cause, the database shows that 70% of the fires were caused by lightning, most of which occurred in the northern ecozones. In Newfoundland, most of the fires were caused by human activity, rather than lightning. The absence of lightning fires may be due to the moist, oceanic climate that characterizes much of the Island of Newfoundland. These findings support the thesis that lightning-caused fires do not appear to have been prevalent in Newfoundland as compared to that of the western and northern regions of the country. While the data is from a relatively short time period (39 years), it does suggest that lightning-caused fires may have also been uncommon during the pre-industrial period.105 Furthermore, it is likely that, in the absence of controls, some of these fires may have been extensive. If this were the case, it would have significant implications on ecosystem development in central Newfoundland, specifically as it relates to Mean Fire Interval.

Since the Ice Age, fire has been a dominant disturbance regime in Canadian boreal forests.106 The physiognomy of these boreal forests is strongly tied to the fire regime which is comprised of fire frequency, size, intensity, seasonality, type and severity, all of which have ecological impacts. Fire frequency affects forests through the interruption or termination of tree/stand life cycles. Fire size affects landscape patchiness and fire type refers to crown, surface and ground fires, which are controlled by fire intensity, fuel characteristics and weather. The season of the year in which the fire occurs is one of the determinants of fire successional pathways and has a pronounced effect on the structure of post-fire ecosystems and landscapes. Fire severity is a measure of fuel consumption; primarily the depth of burn in surface organic layers and is therefore another important controlling factor of post-fire ecosystem structure and function.

The impacts of these rather complex set of fire regime variables are exemplified in Terra Nova National Park (TNNP), central Newfoundland, where forest landscapes reflect a long fire history. In a report on park fire history and vegetation analysis, R.G. Power107 reports that the very historical disturbance forces that have shaped the Park‟s forest are now considered a problem.

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Figure 4-7. LFDB (Large Fire Database) lightning and human-caused fire distribution by decades for Canada.108

Figure 4-8. Ecozone boundaries and geographical distribution of 1959–1997 LFDB (Large Fire Database) fires across Canada.109

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The report states that, “the rate of forest renewal by fire was greater in the past; and, virtually no forest regeneration due to fire has occurred in TNNP within the last 40 to 50 years”; furthermore, “the most pressing problem for TNNP forest is one of regeneration. This is either due to the absence of stand replacing fires or to low severity fires which do not remove duff or the rooting layer, serving to propagate ericaceous shrub species and eliminate black spruce seed sources. Many sites affected by fire have shown little sign of forest succession, yet fire has played an important part in shaping forest communities in the past. The absence of regenerative fire and the occurrence of light fires producing heath-covered barrens pose a threat to the integrity of the boreal forest of east central Newfoundland”.

The fire regime aspects described above present a complex set of variables that affect successional pathways and the structure of post-fire ecosystems and landscapes for most of Central Newfoundland, as well as TNNP. In other words, the commonly held notion that all black spruce forest types perpetuate themselves after fire may not always be true. In TNNP, the regeneration problem is primarily due to the low severity of fires, which can be attributed to factors such as the prevailing weather conditions at the time of the fires, fuel conditions, etc. In addition to the problem of insufficient regeneration, many productive black spruce-moss forests are transitioning to Kalmia heath barrens or Kalmia-spruce forests. This may certainly have been the case for the pre-industrial forests as well, which makes back-casting of forest landscapes to pre-industrial time periods all the more complicated.

Wildfires caused by human activity were quite common and extensive during the century prior to the start of the industrial period at about 1890. However, during the period prior to European habitation, fires originating from lightning would have been relatively rare. The earlier fires would have burned and advanced freely, influenced only by natural factors such as weather (rain, wind, temperature, and relative humidity, etc.), forest fuel conditions and the presence of such land features as wetlands, water bodies, barrens and general topography.

4.4 FOREST INSECTS

Fire, insects, wind, diseases, floods and even browsing by animals are all considered disturbance agents of the boreal forests. In the last 70 years in Canada, 48% of the boreal forest was disturbed by fire, 39% was disturbed by insects (mainly spruce budworm in the east) and 10% was disturbed by logging110. Since many fires are stand-replacing, creating large areas of even-aged forests, they are often considered the dominant disturbance vector in the boreal forest.111 However, in many areas of eastern Canada, where balsam fir forests are dominant, and fire frequency is low, insect infestations are considered the main driving forces in these forests.112 Indeed, balsam fir forests are often referred to as being “insect-driven”. While Newfoundland‟s balsam fir forests have experienced significant infestations of spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferauna Clemens), the hemlock looper (Lambdina fiscellaria Guenee), black headed budworm (Acleris gloverana Walsingham), and the balsam fir sawfly (Neodiprion abietis) have also affected many areas of these same forests.

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4.4.1 Spruce Budworm

The spruce budworm is the most widely distributed and most destructive forest insect in North America.113 It is indigenous to the boreal forest and periodically causes extensive defoliation and tree mortality to a wide variety of coniferous tree species. In eastern North America it is a major defoliator of balsam fir, white spruce, red spruce and black spruce. While this insect has probably always been an integral part of spruce-fir ecosystems, actual evidence of infestations in the Laurentide Park, Quebec, date back some three centuries to the early 1700s.114 In southeastern Quebec, dendrochronology was used to reconstruct the history of budworm outbreaks by sampling old wooden beams from historic buildings.115 The trees from which the beams were derived were not killed during any of the infestations and only suffered periods of reduced growth. However, periods of significant ring width reduction reflected substantial growth reduction as a result of effects of budworm defoliation; moreover, outbreak frequency was quite stable with a mean interval of about 40 years.

Whether trees and stands experience reduced growth or mortality depends on the duration and severity of the outbreak. A typical outbreak, in which high defoliation occurs repeatedly over 5 to 15 years, will lead to substantial decline in vigour and increased mortality in affected trees and stands.116,117 However, in Newfoundland, where forest stands have been impacted by both hemlock looper and spruce budworm infestations, such comparisons are problematic due to the similarity in radial growth suppression.118 A study of the dynamics of western Newfoundland balsam fir under “co-occurring” spruce budworm and hemlock looper outbreak disturbances using dendro-ecological analysis showed119 that, since 1910, each of the stands were, on average, impacted by an outbreak disturbance every 17 years. Furthermore, during the 19th century other outbreaks have been detected showing a similar frequency.

The history of spruce budworm outbreaks in eastern North America shows that outbreaks occur periodically but not necessarily in predictable cycles. Infestations appear to have occurred at more regular intervals in eastern Canada occurring regionally every 30 to 40 years.120,121 In Newfoundland, four outbreaks have been recorded since 1942: 1942-1952, 1952-1956, 1960- 1971, and 1971-1978.122 While the three earlier outbreaks were relatively small and caused little damage, the latter outbreak in the 1970s was unprecedented in size and intensity. In 1977, it covered approximately 90% of the Island and, by 1980, 17 million m3 of the estimated 40 million m3 of severely affected timber volume was dead, with the balance either dying or severely damaged.123

In Newfoundland, the three principal elements that significantly influence outbreaks are: 1. dispersal of budworm moths from the mainland; 2. a prolonged period of favourable weather;

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and, 3. an available food supply. At a time when the other Atlantic Provinces were experiencing heavy infestations from budworm, heavy moth migration was observed on radar moving on air currents towards Newfoundland.124 While this influx of moths from the mainland may have contributed to increasing local populations on the Island, epidemic levels can also occur independently. It is also fairly certain that moth migrations to Newfoundland will continue to occur because suitable temperatures and similar wind conditions occur frequently in the Atlantic Provinces.125

The other requirement for outbreak susceptibility (i.e., available food supply) comprises large areas of mature coniferous forests, high in fir content, although young, immature stands are also readily defoliated when an infestation occurs. Climatic release also appears to be essential before outbreak populations develop, even in areas where susceptible stands are available. Factors required for climatic release are warm, dry summers for a period of three to four years.126,127,128 However, Newfoundland weather is usually somewhat marginal for the development of budworm outbreaks. Wet, cool conditions are associated with high mortality of young larvae in early summer.129 While there have been four outbreaks in Newfoundland since 1942 as noted above, only one of these has resulted in appreciable mortality, and can be described as a catastrophic, forest-changing event.

Mortality of balsam fir usually starts four or five years after the beginning of a severe, uncontrolled budworm outbreak. Typically, 70 to 100 percent of trees will die in stands that are mature, and 30 to 70% of trees will die in immature stands. As the rate and extent of mortality is influenced by the vigour of the trees being attacked, tree mortality in Newfoundland occurred at a relatively rapid rate, as many forest areas were weakened from balsam woolly aphid and the hemlock looper infestations in the period just prior to the budworm infestation of the 1970s.130 Weaker, over-mature stands are also more predisposed to mortality. While green patches and areas of only partial mortality were common, most areas of contiguous forest cover tended to experience near total mortality.131 The degree of patchiness was never mapped or determined per se, and damage-class mapping from the air was usually done using 1:50,000 scale topographic maps. Areas in the order of 100 hectares were often considered as patches. During this time period, inventory mortality mapping was also done at a relatively coarse scale.

In summary, spruce budworm outbreaks in Newfoundland show no pattern of occurrence or size. For example, the intervals between the outbreaks recorded since 1942 are all different, and for the most part, all of the outbreaks were small and created minimal damage. However, the last infestation of spruce budworm in the 1970s was unprecedented in size and intensity, clearly demonstrating that this insect can have very large and catastrophic impacts on the Province‟s forests. In addition to the large areas of susceptible forests, specific climatic conditions have to

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occur to trigger these catastrophic events. It is not clear as to what the time intervals might have been for similar catastrophic, forest-changing spruce budworm events during the pre-industrial period. There does not appear to be a way of determining a cycle time or knowing how often “big forest-changing spruce budworm events” would have occurred on the Island, and to what extent the damage would have occurred on a spatial level. However, assuming that, during the pre- industrial period, balsam fir forests covered much of the landscape, especially in western Newfoundland, and climatic conditions were similar to those of today, there is very little documented evidence to suggest that spruce budworm outbreaks prior to 1890 differed significantly from that of the current industrial period.

4.4.2 Hemlock Looper

Hemlock looper is a native insect that defoliates large areas of primarily balsam fir, but also black spruce, white spruce, white birch, and eastern hemlock132. Outbreaks of this insect have occurred about every 10-12 years in Newfoundland, specifically during 1910-1915 (12,100 ha), 1920-1926 (8,300 ha), 1929-1935 (56, 000 ha), 1946-1955 (127,600 ha), 1959-1964 (21,800 ha), 1966-1972 (830.300 ha), 1984-1989 and 1995-2004.133 The outbreaks of varying intensity tend to develop in about 2 years, especially during warm, dry periods. They have been cyclical, lasting for 5 to 7 years with 3 to 4 years in between.

High population levels seldom persist more than 2 years in any particular stand, and declines are associated with cool, wet weather, starvation and a disease caused by native fungi (Entomophthora spp).134 Nonetheless, looper larva are very wasteful feeders since they seldom consume all attacked needles; consequently, major damage to mature and over-mature stands can occur in a short period of time. In sufficient numbers, the loopers can cause severe defoliation throughout the crown of a tree leading to tree mortality in 1 or 2 years135 which is a considerably shorter time compared to the 5 to 7 years that it takes spruce budworm to cause similar mortality. Also, while the spruce budworm will readily attack young, immature stands, the looper will only affect young stands in “spill-over” situations where such stands are adjacent to infested mature and over-mature stands. Since the hemlock looper does not generally appear to favour good sites over medium or even poorer sites, it is not uncommon to see severe infestations on poor, exposed rocky, sites. Patches are quite common, but areas of contiguous forest tend to be more “solid” in mortality.136 Furthermore, looper defoliated areas seem to be somewhat patchier than budworm defoliated areas, although “patches” can be 50 to 100 hectares in size.137 (Figures 4-9 to 4-11).

The portion of the 1967-1972 outbreak in southwestern Newfoundland, was mapped by Bowater Newfoundland Pulp & Paper Co. Ltd.138 The defoliated areas had large tracts of contiguous forest and were very solid in severity with patches only occurring in the fringe areas towards the

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mountains where sites were poorer and more fragmented by areas of scrub. The 1966-72 outbreak defoliated about 721,090 hectares with tree mortality in excess of 12 million m3. As is typically the case, tree mortality continued for a number of years after the outbreak collapsed, even though there was no further defoliation.139

In summary, coniferous forests of balsam fir and spruce appear to have covered much of the landscape during the pre-industrial time, providing suitable food source for looper outbreaks. Furthermore, other than normal annual and seasonal climatic fluctuations, there is little evidence to suggest that climatic conditions that would have altered life cycles and population dynamics of hemlock looper were any different during the pre-industrial period than they have been during the current industrial period. Thus, hemlock looper outbreaks and damage to forest ecosystems in the pre-industrial time were, in all probability, similar to the disturbances documented for this species during the current industrial period (since 1890).140

Figure 4-9. A small defoliated patch of forest common to hemlock looper infestations.

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Figure 4-10. Part of a larger hemlock looper patch with a clearly delineated abrupt edge.

Figure 4-11. Depending on stand conditions and looper numbers, near-total mortality can occur in very large areas.

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4.5 FOREST DISEASES

In forest ecosystems, plants will ultimately die and leave behind energy and nutrients locked in the organic matter of which they are made. Fungi act as one of the primary decomposers of this organic matter, gradually releasing carbon and nutrients which are recycled back into the soil to be utilized in the growth and production of new plants and plant material. Some fungi are considered beneficial to nutrient uptake and forest ecosystem growth and development, while other species of fungi are considered harmful. In the first instance, mycorrhizal fungi form a symbiotic relationship with the host tree by attaching itself to tree roots thereby allowing the roots and the numerous strands of mycorrhizal hyphae to absorb greater amounts of moisture and nutrients. In return, the fungi use carbohydrates supplied by the tree for its growth. Another group of beneficial fungi are considered slash destroyers. They decompose dead and dying wood, especially slash left on cutovers and, often, woody debris in older forest ecosystems. Harmful fungi, on the other hand, attack living trees causing either direct death or leaving them weak, stressed and pre-disposed to the effects of other natural disturbance like insects and blowdown.141

Root rot fungi are divided in two major groups:142 1. Pathogens, which impact live, standing timber; and, 2. decayers143 which affect root and butt heartwood, requiring wounded, broken or dead roots with exposed heartwood to cause infection.

4.5.1 Pathogens

Armillaria (Armillaria ostoyae) root disease is a cosmopolitan pathogen commonly found in a wide variety of conifer, hardwood and mixedwood stand types throughout North America. Armillaria ostoyae, the most common root disease of boreal forest conifers, is a moderately aggressive secondary pathogen that causes growth loss and tree mortality by killing lateral roots and progressing to decay the heartwood of major laterals and butt sections of the tree. This fungus infects lateral tree roots primarily by subterranean rhizomorphs originating from dead roots and stumps. It can remain on site in dead roots and stumps for 15-20 years as a saprophyte. While it normally attacks trees of all ages, often stressed by insect defoliation (i.e., spruce budworm, balsam fir sawfly, hemlock looper), and environmental factors (i.e., drought, flooding), the frequency of infection increases with age. Furthermore, since it removes weak and stressed trees, it is considered a natural thinning agent, thereby playing an important role in tree mortality from inter-tree competition. The causal fungus of Armillaria can remain alive for many years in rotting wood on the ground with some disease centers estimated to be more than 400 years in age.

The second most common root rot fungus is Inonotus tomentosus (Figure 4-13), a pathogen that is responsible for tree mortality, premature windfall, growth reduction and butt cull, primarily in

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spruce species. This fungus spreads by direct root contact underground where fungal mycelium grows directly from a diseased root into a healthy one. Structural weakening of the root system by I. tomentosus greatly increases the susceptibility of a tree to windfall and represents the greatest damage caused by this fungus. Because the rot spreads by direct root contact, groups of diseased trees radiate from a central point. The resulting mortality and windthrow subsequently create openings in the stand, accounting for the common name of “stand opening disease”. The disease is more severe in pure or almost pure spruce stands because spruce roots provide a nearly continuous favourable substrate for the fungus.144

When dominant trees are killed by I. tomentosus, many nearby trees in the stand will undoubtedly be infected with the fungus. Death in natural stands usually occurs in trees more than 50 yr in age but, depending upon site and stand conditions, trees much younger may also be killed.145 I. tomentosus often extends several metres up the stem in spruces causing butt cull and resulting in volume losses of affected trees.146 While it can infect balsam fir, it is more common in black and white spruce. I. tomentosus root disease affects and spreads to healthy trees, and trees become susceptible after 25 years of age.147 It occurs on a wide variety of upland sites, but is most prevalent in highly acidic soils that have low moisture holding capacity and are nutrient poor.148

4.5.2 Decayers

The other major decay fungi (Table 4-3) cause wood structural failure and are responsible for butt break and root break (rational fall) types of windthrow damage in living trees. Brown rot fungi cause a more rapid decline in wood strength than the yellow or white rotters based upon relatively equal decay weight losses.149 However, some fungi are much more aggressive decayers than others; therefore, some white rotters may potentially be as important as some brown rotters.

In summary, forest diseases play an important role in the structure, functioning and maintenance of forest ecosystems. However, in the absence of any documented reports or records of fungal species and decomposing processes for forests during the pre-industrial period, the determination of the presence of fungal species and related fungal-tree interactions can only be based on assumptions similar to those discussed for spruce budworm and hemlock looper. In other words, assuming that conifer forest cover of the pre-industrial time was similar to that of the present-day industrial period, and climatic changes have been negligible since the pre-industrial time, it is highly probable that fungal populations and their interactions with forest tree species were similar to those of the present industrial forest. Furthermore, Dr. G. Warren150 indicates that all of the root and butt rot decay fungi listed in Table 4-3 are indigenous and were probably present and active during the pre-industrial period.151

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Figure 4-12. Mycelial fans of Armillaria under the bark of a killed tree. Armillaria root disease centre, evident by the killed trees. Butt snap caused by decay in butt section of stem (right). (Photos courtesy of Dr. G. Warren, NRCan-CFS).

Figure 4-13. Ionotus tomentosus fruiting body at base of infected tree (left); fruiting body and associated wood defect from Tomentosus rot tree (top, right); characteristic white pocket rot associated with Tomentosus root disease. (Photos courtesy of Dr. G. Warren, NRCan-CFS).

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Table 4-3: The major root and butt rot decay fungi affecting balsam fir, black spruce and white spruce in the Boreal forest.152

Tree Species / Fungus Type Of Damage Balsam Fir Armillaria ostoyae/obscura root mortality, yellow stringy root & butt decay Scytinostroma galactinum yellow stringy root and butt decay Coniophora puteana brown cubical root and butt decay Resinicium bicolor white stringy root and butt decay Poria subacida yellow stringy to white feathery root & butt decay Tyromyces balsameus brown cubical root and butt decay Black Spruce & White Spruce Armillaria ostoyae/obscura root mortality, yellow stringy root and butt decay Inonotus tomentosus root mortality, white pocket root and butt decay Scytinostroma galactinum yellow stringy root and butt decay Coniophora puteana brown cubical root and butt decay

4.6 FOREST BLOW-DOWN

Windthrow, or blowdown, is a natural disturbance or phenomenon of uncut forest stands, whereby hundreds of hectares of trees are blown over annually in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador153,154 (Figure 4-14). Two types of windthrow are identified:155 (1) Catastrophic windthrow occurs infrequently as a result of exceptionally strong winds, during which trees are blown over in a single direction causing extensive damage over large areas; and, (2) Endemic windthrow occurs more regularly on a smaller scale, usually as a result of numerous lower- velocity windstorms in areas that have an inherently higher hazard. This type of windthrow affects individual stems or small group of trees, and can spread progressively from an abrupt or unstable boundary, often an indirect result of forest management practices.

Types of wind damage have been categorized as: (a) stem break, where the bole of the tree snaps off well above the ground, usually during strong gales and hurricane force winds; (b) stock/butt break where the boles of trees that have been structurally weakened in the lower part by disease/butt rot snaps at ground level; (c) root break (a rotational fall) where trees that have had their lateral roots structurally weakened by root disease are uprooted by pivoting on broken roots directly beneath the bole; and, (d) tree throw (a hinge fall) where trees with a shallow, plate-like root system on very wet sites or shallow soils are uprooted by pivoting on the outer edge of a massive plate comprised of soil and roots. Similar wind forces are required to break or uproot trees and often several types of damage occur within a stand during a storm.156

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Figure 4-14. A small patch in a balsam fir forest created by blow-down.

The other major category of windthrow occurs in stands where trees that are impacted by either insects or fire blow down over a short time period. Since trees in this category would not have been salvaged during the pre-industrial period, a significant load of coarse woody debris would probably have accumulated on the forest floor.

4.7 FOREST MOSAIC

The forest mosaic is an arrangement, distribution or pattern of forest stands of varying characteristics including, but not limited to, age class structure, forest canopy height and crown closure, site type / classification, species composition and the size and shape of component stands or patches. It can also include both landscape-scale and stand level dimensions including all related flora, ground vegetation, and vertical / horizontal habitat structures including, but not limited to, snags and coarse woody debris levels.

4.7.1 Age Class Groups

Most forest landscapes are characterized by a variety of age class structures that have resulted from natural disturbances such as fire, insects, diseases and windthrow and, in more recent times, logging. When such events are catastrophic, or of sufficient severity to kill the existing forest stands, new even-aged forest stands develop. These disturbance events are often cyclical in nature

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and triggered by the age of stands that have reached the end of their typical life spans. Such forests become weakened with age and, in the case of insect-driven balsam fir forests, are pre- disposed to insect infestation and mortality.

When small areas of older stands are affected by disturbances, new and smaller stands often result. Also, smaller patches of forest that were released at an earlier time prior to a disturbance can develop and create a different, older age class. In insect-disturbed stands in which large contiguous areas of forest are often killed, patches of varying sizes are left alive and standing. In such instances, the killed areas quickly regenerate to form new, young forests, while the older patches that survived the infestation are left standing. Again, two separate age classes are created.

In areas with a history of hemlock looper infestations, the older residual stands may have attracted a new infestation, resulting in an increase in mortality.157,158 The looper often kill some of the younger trees adjacent to the disturbed older stand (“spill-over”), but they usually by-pass the younger forests in the surrounding areas. Situations such as this have often been suspected of creating “launch points” for new cycles of infestations. While new age classes are created, they change from a much older age class to a younger age class. However, the spruce budworm is not nearly as discriminating as hemlock looper and can kill trees and stands of virtually any age. Therefore, many forest stands miss the opportunity to complete their full natural life cycle or develop the habitat and ecological attributes associated with an aging boreal forest. Data on the frequency and size of such small patches, regardless of disturbance type, do not exist for Newfoundland as stands or forest inventory polygons less than two hectares in size are not typed and mapped.

Common situations also exist where mortality is not confined to discrete stands. Instead, insects kill individual trees within a stand resulting in the original age class being retained, while crown closure becomes more open. In such conditions, a different stand “type” with a more open crown closure is created, but with the same age class left intact.

The other scenario occurs when insect outbreaks are not “catastrophic,” but rather are of light or moderate severity. The study of balsam fir dynamics after insect outbreak disturbances in western Newfoundland159 indicated that many of the stands exhibited an irregular structure with distinct cohorts. These stands were exposed to light and moderate defoliation over long time periods which reportedly allows for a high frequency of outbreaks (average of 17 years). The canopy opening process is generated by gap dynamics induced by outbreak disturbances and partial mortality. In these situations, the stand structure is characterized by a seedling bank under permanent recruitment with several tree diameter cohorts corresponding to recurrent growth releases and by old, remnant trees. The end result is an uneven-age forest.

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A similar study160 compared the natural disturbance and structure of two primary boreal forests, namely the gap-dynamic fungal-mediated forest in the Main River area of the Northern Peninsula, and the insect-mediated forests in the Little Grand Lake area in western Newfoundland. In the forests of the Little Grand Lake area, which are more characteristic of western Newfoundland than forests of the Main River area, stand age structure for most of the sampled stands originated after insect-mediated, catastrophic stand mortality. Lesser degrees of insect herbivory were reflected in the non-modal stand age structure, with the multi-aged, reverse-J stands expressive of both edaphic old-growth and/or varying degrees of partial insect-mediated tree mortality. The extent to which this latter situation occurs in the province‟s balsam fir forests is not clear. However, it is clear that the “severity” of the disturbance is the key factor in how stands develop over time. Site conditions may also be a factor.

In Newfoundland, stand-replacing fires usually play a significant role in the development of forest age classes. To create conditions suitable for the development of another forest stand, fires have to be of sufficient severity to remove enough organic matter to create a suitable seedbed; and, there has to be an available seed source. As previously discussed in this report, fires of insufficient severity in Terra Nova National Park have removed only minimal amounts of surface organic matter, resulting in the inability of spruce seeds to regenerate in the thick organic matter and, ultimately, development of more areas of Kalmia dwarf shrubs heaths.

Fires are also somewhat cyclical in nature, and often occur when the build up of fuel loads over time coincide with dry weather conditions in forest areas. It is probable that the Cladina lichens associated with the very dry Cladonia-Kalmia-black spruce forest types common to the central Newfoundland forest region161 would have provided a relatively easy fuel source for fire ignition. This lichen species is quite common in many parts of Labrador. During the warm summer weather it can become very dry and brittle, serving as a prime fire ignition source for lightning fires.162

The Mean Fire Interval or variability range of fire occurrence for the Island is also largely unknown due to the relative unavailability of charcoal data from lakebed cores and other data source areas. During the pre-industrial period, lightning fires are assumed to be relatively rare owing to the moist climate. Over the past 30 years, fire frequency has been lower in Newfoundland than that experienced in central and western Canada.163 Therefore, while adequate fuel loads were likely available for large-scale wildfires to occur, the dry climatic requirements necessary for ignition and spread of such fires would likely have been a limiting factor. Considering the high humidity levels that characterize much of the climate of Newfoundland, the variability range is probably as wide as, if not wider than, that documented for other regions of eastern Canada.

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Our knowledge regarding the age class structure of forests and the frequency of age-class turn- over prior to 1890 is poor. Large expanses of even-aged class forests characterized much of Newfoundland during the current industrial period, primarily as a result of large-scale landscape level disturbances in the pre-industrial period; and, as these stands became older, they have fragmented into smaller age classes over time. While the age class structure of the pre-industrial forest resulted from various catastrophic disturbances that would have occurred over periods of time, it would not be unreasonable to assume that similar expanses of even-aged stands also developed throughout much of the pre-industrial landscape. Furthermore, it is quite likely that the landscape was also fragmented into smaller ages over time, thereby creating mosaics of different age classes over the landscape. Older, gap dynamic forests may also have developed.

4.7.2 Landscape Level Characteristics

The landscape of the boreal forest is essentially a mosaic of ecosystems resulting from both physiographic variability and the history of disturbance and forest succession.164 Other variables that shape the various landscapes include, but are not limited to, disturbance severity, patch formation dynamics, site types and landform variability, topography, and the contiguous nature of the areas being disturbed. Landscape characteristics following large-scale catastrophic disturbances in the pre-industrial forest would have been significantly influenced by the absence of “forest protection controls” typical of insect spray programs and fire suppression. At the landscape level, such disturbances would have been left only to the natural controls of nature, and would generally have been more widespread, covering larger areas (e.g., Figure 4-15).

Large-scale disturbance events are more typical of insect and/or fire disturbances. During the earlier part of the industrial period, fires were often quite significant in size as evidenced by the creation of very large expanses of spruce forests in central Newfoundland. Many of these spruce areas have been large enough to sustain significant harvesting operations for many years and, in some instances, even decades. The largest insect events (see Sections 4.4.1, and 4.4.2) occurred as a result of the spruce budworm infestation of the 1970s and the hemlock looper outbreak during the 1960s. These disturbances were quite large and reconfigured many landscapes on a rather large scale. Both of these infestations received protective spray treatments, albeit late in the outbreaks, and disturbances would likely have been of an even larger magnitude if not treated. The other supporting evidence that suggests disturbances were typically of large scale is in the general nature of forest operating areas that the industry has been operating in during much of the industrial period. Many of these areas were able to support harvesting operations for many years, with the quality of timber being affected more by site quality than by age class.

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Figure 4-15. Large-scale forested landscape that may have been typical of the pre-industrial period.

Single disturbance events are rarely uniform in their severity across the affected area, usually creating a stand mosaic at a finer scale.165 Furthermore, most landscapes that originated from major catastrophic events invariably experience subsequent smaller scale, stand-level disturbances such as windthrow and disease, particularly as they age and become weaker. There is also a higher probability of overlapping disturbances by fire, insects, and harvesting in the industrial period.

4.7.3 Stand Level Characteristics

When a wildfire, windstorm, or insect outbreak passes through a boreal forest stand, its immediate effect on plant and animal communities and on forest soils depends on its severity. Disturbance severity refers to the degree to which living organisms are killed, the extent to which dead organic matter is consumed or removed, and the degree to which microclimate and soils are altered.166 The following sections will first address some of the general attributes of each disturbance type, followed by a brief discussion on the ecological relevance of other stand level aspects including coarse woody debris (CWD) and snags.

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4.7.3.1 Wildfires

Wildfires are generally characterized by a gradient in fire severity ranging from fast-moving, light crown fires to very intense, all-encompassing severe fires that consume the standing overstory, as well as the organic layer on the forest floor. The more severe end of this scale usually results in the creation of a new stand which, in the case of the fire-driven species group of the boreal forest, is typically of the same species, provided an adequate seedbed is produced and there is an adequate seed source. In the case of balsam fir, which is not a fire-driven species, a stand of a different species (often white birch) may be created. Various stand succession scenarios are described earlier in this chapter (Section 4.2) and include scenarios where severe fires result in the complete consumption of the organic layer resulting in a reversion of such forests to barrens.

The lighter end of the fire severity scale is characterized by crown fires that consume tree foliage, branches and bark, leaving behind many blackened stems. In many of these fires, patches of live and partially killed trees and understory vegetation remain within fire skips and along fire ragged edges.167 These unburned patches act as important refugia for forest dwelling species of insects, lichens, bryophytes, fungi and other organisms with limited dispersal capabilities.168,169 The legacy of live and dead trees also creates heterogeneity in the regenerating stand, providing habitat for plant and animal species that depend on large old trees, snags and decaying logs.170 Lighter, low-severity fires can also result in the minimal removal of organic matter which, for many black spruce forest types in central and eastern Newfoundland, can have very negative consequences with respect to stand regeneration. Low severity ground fires in spruce dominated areas where Kalmia angustifolia (Kalmia) is present can cause a rapid spread of this species and preclude the establishment of a new spruce forest.171

4.7.3.2 Insects

Insect infestations typically behave in a similar fashion as wildfires in that near total mortality can occur in relatively large areas while other areas experience either small, discrete patches of mortality or the mortality of specific trees, or clumps of trees mixed throughout the stand. On the other hand, small patches of green forest can remain scattered throughout the larger areas of near total mortality. This condition is most typical of balsam fir forests where a carpet of shade- tolerant advanced regeneration or a seedling bank established on the forest floor will release in accordance with the amount of light available through the forest canopy. Totally killed areas, either large areas or small discrete patches, will respond the quickest as these stands will allow most light to reach the seedlings. This rate of release will increase over time as the standing dead stems first lose their branches, and then most of the stems eventually fall to the forest floor allowing maximum light penetration. In partially killed stands, this process of seedling release can take much longer, depending largely on the level of mortality within the canopy. The releasing regeneration in areas with maximum light reaching the forest floor is often accompanied by hardwoods, berry bushes and other early-succession herbaceous plants.172 The slower release

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areas will usually be dominated by the shade tolerant softwoods which can respond over time in accordance with the amount of light available.

4.7.3.3 Disease and Blowdown

Disease and blowdown or windthrow are significant stand-level disturbance types in that they have the capacity to create openings, especially within aging forests (Figure 4-16). Armillaria root rot, for example, is particularly noted for attacking stressed trees such as those common in older forests, while there are other root rots and decayers (including Armillaria) that can attack healthy trees leaving them vulnerable to other natural disturbance agents. In any case, the presence of root rots and decaying fungi invariably results in the death of either individual or clumps of trees which, in the case of older forests, creates openings. These openings can be of various sizes, and over time can expand in size as edge trees become vulnerable to windthrow. As discussed earlier, these small patches invariably fill in with either advanced regeneration in the case of balsam fir, or with the recruitment of new seedlings, sometimes of a different species. This is especially true if over-turned root systems from windthrow expose mineral soil that can provide a suitable seedbed. In such cases, if the rest of the stand remains intact for an extended period of time, the small patches form a younger age class within the original stand. On the other hand, the entire forest stand may be in a general weakened state from over-maturity, with wide- spread root rots acting in concert with windthrow causing the stand to collapse over a relatively short period of time.

Figure 4-16. A blow-down patch in a disease-weakened forest stand. .

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Root rots are also an important element in old-growth gap dynamic forests where individual trees or very small clumps die and create openings for new tree recruitment. In all of the above scenarios, root rots are also an important agent for creating snags within stands and eventual recruitment material for coarse woody debris. Root rots and decaying fungi would have played a natural and integral part in the general development of pre-industrial forests, and would have persisted over time at endemic levels.173

4.7.3.4 Coarse Woody Debris (CWD)

Coarse woody debris is a consequence of forest disturbances primarily from large fires, insect disturbances, windthrow and logging (Figure 4-17). Among many of its important ecological and physical processes, it plays a key role in recycling nutrients and transferring decomposed carbon materials to the soil, it stabilizes soils by retaining organic matter and moisture and it helps to maintain habitat and biodiversity of forest ecosystems. A review of its status and importance in forest ecosystems is well beyond the scope of this report. However, a brief review of its phases and processes, significance to ecosystems and its relationships to stand history, stand age, tree species composition, ecosystem type, and decomposition rates are presented. The following discussion, based on the work of V. Stevens174 and H. Kimmins175, is presented as a basic overview of some of the concepts of CWD and its application to the pre-industrial forest condition.

The living parts of a natural forest can be viewed as having two important phases – the building phase during which available resources are assembled into structures we know as plants and animals, and the deconstruction phase during which these structures are disassembled into pieces available for rebuilding. Both the living and decaying processes involve living organisms and both phases are essential to the ecological processes that have evolved in forests. These processes include the life cycles of vertebrates and invertebrates, fungi and bacteria, and the strategies used by plant structures to accumulate nutrients.176

While CWD plays many roles within a forest ecosystem, it contributes to long-term forest productivity by improving soil moisture retention, contributing to soil structure, maintaining soil stability and providing nutrient pools. Large woody material contains very significant stores of carbon and energy and is the foundation of an important forest food web. The larger material usually decays more slowly and therefore provides a more steady input of energy and nutrients and longer-lasting structures. It is not uncommon to find in local, 40 to 50 year old balsam fir forests, evidence of the previous stand on the forest floor, with the larger trees still in rounded form, albeit fully moss-covered, still going through the decaying process. Without any confirming data, it would appear that balsam fir trees can spend as much, or nearly as much time dead as living in a forest ecosystem.

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Figure 4-17. Cutover with moderate level of coarse woody debris.

In British Columbia, CWD has been defined as “sound and rotting logs and stumps, and coarse roots in all stages of decay, that provide habitat for plants, animals and insects and a source of nutrients for soil structure and development. CWD material would generally be greater than 7.5 cm in diameter.”177 The roles of CWD have been divided into four categories:

 the role in productivity of forest trees;  the role in providing habitat and structure to maintain biological diversity;  the role in geomorphology of streams and slopes; and  the role in long-term carbon storage

The abundance and distribution of coarse woody debris is highly variable in forest ecosystems and depends largely on stand history, stand age, tree species composition, ecosystem type, and decomposition rates.178 As in unmanaged, present-day forests, the forests of the pre-industrial period would have followed the same general stand development patterns where the young, higher density, regenerating forest would undergo a natural thinning process through inter-tree competition, resulting in decreasing stem density over time. This process would continue

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throughout the full natural rotation of the forest or until such time as a catastrophic disturbance would occur. In absence of such a disturbance, the stand would constantly generate dead stems as a result of natural competition. These stems would, over time, either fall to the forest floor to form coarse woody debris material, or remain standing for a period of time as “snags”. As the stand ages, the stand density decreases and the average stem diameter increases producing both larger diameter snags and larger diameter CWD material.

In a characterization study of old, wet boreal forests in Western Newfoundland,179 a comparison of 40, 60 and >80 year old balsam fir forests indicated that the oldest stage of balsam fir forests had a distinctly different structure, including more large dead and fallen wood, a more irregular canopy including gaps, a more diverse ground flora, more moss ground cover, a more variable tree height, taller snags, fewer white birch snags and fewer deciduous small trees. The report further adds that these differences were reflected in various plant and animal faunas that were distinct in the old forest including flowering plants, beetles, collembolan, oribatid mites, mammals and birds. While it is clear that coarse woody debris plays a significant role in forest ecosystems, it is also true, as noted above, that the abundance and distribution of CWD is highly variable in forest ecosystems and depends on a variety of factors.

If we consider a western Newfoundland balsam fir stand that has experienced near total mortality or a central Newfoundland black spruce stand that has been killed by wildfire, the coarse woody debris dynamic would likely play out very differently. While in either case the dead stems would not all fall to the forest floor at once, it is fair to say that, at some point, there would still be a large and relatively fast accumulation of coarse woody debris on the forest floor. It may not necessarily follow that if a small or moderate amount of CWD is good, then a lot is better. A site with a lot of decaying wood can develop a relatively inactive forest floor called a “mor humus form”, which is generally associated with low fertility and slow forest growth.180 Rotting logs in humid forests produce a type of humus very different from the humus produced by leaves, twigs and small roots. Excessive accumulations of coarse woody debris in old forests in humid areas can lead to low nutrient availability and stagnation of nutrient cycling and tree growth, and the breakup of the forest.181 The humus characteristics generated from the decomposition of large- scale influx of dead trees and logs may be different. Thus, while some decaying wood is undoubtedly beneficial, too much decaying wood may not be desirable. As to what extent this may apply to the forests of Newfoundland is unclear. In any case, both situations of gradual accumulation of CWD with stand age and inter-tree competition, and more rapid accumulations through catastrophic disturbances would have occurred in the pre-industrial forest. Each situation along with the numerous other site and stand variables simply contribute to the wide range of CWD variability.

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4.7.3.5 Snags

Snags are standing dead or dying trees that are interspersed and very common throughout most boreal forests (Figure 4-17). They are generated both through inter-tree competition as over-dense stands develop over their rotational life cycle, and through the immediate effects of catastrophic disturbances including wildfires and mortality from insect outbreaks. Snags provide valuable wildlife habitat as well as a source of coarse woody debris recruitment as they break off or fall to the forest floor over time. From a wildlife perspective, they serve as hunting perches for birds of prey including boreal owls and hawk owls, support a diverse food base for a host of insectivorous vertebrates, and provide roosting and nesting sites for many wildlife species.182,183 Prominent among vertebrates using snags are cavity-nesting birds, particularly woodpeckers (Picidae) which forage on snags but also excavate cavities in both live and dead trees.184 As primary cavity nesters, woodpeckers excavate new cavities each breeding season, thereby creating habitats for other non-excavating cavity nesters. Consequently, habitats for secondary cavity nesters can significantly increase over time.185,186,187 While cavity nesters display species- specific differences in their snag size preferences, larger snags are used by more species and tend to stand longer than smaller snags.188,189 Cavity nesting birds also select snags for excavation based on decay class, species, bark cover, and whether the top of the snag is intact or broken. Studies of snags as wildlife habitat have suggested that snag abundance may not be as important as the quality of snags available. Thus, cavity-nesting bird densities are dependent on the availability of quality snags and trees.190

A study of snag availability for cavity nesters across a chronosequence of post-harvest landscapes in Western Newfoundland191 revealed that snag diameter increased with stand age, and snag density declined dramatically 10 to 15 years after harvest then increased to reach its highest level in the 81 to 100 year old forests. A study of old wet boreal forests in western Newfoundland192 also reported that snags >20 cm in diameter were significantly more common in older forests than in younger stands.

While the pre-industrial forests would likely have had a complete range of age classes throughout the western and central regions of the province, it is probable that there would have been a substantial amount of forest in the >80 year age group. The provincial inventory currently includes three age class categories in this older forest group: 80 – 100 years; 101 – 120 years; and > 120 years. In the absence of harvesting, we can assume that all of these older age classes would have been amply represented throughout the timber limits of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Limited. The younger semi-mature and mature age classes would also have been present and generating high numbers of snags during the course of their inter-tree natural competition. In addition to this, there would also be large numbers of snags generated as a result of insect outbreaks and wildfires. As a result, pre-industrial forests would have provided snags from a variety of sources and a relatively abundant number of high quality snags would have been present.

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Figure 4-18. Typical snags that benefit cavity nesting birds such as the downy wood-pecker (primary cavity nester) (top, left) and the black-capped chickadee (secondary cavity nester).

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4.8 SUMMARY

Forest Succession

 Balsam fir forests are stable, climax forests that are driven by disturbances from insects, logging and windthrow, and normally return to their original condition following such disturbances;

 Pure balsam fir forests (on good sites) that are disturbed by fire typically regenerate to white birch stands, which, if left undisturbed, will eventually revert to the original balsam fir condition;

 In the presence of fire, moderately to poorly-productive balsam fir stands that have a high component of black spruce will often succeed to black spruce – feathermoss stands;

 Much of the present-day productive black spruce-moss forests have had their origins in forest types that consisted predominantly of balsam fir;

 Black spruce stands are normally driven by fire and return to their original condition following such disturbances;

 The large areas of black spruce forests that are commonly associated with central Newfoundland are most likely a result of human-caused fires, including the many railway-related fires;  In the absence of fire: a) black spruce stands on poorer sites tend to remain as stable black spruce types; and, b) many of the black spruce feather-moss types will eventually revert to stable balsam fir types;

Forest Fires

 Throughout most of the Holocene, fires were common in central Newfoundland, but relatively rare in the western region.

 Balsam fir, black spruce and white spruce, as well as white birch had established in western and central Newfoundland as early as 9.5 Ka. However, both white pine and red

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pine did not spread to their present limits in central and western Newfoundland until the warmer “Atlantic” climatic interval (6.5-4.0 Ka).

 The incidence of forest fires increased with the general development of the province and the subsequent increase in population.

 Fire records for Newfoundland back to the 1600s indicate that wildfires were common in the pre-industrial period. Furthermore, they were pre-dominantly human-caused and, often, extensive during the century prior to the start of the industrial period in 1890. Given the humid climate that characterizes much of Newfoundland, and the documented mean fire interval for other regions of eastern North America, lightning fires would have been relatively rare during that period. Thus, the pre-industrial forests before colonization (pre-1800s) developed under conditions of low frequency (MFI >200 yrs.) lightning-fires.

Forest Insects

 Coniferous forests of balsam fir and spruce appear to have covered much of the landscape during the pre-industrial time, providing suitable food sources for both spruce budworm and hemlock looper;.

 There is little evidence to suggest that climatic conditions that would have altered life cycles and population dynamics of hemlock looper and spruce budworm were any different during the pre-industrial period than during the current industrial period;

 There is very little documented evidence to suggest that spruce budworm and hemlock looper outbreaks prior to 1890 differed significantly from that of the current industrial period.

Forest Diseases

 Assuming that conifer forest cover of the pre-industrial time was similar to that of the current industrial period, and that climatic conditions have also been similar since the pre-industrial time, it is highly probable that most indigenous diseases and their interactions with forest tree stands were also similar to those in the unmanaged forest of the current industrial period.

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Forest Blow-Down

 Assuming that conifer forest cover of the pre-industrial time was similar to that of the current industrial period, and that climatic changes have been negligible since the pre- industrial time, incidence and severity of blow-down during the pre-industrial period were similar to that of the current industrial period.

Forest Mosaic

 The forest mosaic is an arrangement or pattern of forest stands of varying characteristics including, age class structure, site type, species composition and the size and shape of component stands or patches. It can also include both landscape-scale and stand level dimensions including snags and coarse woody debris levels.

 Our knowledge regarding the age class structure of forests and the frequency of age-class turn-over prior to 1890 is poor. While it is clear that catastrophic disturbances (fire and insects) are the primary drivers for generating the various age classes, temporal patterns cannot be reliably predicted for any of these disturbances. Old growth gap dynamic forests would also likely have existed but, to what extent, is not clear.

 Older age classes would likely have been well represented in the pre-industrial forest.

 Balsam fir has always been the dominant species in western Newfoundland. However, due to the rarity of lightning fires during the pre-industrial period (before human habitation), balsam fir would also have been a major species component in central Newfoundland as well as black spruce.

 Forest landscapes in the pre-industrial forests would likely have been expansive, covering large areas (depending on the contiguity of forest land types and geographical features). This would have resulted from catastrophic disturbances running unabated, left only to the natural controls of rain, wind, and other weather elements.

 Large-scale disturbances, including fire and insect outbreaks, would have generated skips and patches throughout the landscape creating a mosaic of age classes and species-related changes.

 There would have been considerable variation in stand-level characteristics. When a wildfire, windstorm, or insect outbreak passes through a boreal forest stand, its

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immediate effect on plant and animal communities and on forest soils depends on its severity.

 The severity of fires, or more specifically, the “range” of severity, would have resulted in a range of biogenic responses. More severe fires are generally required to create new, forest-replacing stands.

 The severity of insect infestations can result in a range of forest site conditions, mostly in relation to the degree to which mortality has occurred. Mortality mixed throughout the stand, the creation of small discrete patches, or large areas of near total mortality would all play out differently at the stand level.

 Disease and blowdown would be present at endemic levels, especially within the older forests. They would have created small patches within older stands that generated new age classes and other forest diversity elements.

 There would have been ample levels of coarse wood debris throughout most of the pre- industrial forest from both natural inter-tree competition in developing stands and from large scale catastrophic disturbances.

 Snags are generated through inter-tree competition as over-dense stands develop over their rotational life cycle, and through the immediate effects of catastrophic disturbances including wildfires and mortality from insect outbreaks. Snags are very important for wildlife habitat, especially for cavity-nesting birds. As in the case for coarse woody debris, there would have been lots of high quality snags available throughout the pre- industrial forest.

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5.0 HARVESTING PRACTICES, DISTURBANCES, AND MANAGEMENT OF THE CURRENT INDUSTRIAL FORESTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

As the fishing industry progressed in Newfoundland, settlements along the coast increased in size and numbers; and, as demand for lumber and firewood grew, utilization of the forests also increased. The loss of productive forest land surrounding the coastal communities resulted in a scarcity of timber, especially adjacent to the more densely populated communities. It was not uncommon for some of these tracts of forest land to be cut and burned several times over, resulting in the formation of extensive permanent barrens or heathlands such as those presently found throughout much of the landscape of the Avalon and Bonavista peninsulas.193

By the mid 1800s, the fishing industry was struggling to keep up with the increasing population. Returns from fishing were steadily decreasing and welfare payments were steadily increasing to a point where, in the mid 1860s, they consumed one-third of Government revenues. In an effort to diversify the economy, and reduce its dependency on fishing and welfare payments, the Government proposed the building of a railway across Newfoundland. Given the expected costs of building the railway to provide for such a small population, the proposal evoked outrage among its opponents. However, it was hoped that, when completed, the railway would open up the central and western parts of the Island and provide access to rich forest and mineral resources.

The completion of the railway in 1898 and the change from sawmilling to paper production in the early 1900s created economic opportunities for residents throughout Newfoundland, especially those in central and western Newfoundland. The economic impact of extensive timber harvesting helped diversify the provincial economy and reduce its dependency on fishing and welfare payments. However, management of the forest resource was limited. Forest policy consisted mainly of fire protection, with emphasis placed more on logging camp inspections and collection of revenues than on understanding and maintenance of the forests. Following the establishment of the Commission of Government in 1933, a Department of Natural Resources with a separate Forestry Division was created under the supervision of Chief Forestry Officer, Colonel Jack Turner, to manage the forests of Newfoundland. The 1955 Royal Commission of Forestry194 states that “Newfoundland owes a debt of gratitude to this capable and energetic officer who laid the foundations of a forest policy for the Island.” This chapter describes the various stages of forest harvesting, the challenges faced from major fires and insect disturbances, and the evolution of forest management practices on the forest management area (FMA) of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper limits during the current industrial period.

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5.2 FOREST HARVESTING PRACTICES

5.2.1 Lumber Industry

Sawmilling had become a mainstay of the economy of many communities around Newfoundland, especially in the mid to late 19th century following the beginning of the resident fishery. Small, local sawmills, often run by water power, were used to saw wood for the construction of homes and businesses as well for fuel, boat building, and the construction of stages and flakes for splitting, salting and drying codfish (Figure 5-1). By 1900, an estimated 150 sawmills were operating in Newfoundland.195

Figure 5-1. Water Power Sawmill in Newfoundland.196

The construction and completion of the railway led to increased opportunities for sawmills. During its construction, Government policy allocated public land in the form of timber licences to encourage development of the lumber industry197 based mainly around the availability of white pine (Figure 5-2). As the railway tracks progressed westward in the 1890s, sawmills were constructed throughout central Newfoundland in towns such as Botwood (1890) , Terra Nova (1893), Benton (1894), Glenwood (mid-1890s), and Norris Arm (late 1890s).198 In its first year of operation in 1890, the Botwood mill produced 45,000 fbm daily for export to the English market. By 1900, annual exports from mills throughout the Island were in the order of 40-50 million fbm. Opportunities afforded by the Government policy and accessibility provided by the railway led to a flourishing sawmilling industry based primarily around the availability of white pine.199,200,201

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Figure 5-2. White pine, the mainstay of the sawmilling industry in the late 1800s and early 1900s.

One of the larger sawmills was established at Millertown in 1900 by Lewis Miller from Scotland. Within a year, the town and sawmill were built, and construction was started on a link to the Newfoundland railway. By 1901, approximately 45 Swedish and Norwegian families, as well as 100 men from Newfoundland, were living and working in the town (Figure 5-3).202

The presence of the Newfoundland Railway contributed significantly in shaping the nature and composition of the present forests of the Island, especially in central Newfoundland where fire favoured the regeneration of extensive black spruce stands. Many of the fires started by trains occurred in inaccessible places in the interior and were often very destructive, burning for days and days.203 A review of “Transportation and Land-Based Industries”204 during the beginning of the 20th century indicates that:

“Railway construction was not without problems for the forestry sector. The sparks and improperly disposed hot cinders of locomotives, along with those belched from improperly maintained boilers that powered steam saw mills, regularly caused disastrous wild fires. Anxious to foster economic diversification, the Newfoundland government preferred to attribute most wild fires to supposedly careless fishing people, rather than blaming the saw-mill boilers and locomotives, as was warranted by the government’s own investigations of particularly disastrous forest fires in 1903 and 1904. Industrial sources of wild fires became a major threat to forest resources throughout the first half of the 20th century.”

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Figure 5-3. Pictures of early sawmilling at Millertown, central Newfoundland.205

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In a history of the Newfoundland Forest Protection Association, W.J. Carroll206 pointed out that, early in the 20th century, when the focus on forest resources shifted from sawmilling to the pulp and paper industry, the forest resource had suddenly become economically and commercially important. Furthermore, the loss of forests as a result of train fires had increased to a point where, in 1904, it was exceptionally destructive.

Early in the 20th century, it became readily apparent that the sawmilling industry‟s dependence on white pine was not sustainable. By 1904, the sawmilling industry had reached its peak with exports of more than 20 million board feet annually. However, most of the better stands had been logged and much of the remaining timber was over-mature, producing high numbers of cull logs. Other timber species (e.g., white spruce, black spruce and balsam fir) were too small for the economic production of large quantities of lumber for export purposes. As a result, most large sawmill operators realized that the forest resource of Newfoundland was inadequate for large- scale production of lumber.207

The decline in sawmilling coincided with the establishment of Newfoundland‟s first major pulp and paper mill at Grand Falls in 1909 by the Anglo Newfoundland Development Company Limited. While the shortage of white pine had led to the decline in the sawmilling industry, entrepreneurial attention now focussed on a forest industry based on harvesting of spruce and fir for the manufacture of pulp and paper. Furthermore, private groups and individuals had acquired development rights to most of the inland timber limits for pulp and paper purposes.

5.2.2 Pulp & Paper Industry

The Kruger Inc. pulp and paper mill located at Corner Brook was opened in 1925 by the Newfoundland Power and Paper Ltd. Ownership of the mill changed to the International Power and Paper Company in 1928, the Bowater‟s Newfoundland Pulp and Paper Mill Limited in 1938, and eventually Kruger Inc. in 1985. The volumes harvested up until the mid-1940s were in the order of 500,000 m3 annually, after which it increased to well in excess of 1 million m3. While most of the wood went to the mill in Corner Brook, considerable wood volumes were also exported to England and other places during the Bowater era.208

5.2.2.1 The Early Days

Large-scale harvesting operations have a significant impact on transforming forest landscapes, and do so in ways that appear very different from the effects of wildfire and insects. While the effects of cutover size, distribution and general landscape ecology is a complex subject onto itself, the harvesting systems and practices from the early days all the way through to the current time period, have also had inadvertent and, and in some cases, more subtle impacts on our forest

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landscapes. In the early days from 1925 to 1953, wood was cut with bucksaws and axes and stump-piled, employing somewhere in the order of 5,000 men. In those days, very strict attention was paid to utilization practices, and a logger‟s wood would often not be scaled if he left large tops or other useable wood on the cutover.209 In addition, the loggers were required to cut the low-volume stands in an operating area, as well as the higher-volume stands.

5.2.2.2 The Start of Mechanization

Mechanization first came with the introduction of chainsaws in 1953, followed by cable skidders in 1962, and mechanical harvesters in 1970. Up to this point, loggers with bucksaws and chainsaws were paid on a piecework basis and wood cost was relatively predictable and fixed. However, with the introduction of machines, production and productivity were now all important as wood costs were tied directly to the productivity of these machines. Over time, much less emphasis was placed on cutover utilization as smaller trees were often left behind. Moreover, wood that was dropped from chokers, or broken during handling and processing, was often left on the cutovers or along the extraction trails. In addition, lower volume stands that would negatively affect machine productivity were left behind, sometimes in large stands or sometimes as patches in the middle of the cutting area.

While considerable wood volumes were left behind during the earlier days of cable skidders and mechanical harvesters, such practices actually impacted positively on coarse woody debris, connectivity, and patch retention. Ironically, these practices are “deliberately” being considered in today‟s forestry operations as being ecologically more appropriate. Furthermore, leaving large stands and areas of merchantable wood behind often resulted in positive consequences. In the decades that followed the original harvest, operations have since returned to most of these operating areas to harvest the residual stands that were first left behind the first time. Mechanical harvesters have become progressively more efficient over time and have been able to harvest such areas more cost-effectively. Some operating areas have experienced return operations several times over a number of decades. This has resulted in the creation of multi-age class forests from one original single age class forests

5.2.2.3 Current Harvesting Practices

Over the past decade, Corner Brook Pulp and Paper has aligned its forest operations and harvesting practices to meet environmental and/or sustainable standards. In 2001, the Company achieved the ISO 14001 Environmental Management Standard which required the development of a complete environmental management system (EMS). The EMS focuses on the management of six critical areas: fuel and oil storage, water quality, soil protection, waste management, fibre utilization and visual quality. Then, in 2004, the Company achieved the CSA-Z809 Sustainable

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Forest Management Standard. Developed by the Canadian Standards Association, the CSA-Z809 standard requires that public input be sought to establish values, objectives and specific targets on the Company‟s defined forest area (DFA). The values and objectives for the DFA must address the six criteria for sustainable forest management developed by the Canadian Council of Forest Ministers:

 Conservation of biological diversity;  Conservation of soil and water resources;  Maintenance and enhancement of forest ecosystem condition and productivity;  Forest ecosystem contribution to global ecological cycles;  Multiple benefits to society;  Accepting society‟s responsibility for sustainable development;

In 2003, Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd. formed a public advisory committee (PAC) to provide organized and regular public input into the Company‟s SFM plan. This committee is still in place.

The Company‟s harvesting operations are subject to approval by the NL Department of Natural Resources through the submission of annual and five year operating plans and must further adhere to all provisions and stipulations of its Certificate of Managed Land. The Company also has to abide by the Environmental Protection Guidelines for Ecosystem Based Management, the Forest Management Guidelines and Recommendations for Caribou, and the harvest volume restrictions in specific pine marten habitat areas.

In concert with these Government controls and in conformance to the ISO 14001 and CSA-Z809 Standards, the following general changes or transitions in the Company‟s harvesting practices occurred over the past decade:

 Conformance to Buffer Zones. General requirements outlined in the Environmental Protection Guidelines (1998) require buffer zones on all water bodies and on both sides of all streams and waterways. Provision was also made by various Government agencies for widening buffers in special situations such as protected water supply areas. While protecting riparian areas, the buffers create smaller patch sizes and, in some cases, provide a measure of connectivity throughout forest ecosystem areas.

 Fibre Recovery. In 2000, Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Limited measured 10.15 m3/ha of residual merchantable fibre left on its cutovers. At a time when wood costs were becoming exceedingly high, this was considered unacceptable. A program was immediately implemented to reduce this wastage and recover more fibre. By 2010, this volume was reduced to 1.63 m3/ha.

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 Harvesting of Marginal Stands. In an effort to both reduce wood costs and maintain its Annual Allowable Cut, the Company increased its efforts to recover marginal stands of wood within the various operating areas. In retrospect, this initiative along with improved fibre recovery from harvesting operations may have resembled the harvesting practices prior to 1962 when mechanization resulted in considerable cutover residue and marginal stands being left behind.

 Biomass Harvesting. In an effort to reduce Mill energy costs associated with burning fossil fuels (Bunker C), a biomass harvesting program was initiated a number of years ago where fibre that did not meet the specifications for paper-making is retrieved for biomass or “energy wood”. This included under-sized spruce and fir trees and those with excessive rot, non-pulp species including birch and larch, and dead or dying trees.

 Snags. Corner Brook Pulp and Paper initiated a Snag Retention program in 2002 and targeted an average of 10 snags per hectare to be left standing in all of its operating areas. To monitor its effectiveness, surveys are conducted annually to verify that snags are left on the cutover, along with related reports that include verification of such factors as species, diameter, height, amount of bark on the tree, as well as occurrence of any cavity nesters.

5.3 NATURAL DISTURBANCES

In defining the pre-industrial forest condition (Chapter 4), descriptions of the various natural disturbances were included based largely on our knowledge of such disturbances during the more recent industrial period. This approach established patterns and a knowledge base that allowed “back-casting” to the pre-industrial period. Therefore, in this section these disturbances are only brief discussed; instead, discussions will focus more on new disturbance types and the impacts of introduced species.

5.3.1 Insects

5.3.1.1 Indigenous Species

The major indigenous insects of the industrial period have already been discussed in the previous chapter in order to establish infestation patterns that would have also been relevant to the pre- industrial period. Although there is no need to repeat the basic material in this chapter, it should be noted that the spruce budworm has remained at endemic levels while the hemlock looper has still been active throughout various parts of the province, particularly on the Northern Peninsula.

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The spruce budworm has remained at endemic levels throughout much of Newfoundland, while the hemlock looper has been active in certain parts of the province, particularly on the Northern Peninsula. Infestation levels have been quite variable ranging from 500 to 75,000 ha.

The balsam fir sawfly (Neodiprion abietis) is another indigenous insect that has been quite active in the province since 1990. High population levels recorded before 1970 caused complete defoliation of old foliage and tree mortality, occurring in conjunction with feeding damage by other insects.210 However, the 1990 outbreak continued for some 20 years with much of the damage in actively-managed stands. Over this period the infested area has ranged from 1,200 to 68,000 ha. annually.

In recent years, the balsam fir sawfly has been treated with a naturally occurring virus (Abietiv), which is specific to this species, while the looper has been treated for many years with Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis). Unlike the spruce budworm and the hemlock looper, the balsam fir sawfly is a defoliator that feeds on older age classes of foliage, leaving the new foliage intact. While this results in a significant growth loss for the infected trees, it does not usually cause tree death. However, mortality can sometimes occur when infested trees are attacked by insects such as hemlock looper or spruce budworm that feed on the current foliage. Balsam fir sawfly outbreaks can be particularly damaging to areas that have been pre-commercially thinned. Such infestations can cause significant growth loss and lengthen the projected time for harvest.

5.3.1.2 Introduced Species

One of the most significant (accidentally) introduced insect species in the province is the Balsam Fir Adelgid (Adelges piceae) (Figure 5-4). Sometimes referred to as the Balsam Fir Woolly Aphid, this species was likely introduced during the early 1920s or 1930s. In the late 1950s and early 1960s it caused considerable damage to balsam fir stands.211 The aphid has since spread to virtually all parts of the province and continues to cause extensive growth loss and mortality.212

The aphid feeds through the bark of the tree, and severely affects the metabolic functions of the tree, ultimately producing swelling in the branches, particularly at the nodes, and a highly visible distortion of the crown. Depending on adelgid abundance, galls and defoliation may occur along with the swelling, with these structural abnormalities often accompanied by desiccation and shoot inhibition. Stem wood is also adversely affected through the creation of reddish rings with poor fibre structure.213 The balsam woolly adelgid therefore maintains its status as an important insect pest because of our inability to control or reduce its populations, as well as its potential to cause significant economic damage.214

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Figure 5-4. Balsam fir tree infected by balsam woolly adelgid. (Photo courtesy of Dr. G. Warren)

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Southwestern Newfoundland was one of the first areas to become infested with the adelgid, with severe damage being recorded as far back as 1949.215 Over the years, many thousands of hectares have become infested in this area resulting in significant damage to balsam fir stands, many of which were productive stands on very rich sites. In a report prepared for the Newfoundland Royal Commission on Forestry, Balch and Carroll216 identified the controlled use of fire to convert adelgid-infested balsam fir stands to black spruce as a potential adelgid control measure.

The first such experimental prescribed burns for this purpose were conducted during the 1960s; and, in 1980 the NL Department of Natural Resources initiated a series of small, successful burns. For the first time in the province, aerial ignition was used to burn a 423 ha of adelgid-infested area on Corner Brook Pulp and Paper‟s limits. The area was subsequently planted with spruce. Since 1980, several thousand hectares have been burned and converted to adelgid-tolerant black and white spruce.217 Much money and effort have been invested to convert adelgid-infested balsam fir stands to both black and white spruce. The adelgid has also moved into pre- commercially thinned areas where it has stunted growth, significantly reducing the silvicultural investment potential.

5.3.2 Forest Fires

The Provincial fire records date back about 400 years with some 167 entries from 1619 to 1900.218 While many of these entries make reference to “multiple” fires in progress, the authors of the fire records point out that documentation of these past outbreaks has been “very incomplete and fragmentary”. Considering that many fires were likely not reported, the overall number of fires that occurred during that period may well have exceeded several hundred. Furthermore, many of these pre-industrial fires were probably quite large.

Since the beginning of the industrial period in 1890, the number of fires recorded up to 1960 was well in excess of 900. The most destructive year in the province‟s history was 1904 “when large portions of the Island from coast to coast were swept by fire over an area in excess of 2 million acres.”219 Up to this point, many of the industrial and political leaders in the province were generally indifferent to any need to conserve the forest resource. W.J. Carroll noted220 that since the government was “anxious to foster economic diversification,” they preferred to “attribute most wildfires to supposedly careless fisher people, rather than blaming the saw-mill boilers and locomotives as warranted by government‟s own investigations”.

In June of 1905, the Forest Fires Act was passed on the same day as the Pulp and Paper Act which recognized the Anglo Newfoundland Development Company pulp and paper mill in Grand Falls. The occurrence of these two events on the same day was not coincidental. W.J. Carroll indicates221 that since the forest resource was now in major demand, commercially, it had

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acquired a recognized economic value. That same year saw the establishment of a fire suppression organization which later evolved into the Newfoundland Forest Service.222 However, based on the above statistics up to 1960, forest fires were not controlled and millions of hectares were still burned. Vast areas in the Province have been burned since that time, e.g. the huge 1961 fire in central Newfoundland.

Many of the vast areas of black spruce stands in central Newfoundland have developed as a result of large-scale burning. These stands of black spruce that ultimately developed following the fires have been very beneficial to the pulp and paper industry. However, since wildfires have always been viewed as a threat to the forest resources, fire protection continues to be a cornerstone of the province‟s forest management program. Since the earliest days of the Newfoundland Forest Service, the objective has been to protect the forest resources from wildfires. With the exception of prescribed burning discussed earlier, the forests are managed under a fire-exclusion policy. Unfortunately, this has inadvertently led to fire exclusion in ecosystems that naturally evolved after fire.

Fire disturbances may not be a “driving” factor in the development of certain future forest ecosystems. For example, many of the black spruce stands in central Newfoundland that have developed primarily from fires may, in the absence of fire disturbances, evolve to balsam fir stands. During the past 20 year, fire records for Corner Brook Pulp and Paper limits indicate223 that a total of 16,670 ha have been burned, an average of only 833 ha per year. Furthermore, the total area was burned by 885 fires, most of which were less than 1 ha in size. While there was considerable potential for much higher losses with 885 fires, quick response time and efficient detection and suppression systems resulted in losses that were minimal when compared to the fire statistics of the previous decades. The NL Department of Natural Resources has also noted that its good fire management record can be attributed to a combination of public education and awareness programs, modern and well-maintained fire suppression equipment (including its water bomber fleet), and equally important, a quicker response time from the public as a result of widespread cell phone use.224 (Figure 5-5)

In summary, during the industrial period, the province has gone from a period of very major fires, to a period where fires of any significant size are now a rarity. The trade-off, of course, is the virtual elimination of fire from most forest ecosystem processes. Any “desired” fire activities for either ecosystem or silvicultural management objectives have to rely on prescribed burning (Figure 5-6)

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Figure 5-5. Wildfire with water-bomber in foreground. (DNR photo credit)

Figure 5-6. A prescribed burn to eradicate balsam woolly adelgid.

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5.3.3 Forest Diseases

5.3.3.1 Indigenous Species

The main indigenous species of root rot fungi, Armillaria ostoyae and Inonotus tomentosus, appear to have become more active now than in the pre-industrial period.225 For example, the numerous freshly cut stumps become a food source for root pathogens, as the stumps provide increased fungal inoculums and potential for infection of residual trees. As well, certain cultural aspects associated with the company`s silviculture program has also resulted in increased activity by both root rots and decayer fungi.

Armillaria has become especially important in large-scale reforestation programs involving black and white spruce plantations that were started during the mid 1970s. In the earlier years of this reforestation program, planted seedlings consisted mainly of bare-root planting stock which was subject to mishandling, root breakage and improper tree placement by planting crews. As the Armillaria root rot commonly attacks stressed or weakened trees, it was common to have some level of mortality from Armillaria throughout these plantations. While this would usually occur within one or two years after planting226, casual observations of plantations that are now in excess of 20 years, are still finding incidences of mortality in these planted trees.227 It is possible that this later mortality may be caused by the Tomentosus root rot which has a preference for spruces and can live in dead roots and stumps for up to 25 to 30 years. Trees generally become susceptible after 25 years of age with a higher rate of infection in plantations than in natural stands.228

After a number of years of planting bare-root stock, the Provincial Tree Nursery at Wooddale, central Newfoundland, switched to container stock. While these were smaller seedlings, the root systems were self-contained in a peat plug and could be planted with minimal stress to the seedlings. As well, healthy trees can “wall off” and inhibit disease infection. Consequently, evidence of Armillaria related tree mortality has dropped off significantly. In the opinion of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper‟s Reforestation Supervisor229, plantation mortality from Armillaria is now a non-issue. However, Tomentosus root rot may still be a problem in the future as this fungus is known to attack healthy trees.

Root and butt rots in semi-mature pre-commercially thinned stands of balsam fir are a significant silvicultural issue. In pre-commercially thinned stands, densities are typically reduced to 2500 trees per ha from densities as high as 50,000 trees per ha. The newly-spaced residual crop trees, which are unstable in high winds, experience increased tree movement and root breakage beneath the surface. These wounds provide entry points for pathogens to enter the trees. The fungi of both root and butt rot fungi kill small, lateral roots and decay structural heartwood of the major roots

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and butt section of living trees. Subsequently, wood volume losses result from reduced growth, tree mortality, windthrow and scaled butt cull. The occurrence of root and butt rots in 35–40 year old pre-commercially thinned balsam fir stands, 15–20 years after thinning, was up to three times higher than in natural stands.230

5.3.3.2 Introduced Species

One of the most significant, and accidental, introductions of a forest pathogen to the province is the virulent and lethal fungal parasite, white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola J. C. Fisch.). (Figure 5-7). This is a pathogen that, following its introduction from Europe, has been instrumental in the decline of the white pine throughout Newfoundland. While white pine once occupied a very prominent position in the forested landscape of the Island, the over-exploitation of sawlog-quality pine at the turn of the 20th century, and the decimation, since the 1930s, of remnant mature trees and regeneration by the blister rust have considerably reduced its occurrence on the landscape.231 In fact, the current status of white pine in the province is thought to be tenuous.232 Most observers agree that the key impediment to its recovery as an integral component of Newfoundland forest ecosystems is the white pine blister rust.

Infections typically occur during cool, wet periods from August to September following the release of fungal spores that develop on its alternate hosts, Ribes species (e.g., skunk current and gooseberry). The initial infection begins on the foliage and advances inward along the branch toward the stem over a period of several years. Branch infections are non-lethal whereas the subsequent stem infections eventually result in girdling and death. As most infections occur within two metres from the ground where dense foliage can trap moisture and inhibit air circulation, young, regenerating saplings become readily infected with little chance of survival.233 Unfortunately, the accidental introduction of this fungus, and its impact on the economically- important white pine, is a prime example of an introduced species threatening the province‟s natural forest ecosystems. In an attempt to assess the survival options for white pine, a ”White Pine Working Group” was formed in 1997 to make recommendations for the revival of this species. While many of the recommendations have been implemented, the long-term survival of white pine cannot be assured.

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Figure 5-7. White pine tree infected with blister rust.

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5.3.4 Moose

In 1904, two male moose (Alces alces andersoni) and two female moose were removed from New Brunswick and successfully introduced to Newfoundland near Howley in the western part of the province. Since the wolves were extirpated in the early 1900s,234 this ungulate species (Figure 5-8) quickly colonized the Island and exploited new habitat. Currently, moose occupy all ecoregions on the Island, at densities in primarily forested habitat in many instances exceeding 4 moose per kilometre.235 Densities greater than 2 moose / km2 are considered above management targets.236 In fact, Newfoundland is also home to a disproportionately large part of the North American moose population. The Island population of 125,000 moose represents about 12% of the total 1.05 million moose in North America, while the total Island area, including areas unsuited to moose, is less than 2% of the estimated continental moose range of 6.44 million square kilometres.237 Over-population usually occurs following introduction into unexploited habitat, and persists in situations without natural predators,238 as is the case in Newfoundland.

The overabundance of moose in Newfoundland is having a significant and enduring effect on biodiversity in specific areas of the Island‟s boreal forest, significantly influencing forest succession and composition in some ecosystems.239 The consumption of balsam fir and hardwoods by moose has also prevented balsam fir regeneration from reaching heights greater than one metre. On regenerating cutovers, it is not uncommon to see white spruce, which is not browsed by moose, taller than the heavily-browsed, bonsai-like balsam fir (Figure 5-8). In many cases, the balsam fir is virtually all destroyed, leaving white spruce or often, raspberries, with no softwood regeneration at all. An example of this can be seen in Figure 5-8, where DNR has now herbicided the area in preparation for planting to white spruce.

The problem of moose browsing is particularly pronounced in Gros Morne National Park (GMNP) where moose populations are so high (7 / km2) that they are destroying the natural forest ecosystems in the area. For the first time in its history, GMNP are plans a controlled hunt in certain areas of the Park to reduce the moose numbers to more manageable levels. In updating the ecological land classification for Newfoundland, Roberts and Bajzak (1984) used the term “ungulate induced” to describe succession specific to richer sites, in which a shift occurs from closed canopy balsam fir and white spruce to open-grown white spruce, resulting from the destruction of balsam fir by moose. Large areas of very open grown white spruce, especially in areas with limited access, can be seen in all ecoregions of the province. These areas have been referred to by local foresters as “white spruce savannas”.

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White Spruce

Figure 5-8. Top, left: Moose; Top Right: Balsam fir stocking completely decimated by moose; site herbicided in 2010, to be planted to white spruce in 2011; Bottom: “Bonsai-looking” balsam fir, heavily browsed by moose; note taller white spruce on sides.

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Overabundant moose populations are also precipitating a change in policy in the acceptance of balsam fir regeneration in certain regions where moose populations are high. For example, on the Northern Peninsula, areas are being planted to spruce even though they are well-stocked to balsam fir. In many cases, sufficient time would elapse for the cutover to regenerate very well to balsam fir, only to have it eaten by moose; it also allowed for a vibrant crop of raspberries to become firmly established. The practice of immediately planting spruce on balsam fir cutovers in high moose-density areas, regardless of natural regeneration, avoids the application of herbicide treatments as the planted trees will have sufficient time to become established and gain a competitive edge over raspberries and other herbaceous vegetation. In addition to the reforestation issue, moose browsing damage in pre-commercial thinning areas is also wide-spread across the province. Some of these thinned areas sustain very significant damage and mortality in some sections.

While there are many other documented situations where overabundant moose populations are adversely affecting the province‟s forest ecosystems, the management of this situation remains quite challenging, and certainly adds to the complexity of ecosystem management. The long-term solution may involve (in part) increasing the moose harvest through hunting. However, since interest in moose hunting is generally declining throughout the population240, this may not be a viable long-term solution.

5.4 FOREST MANAGEMENT

5.4.1 Forest Management Evolution

The early part of the 1900s was largely a period of forest exploitation. It marked the beginning of the current industrial period that started with a significant expansion of the sawmilling industry, as the construction of the Newfoundland Railway provided access to large areas of white pine in the interior of the province. Forest management soon evolved from forest protection, which commenced with the Forest Fires Act in 1905, to timber management where annual allowable cuts and basic forest regulations were implemented. This period was followed by multiple use management, where other forest uses and user groups were recognized.

Forest management practices are currently built around the principles of sustainable forest management (SFM). This approach consists of maintaining the long-term health of forest ecosystems, while providing ecological, economic and cultural opportunities for the benefit of present and future generations.241 The new Forestry Act of 1990 set the tone for this new refocusing of forest management. To accomplish the SFM mandate, the Act provided for the establishment of planning teams within the various forest management districts, composed of forest industry representatives, government resource managers, non-government organizations

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and the public. For Corner Brook Pulp and Paper, environmental and sustainable forest management has been very high on its agenda for nearly a decade, during which time it has achieved certification to environment and forest management standards.

5.4.2 Government Policy

The Provincial Government, through the Newfoundland Forest Service, has always set the tone and overall development climate for forest management in the Province, and indeed, has a mandate to do so. This includes the conditions under which industrial activities can take place, including AAC calculations, wood supply analyses, forest protection, forest inventories, sustainability in all of its various forms, and interactions with other Government Departments, NGOs and other organizations and agencies. The face of present-day forests has been, in one form or another, strongly influenced by Government policies, guidelines and legislation as they have evolved over time. Thus, it necessarily follows that any future shift in forest management practices or policies by the forest industry will invariably require the continued support of Government.

In the pre-industrial period, forest protection did not play a role in the development of forest ecosystems. However, since the early part of the industrial period, forest protection (from both insects and fire) has been a cornerstone of forest management in Newfoundland. In present day forest policy, protection from both fire and insects is primarily a responsibility of the Department of Natural Resources. While the objective is to safe-guard against the loss of fibre (and property), any ecosystem-related or silvicultural objectives are addressed through prescribed or controlled burning.

5.4.3 Industrial Development

The province of Newfoundland has a long history of forest industrial development, having experienced an extraordinary evolution over the past 100 years which included milling technology, product developments and harvesting practices. With the exception of limited pulpwood purchases, both the sawmill industry and the pulp and paper industry operated relatively independent of each other for many years. However, during the 1990s, the development of larger-scale integrated sawmills led to a new, mutually-beneficial relationship between sawmills and the pulp and paper mills. Corner Brook Pulp and Paper, for example, entered into both chip purchase and sawlog-exchange arrangements, providing a very significant increase in sawlog availability for sawmills. In return, Corner Brook Pulp and Paper purchased high-quality, relatively low-cost chips from sawmill operators. In addition, the company agreed to purchase sawmill waste including bark, sawdust and shavings. These purchases were also very important for maintaining sawmill viability.

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The pulp and paper industry has been under severe pressure in recent years, and cost control at all levels has been seen as a critical key to survival. This has led to the development and utilization of bio-energy in the forest industry. The paper mill in Corner Brook has been burning its own residue bark for many years and, in recent times, sawmill bark; however, the high cost of bunker C oil for burning in its boilers forced it to consider other energy sources in an effort to control costs. Consequently, a significant investment in its boiler capacity and technology enabled the company to use much larger volumes of biomass. Over the last several years, the company has availed of not only current sawmill residue production, but old stockpiles of residue around the sawmill premises.

In addition, the company is availing of wood volumes within its various operating areas that do not conform to pulpwood specifications (Figure 5-9). This includes off species such as birch and larch, wood that does not meet the pulpwood decay specifications, undersized trees and dead wood. This initiative has been very successful and has made a significant contribution to cost reduction. Furthermore, the mill does not currently use “any Bunker C oil”.

While the proportions will fluctuate over time, it‟s energy fuel requirements now come from (1) internal bark residue (2/3) mixed with mill sludge (1/3) from its effluent system (158,000 tonnes); (2) approximately 40,000 barrels of waste oil from local sources; (3) and off-site fibre residue purchases (101,000 tonnes) of which approximately 50% is from sawmill residues, and 50% from the forest operations. In addition, the Corner Brook City landfill site now segregates wood fibre waste for chipping and delivery to the mill. In the meantime, the Provincial government has been supporting the development of (bio-energy) wood pellet plants in the province. This has provided another avenue for forest industry development, especially in light of the turndown in the pulp and paper industry with the closure of the Abitbi-Bowater mill in Grand Falls-Windsor, and paper machines in Corner Brook.

5.4.4 Silviculture

Silviculture practices can have a significant impact on forest ecosystems. For example, such practices have a very positive impact in the renewal of forest areas where natural regeneration has failed due to successive natural and anthropogenic disturbances. While a few of these practices have involved significant changes to the previous forest stand types, most do not involve significant deviations and are generally in line with the existing ecosystems and their natural processes. A break-down of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper‟s silviculture program is illustrated in Figure 5-10.

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Figure 5-9. Biomass wood that does not meet pulpwood specifications

CBPP Silviculture Treatment (by type)

Site Preparation = 12% Herbicide = 9%

Seeding =1% PCT = 54% Planting = 24%

Updated Dec 2010 Site Preparation does not include Prescribe Burning

Figure 5-10. Break-down of CBPPL silviculture program by treatments.

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5.4.4.1 The Mainstream / Routine Silviculture Program

Pre-commercial Thinning

Pre-commercial thinning of over-dense softwood regeneration (mostly balsam fir) has been a core component of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper‟s silviculture program since it began in 1976. This thinning treatment, often known as “soft foot-print silviculture” is conducted when the stand is approximately 12 to 15 years old. It reduces the density from a typical 50,000 stems/ha down to 2,500 stems/ha, allowing for a much faster accumulation of growth on these selected crop trees. Furthermore, it typically more than doubles the growth productivity (m3 ha/yr) of the treated area, and allows for a much-reduced rotation age, as well as many other benefits (Figure 5-11). Under natural stand development, balsam fir would go through a similar process of self-thinning through inter-tree competition, except the process would take some 70 years as opposed to 45 to 50 years with pre-commercial thinning. Since 1976, nearly 70, 000 ha have been treated (Figure 5-12)

Figure 5-11. Thirty-year old balsam fir stand that was pre-commercially thinned at age 15. Note presence of smaller stumps remaining from time of thinning.

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Cumulative area of PCT

70,000.0 60,000.0 50,000.0 40,000.0 30,000.0 20,000.0 Hectares 10,000.0 0.0

Year

Figure 5-12. Cumulative area of PCT.

Tree Planting

The “straight-forward” or mainstream portion of the company‟s tree planting program consists of planting black spruce seedlings following the harvest of black spruce stands in central Newfoundland. Most of the harvested spruce stands that are being planted are black spruce- Kalmia site types. These sites usually have thick organic layers, rarely have significant stocking and, without planting, would revert to open woodland and heath. Consequently, the sites require mechanical site preparation (scarification) prior to planting of black spruce. Figures 5-13 and 5- 14 show summaries of all seedlings planted annually, as well as total hectares planted annually since 1981.

Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd. Seedlings Planted 1981-2010 6,000,000 5,000,000 4,000,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 # of Seedlings of # 1,000,000 0 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03 05 07 09 Year

Figure 5-13. Number of seedlings planted annually on CBPPL limits from 1981-2010

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Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd. Number of Hectares Planted 1981-2010 3,000

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000 Number of hectares of Number 500

0

Year

Figure 5-14. Number of hectares planted on CBPPL limits between 1981 and 2010.

5.4.4.2 The “Non-routine” Silviculture Program

The “non-routine” program refers to projects and areas that require surveys, assessments and some level of discussion and decision-making. For example, in western Newfoundland, most cutover areas require regeneration surveys to determine stocking levels. If areas are either under- stocked or have virtually no stocking, then either fill-planting or full-planting is required. Areas are typically planted to white spruce as this species naturally grows in association with balsam fir. However, while white spruce will not be browsed by moose, this is certainly not the case for “rabbits” or snow-show hares, which can decimate planted white spruce, particularly those near the forest edge. It is therefore now common to plant a band or buffer of “black spruce” seedlings (which the hares won‟t browse) around the forest edges and fill the center with white spruce. To further complicate this assessment and prescription process, the area may require a herbicide site preparation treatment before planting, or a herbicide release treatment after planting, or maybe neither is required at all. From start to finish, these silvicultural prescriptions are site specific.

Other assessment situations may determine, for example, that existing balsam fir regeneration is in a high moose hazard area or is infested with the balsam woolly adelgid. In such cases, the area

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may be prescribed burned and planted to spruce; whether its black spruce or white spruce will depend on the site (Figure 5-15). Another area of non-routine decision-making consists of species selection outside of the normal black spruce and white spruce (Figure 5-16). For example, a number of dry, well-drained sites in central Newfoundland have been planted with red pine. This species is native to the province and relatively rare. While certainly not a significant part of the company‟s silviculture program, it was prescribed for this particular site type and is doing very well. The non-native Norway spruce is a species that also does exceptionally well, especially on good sites in western Newfoundland. It does not inter-breed with any of our native spruces, and has also demonstrated superior growth performance elsewhere in Atlantic Canada where it has a much longer history. However, while this species has the potential to boost forest growth productivity, the company has a very restrictive, self-imposed limit on the level of non-native species it will have on its limits. For example, annual plantings of Norway spruce have been in the order of only 0.03% to 0.06% of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper limits.

Figure 5-15. Planting of white spruce on a burned site.

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Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd. Tree species planted 1981-2010 120,158 2,071,321

1,967,055 3,200

939,013

16,172,793 34,315,933

Total seedlings planted to date = 55,589,473 Updated Jan 18, 2011

Black Spruce White Spruce Jack Pine Red Pine European Larch Norway Spruce Tamarack Larch

Figure 5-16. Tree species planted on Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Limits from 1981 to 2010.

5.5 RESULTANT FOREST MOSAIC

5.5.1 Forest Mosaic Elements

The forest mosaic of the industrial period is generally more diverse and complex and, in some cases, more fragmented than that of the pre-industrial period. While all the various disturbances and disturbance types have played a major role in creating this mosaic, harvesting activity over the past 85 years (since 1925) has been the biggest contributing factor by produce a wide scattering of age classes across the entire forest limits. Much of the harvesting has taken place in extensive older stands over many years, resulting in a range of new age classes. In addition, early successional diversity, silviculture treatment areas, buffers, and the residual effects of insect and fire disturbances have also contributed to a more diverse mosaic. However, boreal forest ecosystems are quite dynamic and are in a continuous state of change. Age classes will change, further disturbances will occur, successional changes will continue to develop over time, and both landscape and stand level characteristics will cycle through various changes as well. What we currently have in our forest ecosystems is merely a snapshot in time.

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5.5.2 Age Class Groups

The structure of our various forest age class groups is generally the result of past disturbances, particularly forest harvesting. For example, most of the middle age classes shown in Figure 5-17 have resulted from forest harvesting over the past 85 years. Fire and insect mortality would be reflected in the chart as well, particularly in the older age classes. The older spruce stands would have resulted from fire during the early part of the industrial period, while most of the old balsam fir forests would have originated from insect infestations. However, a very large portion of the mortality resulting from insect infestations during the late 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, and even in recent years, would have been salvaged harvested. The broad age-class distribution pattern typical of western Newfoundland is shown for FMD 15 (Figure 5-18). Similar age classes, representative of central Newfoundland, are shown for FMD 6 (Figure 5-19). While the maps are very small scale they depict a reasonable sense of age class distribution for these specific areas.

Total Defined Forest Area

200000 180000 160000 140000 120000 100000

Area (ha) Area 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 0-20 21-40 41-60 61 - 80 81-100 101-120 121+ Age Class

Figure 5-17. Age class chart of the current total defined forest area of Corner Brook Pulp and Paper limits.

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Figure 5-18. Current broad age-class distribution typical of western Newfoundland.

Much of the harvesting in the past has taken place in operating areas that, in many cases, comprise large, expansive stands, and even landscape-level forested areas, resulting from prior large-scale disturbances. These would generally have occurred both before and after the start of the industrial period. It was not at all uncommon for many of these areas to be harvested over very long time periods, resulting in a number of newer age classes being generated over the extended harvest period. An example of this can be seen in the Wildcove Pond / Black Lake area on the Baie Verte Peninsula (Figure 5-20), which shows a large area of age class 7 (121+ years) (dark green) with “intrusions” of 0 – 20 yr and 21 – 40 yr age classes (purple and pink areas,

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respectively). Harvesting started in this area in 1973, nearly 40 years ago when the stand would have been in age class 5 (81 – 100 years). Over this harvest time period, two more 20 year age classes have been generated. Situations like these are not uncommon, where harvesting in one operating area can take place over many years.

Figure 5-19. Current broad age class distribution typical of central Newfoundland.

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The other situation described earlier in the report, relates back to the period of early mechanization where stands with less than optimum volumes were left behind. Many years later (within the past decade), many of these stands have been harvested, again resulting in new, younger age classes being created.

Figure 5-20. Age class map of Wildcove Pond / Black Lake area on the Baie Verte Peninsula showing a large area of age class 7 (121+ years) (dark green) with “intrusions” of 0 – 20 yr and 21 – 40 yr age classes (purple and pink areas, respectively).

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5.5.3 Forest Patch Sizes

In the context of an overall, landscape-level forest mosaic, patches are simply an assortment of polygons that have no particular restrictions with respect to size, and are defined by such attributes as site type, species, age and shape. However, in describing the relative contiguity of a particular disturbance, the reference to patches or “patchiness” is often used to describe breaks or “skips” in the progression of a particular disturbance. Insects and fires can kill large tracts of forest area, yet often generate many patches in its wake. These patches can be skips within the main body of the disturbance, or the disturbance itself may simply be patchy in nature. This can be caused by wind or other weather-related factors in the case of fire, or through the natural fragmentation of the forest area due to water bodies, wetlands, scrub, and topography, etc. For natural disturbances, the biggest factor is the actual severity of the disturbance. In the case of insects, for example, light to moderate infestation levels can contribute to patchiness.

In the case of harvesting, factors such as weather and severity are not relevant. However, the size and shape of the various natural disturbances that generated the stands being harvested is often a significant determining factor in the size and shape of the cutover. It is also quite common to see patches of all shapes and sizes left within cut blocks that originated from some sort of disturbance that occurred maybe a few decades beforehand. For example a patch of younger, unmerchantable forest may have resulted from a patch of blow-down or insect mortality that occurred earlier in the stand development. In this example, the new regenerating forest will now have a patch of now “older” forest contained within it. As in the case of natural disturbances, harvest patch sizes are also very much affected by the size and physical arrangement of scrub, waterbodies and wetlands that are intermixed throughout the harvest operating areas.

5.5.4 Forest Succession and Species Composition

Forest succession during the industrial period has been consistent with the successional pathways outlined in the Damman site classification system. The classification system is broadly built around a complex arrangement or matrix of soil moisture and fertility gradients, with the actual successional patterns depending on the disturbance type and the composition of the plant communities being disturbed. There are also many other variables that govern succession including the availability of seed sources, the severity of the disturbance, the age of the stand disturbed, as well as other factors.

Another significant point to note is that forest site types usually have a climax or stable species associated with it. For example, balsam fir is the climax species on many sites. If a balsam fir site is either harvested, killed by insects or is blown down, it will usually regenerate to balsam fir again. However, if the site were to burn, it may regenerate to white birch or black spruce, depending on the specific site type. In either case, the site will eventually return to its stable or climax species, in this case balsam fir, even if it takes several generations. This is the case for

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many of the black spruce areas in central Newfoundland, where the richer sites tend to have balsam fir as their climax species.

The dominant tree species map for FMD 6 in central Newfoundland (see Figure 3-7), indicates that the area is generally dominated by black spruce. However, the small, balsam fir section in the middle of the district was previously (fire-origin) black spruce that Corner Brook Pulp and Paper harvested in the late 1970s. If we consider that (1) the area has regenerated to balsam fir, and (2) that the site quality in this specific area is quite good, we can surmise that this area was originally balsam fir, and in the process of returning to its climax condition. On the other hand, much of the black spruce forest showing on the FMD 06 map is the black spruce-kalmia site type, which is generally stable to that species. It should be further noted that this area has a minor, but very visible component of white birch and trembling aspen, both originating from the earlier fire.

Species succession in western Newfoundland is somewhat simpler in that the dominant species of the region, balsam fir, is also the climax species (see Figure 3-6). Disturbances in balsam fir stands, other than fire, will usually result in succession to balsam fir. In the event of fire, succession will typically be white birch on the better sites. Some sites, such as pleurozium-balsam fir, which have a minor component of black spruce, will usually regenerate to black spruce following fire. Balsam fir stands on better sites usually have a component of white spruce which typically grows quite well. There is also a minor component of yellow birch found on richer sites.

5.5.5 Landscape Level Characteristics

Landscape characteristics are largely determined by disturbance history of the area and the successional patterns associated with site type and specific disturbance type. In general, however, the forest landscapes of the industrial period are relatively diverse, and composed of a mosaic of age classes or various successional stages. A typical western Newfoundland landscape (Figure 5- 21) shows five age classes ranging from relatively new cutovers all the way to the over-mature age classes, all visible from one point. The various age class patches blend together very well, yet the subtle distinctions of the various successional stages and age classes are readily apparent. The disturbance history of this particular area also includes insect mortality. However, while there are many exceptions, areas of insect mortality are often immediately targeted for harvest, giving the appearance of a regular harvest area. Quite often in such cases, there are a few patches and fringe areas of dead wood left behind.

Many of the earlier forest operating areas were in large, expansive areas that reflected wide- spread disturbances in the past. Quite frequently, these areas would be harvested over many years, even decades in many instances, creating a mosaic of younger age classes across the landscape. This is quite common across all areas of the DFA and a major contributing factor to the landscape diversity that currently exists.

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Figure 5-21. Typical balsam fir landscape showing mosaic of various age classes.

As forests go through their various successional stages, there is both a physical development and visual transitioning that takes place. On typical balsam fir cutovers immediately following harvesting, decomposition of the slash will transition from green to red periods, and then on to a gray period. This is soon followed by a “green up” period where raspberries and various herbaceous plants and shrubs typically dominate the cutover landscape areas. In these initial years, many scattered white birch and softwood snags are also quite visible over long distances and are a very common landscape feature. Over the next few years, many of the standing snags drop out and high-density regenerating balsam fir, often along with white birch, becomes quite visible. By age 12 to 15 years, a pre-commercial thinning treatment typically takes place, and over the next several years, the young forest will “close in” and often take on a richer green colour as a result of more nitrogen being available to each of the crop trees. At this stage, the young forest takes on a more aesthetically pleasing look, blending in very well with its neighbouring age classes (Figure 5-22).

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Figure 5-22. Pre-commercially thinned balsam fir stand with crown closure.

The development scenario for black spruce harvest areas can be more variable, depending on site type. Some of the richer areas often regenerate to balsam fir and develop in a similar fashion as described above. However, many of the medium to poorer sites, such as the black spruce-kalmia types, will not go through quite the same green-up period associated with the relatively rapid flush of raspberries and herbaceous plant growth commonly seen in richer balsam fir areas. Most of these areas are scarified and planted to black spruce and the green-up takes place over a longer time period, usually involving the planted trees themselves. A flush of kalmia, especially on the poorer end of the site quality scale, is also commonly evident over time.

Other disturbance types that have occurred during the industrial period, including fire and insects, have produced landscape characteristics that are quite different. While most insect killed areas are salvage-harvested wherever possible and resemble regular cutovers, many patches and inaccessible killed stands still remain on the landscape. With respect to wildfires, those that occurred during the early part of the industrial period have had a major influence on the landscape of the DFA, especially in central Newfoundland; and, have generated large expanses of spruce forests. However, these areas have been largely broken down into a mosaic of age classes

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creating a more diverse landscape. During the latter part of the current industrial period, large- scale wildfires have become a rarity. While prescribed burning has been widely practiced in recent decades, their residual effects on the landscape seldom resemble that of a wildfire.

Finally, current industrial forest landscapes include a network of roads and extraction trails. At a landscape level, these tend to be visible only in places where the topography and adjacent stand height allows. In many older operating areas, roads berms with exposed mineral soil often support birch and other hardwoods along the road sides, and alders are commonly found in the ditches. Some of the older extraction or secondary roads grow-in completely with alders. Such areas are often frequented by moose and especially snowshoe hares and both ruffed and spruce grouse. From a distance, these areas have a distinctive “ribbon” appearance, criss-crossing the landscape.

5.5.6 Stand Level Characteristics

The whole range of forest disturbance types that occurred during the pre-industrial period (wildfire, insects, diseases and blowdown) have also occurred during the industrial period; and in the case of naturally developed (unmanaged) forests, the resulting “stand level” characteristics for each of these disturbance types would likely be similar for both time periods, given similar forest conditions. Therefore, descriptions of stand level characteristics in the industrial period will be confined to the effects of forest harvesting and silviculture treatments, neither of which occurred during the pre-industrial period.

5.5.6.1 Coarse Woody Debris (CWD)

The harvest and removal of wood from a forest site is perhaps the most visible and obvious stand- level change that occurs in industrial forestry. While some measure of coarse woody debris is invariably left on the site, it would nevertheless be in stark contrast to the amount left by insect infestations, blow down and low-intensity fire. However, most harvested sites already have an accumulation of CWD on the forest floor in varying stages of decomposition, and with short- wood harvesting systems, all the slash (limbs and tops) is left on site. Also, significant numbers of snags also fall to the forest floor during the logging operation and in the years that follow. While it appears that in at least some cases, less than ideal levels of CWD are being left on cutovers, the point made earlier is that it does not necessarily follow that more is always better. Issues around CWD have two main elements: Wildlife Habitat and Sustainability of Soil Productivity. A model developed by the CFS in the 1980s (FORCYTE) that dealt with soil productivity concluded that under conventional rotations, there would be no adverse impact on nutrient cycling and productivity. However, short rotations using whole tree harvesting systems were problematic. On the wildlife side, CWD research is still in the early stages and inconclusive thus far.242 While the ideal amount of CWD to be left after logging will vary from site to site, the

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roles of CWD and optimum requirement levels are not well understood and need further research.243

5.5.6.2 Snags

Snags, which are usually present in relatively large numbers in mature and older boreal forests, usually experience a significant reduction both during the course of harvesting operation, and with blowdown in subsequent years. Corner Brook Pulp and Paper has had a snag retention program since 2002, and carries out surveys annually to ensure that Environmental Protection Guidelines for the retention of wildlife trees are being adhered to. Snag characteristics and numbers vary considerably between western Newfoundland balsam fir sites and central Newfoundland black spruce sites. In the spruce areas, snags are fewer, shorter and of smaller diameter. Also they are very dominant to softwoods. In Western Newfoundland, snags are generally more frequent, taller, of larger average diameter, and include both balsam fir and white birch. The harvested area shown in Figure 5-23 where both snags and coarse woody debris are left on site provides an example of how visual appeal and ecological appropriateness can sometimes clash. In any case, an emerging challenge in both regions for snag retention involves the removal of domestic firewood.

Figure 5-23. Snag and coarse woody debris retention following harvesting

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5.5.6.3 Managed Forests

Disease activity

While every attempt is made to keep silviculture programs in line with natural ecosystem processes, problems invariably occur to some extent or another. The presence of armillaria in some older plantations has resulted in the death of individual and small groups of trees. Then there is the situation of butt decay in pre-commercially thinned areas likely caused by root breakage from unstable trees swaying in the wind, allowing decaying pathogens to gain entry into the tree. While improved cultural practices can perhaps minimize this sort of damage in the future, it is likely that root rot and decay agents will still be active in managed forests. In the case of butt rot in the pre-commercial thinning areas, these stands will be scheduled for harvest before significant losses occur. In the case of armillaria and other root rot pathogens in plantations, the dead trees have essentially created openings in the future stand canopy. While there will be an associated volume loss at harvest time, the presence of small openings will likely provide other ecosystem related benefits. Such openings mimic gaps that occur in naturally regenerating forests.

Stand Development Dynamics

Natural softwood stands typically start out at high densities and thin themselves out over time through inter-tree competition. In the earlier years, small dead stems fall to the ground and decay relatively quickly. However, as the stand ages toward the semi-mature class, they begin to leave larger dead trees which stay standing for longer periods, but invariably experience breakage from snow loads and fall to the ground. As the stand enters into its mature state, standing dead trees stay standing for longer periods of time and enter a more “usable” state for wildlife. These, too, eventually drop out as the stand reduces its density and produces newer stags of larger diameter. These snags tend to be of higher quality and generally see active use by a range of cavity nesters and other wildlife.

Corner Brook Pulp and Paper still has many unmanaged forest stands going through this process, particularly stands on the older end of the scale. However, the company also has nearly 70,000 ha of pre-commercial thinning stands treated as well as 30,000 ha of planted areas. For the most part, these areas will not go through the same process of inter-tree competition sufficient to cause any appreciable level of death, and consequently, they will not generate snags to the same degree as in natural stands. The only real source of snag creation will be through periodic tree death caused by pathogens. The same may hold true for CWD, although stumps and large pieces of CWD from collapsing snags in the previous cutover, are very evident throughout most thinned areas (Figure 5-24). However, as a point of perspective, the proportion of silviculturally-treated areas is comparatively small in relation to the company‟s total forest area.

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Figure 5-24. Old decomposing stump in a managed balsam fir stand. Photo Credit: D. Hearn

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However, another interesting dynamic that occurs in thinned stands is in relation to the flush of early successional herbaceous plants, berry bushes, and other shrubs that develop between the softwood crop trees, which occurs a couple of years after treatment. In a study conducted on Corner Brook Pulp and Paper‟s limits in the early 1990s on the impacts of pre-commercial thinning on grouse and hare habitat, it was found that, immediately following the pre-commercial thinning treatment, habitat quality (i.e. the ability of an area to provide both a food source and protection from predators) was initially quite poor. While the high-density slash on the ground offered protection from ground predators, it created an impediment to mobility; and vertical vector avian predators could easily detect these small game animals from the air. However, after a couple of years, the situation essentially went from poor to excellent because of the influx of herbaceous plants, shrubs and birch stump sprouts. Predator protection from both horizontal and vertical vectors improved significantly, mobility improved from breakdown of the slash, and the food supply was in abundance.244 This same dynamic does not occur as much in the unthinned stands, as they are largely composed of over-dense softwoods which tend to prevent light penetration to the forest floor required to stimulate herbaceous growth.

Pre-commercial thinnings also provide a good food source for moose (Figure 5-25). Sprouting birch stumps in between softwood crop trees are favoured, as are foliage and buds of thinned stands, all of which are rich in carbohydrates. Evidence of heavy browsing is quite evident in high-density moose areas. Thinned crop trees in winter yarding areas are often decimated by moose. Aside from the economic loss, this browsing will create openings throughout the stands.

Figure 5-25. Pre-commercially thinned stand of balsam fir killed by moose browsing. Photo Credit: NL DNR.

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5.6 SUMMARY

Introduction

 In an effort to diversify the economy and reduce its dependence on fishing and welfare payments, the Government proposed the building of a railway across Newfoundland.

Forest Harvesting Practices

 An estimate of the number of sawmills in Newfoundland by 1900 was about 150

 The construction and completion of the Newfoundland Railway led to increased opportunities for sawmills and by 1900, annual exports from mills throughout the Island were in the order of 40-50 million fbm. Opportunities afforded by the Government and accessibility provided by the railway led to a flourishing sawmilling industry based primarily around the availability of white pine.

 Early in the 20th century, it became readily apparent that the sawmilling industry‟s dependence on white pine was not sustainable.

 The decline in sawmilling coincided with the establishment of Newfoundland‟s first pulp and paper mill at Grand Falls in 1909 by the Anglo Newfoundland Development Company Limited. This was followed by the establishment of the mill at Corner Brook in 1925.

 Forest harvesting practices that supported the mill at Corner Brook went throughout a huge transition throughout the industrial period:

 The Early Days. Wood was cut with axes and bucksaws from 1925 to 1953. Utilization practices were very strict and stump-piled wood would often not be scaled if large tops or usable wood was not retrieved. Stands of bad wood had to be cut with the good wood; there was very little wastage and nothing was left behind; men were paid on piece work and wood costs were therefore predictable.

 Early Mechanization. Chainsaws were introduced in 1953, cable skidders in 1962, and mechanical harvesters in 1970. Wood cost was determined by machine productivity. Less emphasis was placed on time-consuming recovery of dropped pieces, breakage and general wastage was relatively high; lower volume stands were left behind, uncut.

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 Current Harvesting Practices. Focus was on cost reduction, but also on achieving environmental and sustainable forest management certification standards. Cutting lower-volume residual stands and reducing fibre wastage through improved utilization was again back on the agenda as well as a host of other improved harvesting practices.

The harvesting practices during each of these periods had implications on various aspects of forest ecosystem development.

Natural Disturbances

 The huge spruce budworm infestations and associated mortality that occurred during the 1970s killed in excess of 17 million m3 of wood. This insect has since remained at endemic levels.

 The worst hemlock looper infestation of the industrial period occurred in the late 1960s and killed some 12 million m3 of wood across the Island. This insect has remained active throughout various parts of the province, particularly on the Northern Peninsula. Infestation levels have been quite variable ranging from 500 ha to 75,000 ha.

 The balsam fir sawfly has been quite active in the province for many years, with the most recent and serious outbreak starting in 1990. It has been ongoing for some 20 years and much of the damage has been in managed stands. Over this period, the infested area has ranged from 1,200 ha to 68,000 ha. annually .

 One of the most significant (accidentally) introduced insect species in the province is the balsam fir adelgid or balsam woolly aphid, introduced in the 1920s or 1930s. This insect severely stunts the growth of balsam fir, effectively rendering large areas of forest land as unproductive. The adelgid, which can also cause mortality, has spread across the province.

 As there is no treatment for this insect, balsam woolly adelgid infestations have resulted in many millions of dollars being spent on the eradication of infected balsam fir areas, mostly through stand reclamation and prescribed burning, and planting to spruce. In central Newfoundland, balsam regenerating on spruce cutovers, is being ignored and planted to spruce. The adelgid is having a major impact on balsam fir ecosystems. This is interrupting (through necessity) the normal return of these spruce areas to the balsam fir climax species as outlined in Damman‟s successional pathways.

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 Up until recent decades, forest fires have been a major disturbance factor throughout the industrial period. Millions of hectares have burned and many areas several times over, resulting in a degradation of site quality in many areas, with some relegated to heath status. Most of the fires have been in central and eastern Newfoundland.

 With the province operating under a fire-exclusion policy, coupled with the excellent detection and suppression efforts by the Newfoundland Forest Service in recent periods, the province has not experienced much in the way of large-scale fires. In fact, while it is possible that, given the right conditions, large fires can still occur, they have nevertheless become a rarity in recent times.

 Fires are now relegated to prescribed burns which are very controlled and designed to achieve specific silvicultural objectives. They in no way resemble the natural vagrancies of wildfires and will not create the natural ecosystem patterns and structures associated with wildfires.

 The main indigenous species of root rot and decaying fungi have generally become more active during the industrial period, specifically in harvesting and silviculture treatment areas. The numerous freshly cut stumps become a food source for root rot pathogens and the stumps provide increased fungal inoculums and potential for infection of residual trees.

 Amongst the root rot pathogens, armillaria root rot has become very adept at attacking planted trees that may be stressed. While not a major problem, some of the bare-root stock planted in the mid-70s that was stressed or damaged have fallen victim to this pathogen.

 Butt rot is common in many of the earlier pre-commercial thinning areas. Following treatment, many trees are unstable and rock in the wind causing root breakage, which provides an entry point for decaying fungi.

 One of the most significant and accidental introductions of a forest pathogen to the province is the virulent and lethal fungal parasite, the white pine blister rust. While white pine once occupied a very prominent position in the forested landscape of the Island, the over-exploitation of sawlog-quality white pine at the turn of the 20th century, and the decimation, since the 1930s, of remnant trees and regeneration by the blister rust, has considerably reduced its occurrence on the landscape. The current status of white pine in Newfoundland is now thought to be tenuous.

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 The overabundance of moose in Newfoundland is having a significant and enduring effect on biodiversity in specific areas of the Island‟s boreal forest, as well as significantly influencing forest succession and composition in some ecosystems.

 In an effort to prevent excessive browsing of plantations, some regenerating balsam fir cutovers (that are fully stocked to fir) are being planted with white spruce, a species that moose will not browse. In other areas traditionally characterized by closed canopy balsam fir and white spruce, the regenerating forest consists of open-grown white spruce due to browsing of the balsam fir by moose.

 Moose is a major problem in both Gros Morne and Terra Nova National Parks, causing major damage and changes to the natural ecosystems. In an unprecedented move to reduce moose numbers, Gros Morne is planning to allow hunting within the park.

Forest Management

 Over the industrial period, forest management has evolved from exploitation, to protection, to timber management, to multiple use management and now, sustainable forest management.

 Current forest management practices are built around the principles of sustainable forest management (SFM), which consists of maintaining the long-term health of forest ecosystems, while providing ecological, economical and cultural opportunities for the benefit of present and future generations.

 The Provincial Government, through the Newfoundland Forest Service, has always set the tone and overall development climate for forest management in the Province, and indeed, has the mandate to do so. Any future shifts in forest management practices or policies by the forest industry will invariably require the continued support of Government.

 There has been an extraordinary evolution of forest industry development over the past 100 years including milling technology, product developments and harvesting practices. Sawmills have become integrated and new, mutually beneficial arrangements have been put in place with Corner Brook Pulp and Paper.

 In an effort to reduce its dependency on Bunker C oil, and to reduce operating costs, the company has modernized its boiler system and is in a position to satisfy most of its energy requirements with biomass. Most of this biomass comes from its own pulpwood debarking residue, while the balance comes from sawmill waste and, more recently, from

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the harvesting of wood fibre that does not meet pulpwood specifications, including off species, wood with excessive cull, under-size wood and dead wood.

 Silviculture practices can have a significant impact on forest ecosystems. However, while some of these practices have involved significant changes to the previous forest stand types, most do not involve significant deviations and are generally in line with existing ecosystems and their natural processes. In many instances, these practices are essential for the regeneration of forests to ensure future wildlife habitat and fibre supply.

 The mainstream or “routine” portion of the company‟s silviculture program includes (1) pre-commercial thinning, which is often referred to as “soft footprint silviculture”, as it resembles the natural thinning process that occurs in over-dense softwood stands, and (2) the scarification and planting of black spruce-kalmia type cutovers in central Newfoundland. These are routine in that there is very little decision making involved in these treatments.

 The “non-routine” part of the silviculture program typically involves surveys and assessments followed by discussion and decision-making. Examples are (1) regeneration surveys to see if areas need planting, and if so, a fill-plant or a full-plant and to what species; (2) assessments to see if herbicide site preparation (before planting) or herbicide release (after planting) is required; (3) assessments to determine if balsam woolly adelgid is a problem and whether a prescribed burning treatment is required.

Resultant Forest Mosaic

 The forest mosaic of the industrial period is generally more diverse and complex. This is mostly the result of harvesting over an 85 year period. Much of the harvesting in the past has taken place in regions that, in many cases, comprise of large, expansive areas resulting from prior large-scale disturbances. Many of these areas are harvested over very long time periods (decades in some instances), creating a number of newer, younger age classes.

 With respect to harvest patch size, the size and shape of the various natural disturbances that generated the stands being harvested is often a significant determining factor for the size and shape of the cutover. It can be generally stated that, in the pre-industrial era, the balsam fir dominated systems occurred in low-fire environments with internal patchiness caused by insects while the fire driven systems of central Newfoundland had large contiguous patches dominated by black spruce.

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 Landscape characteristics are largely determined by the disturbance history of an area and the successional patterns associated with each site type and specific disturbance type.

 In western Newfoundland, forest landscapes are often defined by a mosaic of age classes and the colour tones associated with the various stages of succession ranging from cutovers, to managed, juvenile stands to mature stands. Snags are also quite visible in younger disturbance areas. Of course, topography and the distribution of various land class types (bogs, scrub, water bodies, etc) are also contributing factors.

 In central Newfoundland, the forest landscapes are also defined by a mosaic of age classes. While the balsam fir areas will look much the same as in western Newfoundland, the black spruce-kalmia cutover areas do not go through the same, quick-flush green up period as in richer fir areas. Most of the green up is with the planted trees themselves, and a flush of kalmia is readily visible in many areas.

 Many areas in central Newfoundland have evidence of fire disturbances which can include patches with standing dead snags, or patches of aspen and pin cherry which commonly occur after wildfires.

 The harvest and removal of wood from a forest site is perhaps the most visible and obvious stand-level change that occurs in industrial forestry. While some measure of coarse woody debris (CWD) is invariably left on the site, most of the snags in an operating area are knocked down during harvesting and add to the CWD on the forest floor. This is in stark contrast to what would be left after insect infestations, blowdown and low-intensity fires.

 The number and quality of residual snags following harvesting is surveyed annually on company cutovers. The target of 10 wildlife trees left standing after harvesting (as provided for in the Environmental Protection Guidelines) is usually met. After one or two decades, many of the standing snags fall to the ground.

 Managed softwood stands generally have a density of approximately 2,500 trees/ha, and the intent or objective is to have nearly all of these trees available for harvest at maturity. While a number of stems will invariably die from disease and/or blowdown, these managed stands will not generate the levels of snags and CWD as would be the case for natural stands.

 Up until crown closure, thinned stands can provide excellent habitat for hares and grouse due to sprouting birch stumps and the flush of herbaceous plants and berry bushes between the softwood crop trees. These sites provide both a good food source and protection from predators.

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6.0 COMPARISONS AND CONCLUDING NOTES

Table 6-1 is a comparison of the pre-industrial and current conditions of forests within the limits of CBPPL. It is intended primarily as an overall summary of the relevant issues discussed for each time period in chapters 4 and 5, respectively.

Over the past century, the forest landscape of Newfoundland has been subjected to major disturbances from insects, diseases, fires, harvesting and wind-throw. While large-scale wildfires have become a rarity during the past couple of decades, the uncertainties associated with insects, pathogens, and wind-throw will continue to create challenges for forest ecosystem managers. One of the major issues facing ecosystem managers is resolving the impacts of introduced species, particularly the white pine blister rust, balsam woolly adelgid and moose.

Also important, are the uncertainties that forest ecosystem managers may face when planning future forest management strategies. For example, volumes of research articles, books and newspaper editorials have documented the issue of global warming and its anticipated impacts on climate, agriculture, forestry, biodiversity, human health and society, in general. To attempt to document even the possible effects of climate change on forestry would go well beyond the scope of this report. Instead, brief mention is made of the fact that future forest ecosystem managers will probably struggle with the issue of climate change and its impacts on forest growth and function, biodiversity, insect cycles, nutrient cycling, to name just a few. Developing forest management strategies to promote the maintenance of pre-industrial forest ecosystem conditions into the future amidst the uncertainties associated with climate change is an emerging issue that forest ecosystem managers will need to be cognizant of.

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Table 6-1. Comparison of Pre-Industrial and Current Forest Conditions.

Element Pre-industrial Period Industrial Period Comments

Wildfire When considering the frequency and ecological On the other hand, the industrial period did Fires in the industrial period have now been impacts of wildfire during the pre-industrial period indeed experience many extensive wildfires largely relegated to prescribed burns which (defined at 1890), we have to separate this period by from human activity, with many areas do not at all resemble what we would expect pre-colonization and post-colonization. While fire burning several times. While many of these to see in wildfire situations. Prescribed records for the province go back to 1619, it was fires resulted in the development of vast burns have a specific silvicultural objective really the century immediately prior to the industrial areas of black spruce forests all throughout and a strictly defined treatment area. Burns period that had a significant impact on province‟s central Newfoundland, many of the marginal are hardly ever prescribed for areas of forests in eastern and central Newfoundland. As it is sites that were burned repeatedly were standing timber; in fact, areas with standing the intent to make the comparison based on time relegated to heath barrens. In recent decades, trees are first cut. The only exception would periods when impacts from human activity were however, dramatically improved fire be the prescribed burns in the Terra Nova minimal, the pre-industrial period will be taken as detection and suppression efforts have now National Park where the objective is to pre-colonization. relegated large wildfires to a rarity. This, too, stimulate natural spruce regeneration. will influence the future development of Charcoal data from the Holocene period does show forest ecosystems in the province. that fires did occur in central Newfoundland, but not in western Newfoundland. Fires from this period As previously discussed in the pre-industrial would have been ignited by lightning and would section, the Damman successional pathways have required periods of relatively warm and dry suggest that over time, forest stands will tend climatic conditions. While Newfoundland does not to gravitate to their stable type or climax have data sufficient to establish fire frequency or a species. Therefore, in the absence of fire in Mean Fire Interval (MFI), extrapolating data and central Newfoundland, we can expect many information from Quebec suggests that the MFI of the existing fire-origin spruce stands that range for Newfoundland, given its cooler and were once balsam fir, to gravitate back to moister climate, would be in excess of the Quebec balsam fir. This trend is evident in central region and could easily be in the range of 200 years. Newfoundland with certain harvested spruce This means that central Newfoundland forests would stands regenerating back to balsam fir after likely have developed in the absence of fire for cutting. Of course, the stable black spruce extended time periods. types such as black spruce-kalmia will remain true to this species. According to the Damman successional pathways, the climax species or stable forest type for many of the forests in central Newfoundland (including many of those that are now black spruce) is balsam fir, and

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Element Pre-industrial Period Industrial Period Comments

consequently, these forests would have been subjected to periods of insect infestations and the associated mortality associated with this species. When wildfires did occur, these particular stands would revert back to black spruce. On the other hand, many black spruce site types including, but not limited to the common black spruce-kalmia site type, are stable to that species, with or without wildfire. In summary, central Newfoundland would likely have had significantly more balsam fir in the pre-industrial period. The development of old-growth, uneven- aged, gap dynamic forests would also have likely occurred in specific areas.

Insects Although there are no records of insect infestations The impacts of “introduced” species are The balsam woolly adelgid presents a from the pre-industrial period, researchers strongly quite another matter, however. While several significant threat to balsam fir ecosystems suggest that indigenous, defoliating insects have insect species have been introduced to the and will undoubtedly result in a significant always have been a natural part of balsam fir province, the balsam woolly adelgid is, by decrease of this species in the province over ecosystems. It is also assumed that any cycles or far, having the largest impact on forest time. In FMD 14 for example, some areas of patterns that have been established for various management activities and balsam fir forest adelgid infested fir have already been insects would likely still be relevant during the pre- ecosystems. While it has the capacity to converted to spruce. industrial period, given similar climatic conditions. cause mortality, infested stands become severely stunted rendering them The two most significant indigenous insect species in unproductive in most cases if infected in the Newfoundland are the spruce budworm and the early stages of insect development. It causes hemlock looper. In one single infestation period wood fibre deformation which adversely during the 1970s, the spruce budworm killed in affects both lumber and pulp. This insect, excess of 17 million m3 of wood across the Island. which has spread across the entire province, This infestation demonstrated quite clearly that has resulted in millions of dollars being spent spruce budworm has the capacity to cause very to convert infested areas to spruce. It has also extensive and catastrophic damage to balsam fir caused considerable damage to pre- stands. However, while there have been previous commercial thinning areas reducing volume outbreaks recorded, they were of short duration and gains and economic investment. cause virtually no appreciable damage.

Climatic conditions in this province are marginal for

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Element Pre-industrial Period Industrial Period Comments

budworm infestation development. However, establishing a cycle time for this insect under Newfoundland conditions is problematic, despite the well-established 35 to 40 year cycle documented for Quebec and other parts of eastern North America.

The hemlock looper, on the other hand, appears to have developed a cycle time of 10 to 12 years. The worst of the infestations occurred during the late 1960s when some 12 million m3 of wood were destroyed.

A western Newfoundland study on balsam fir dynamics under “co-occurring” spruce budworm and hemlock looper outbreak disturbances using dendro- ecological analysis, showed that, since 1910, each of the stands studied, were on average, impacted by outbreak disturbances every 17 years. Furthermore, during the 19th century, other outbreaks have been detected showing a similar frequency.

Regardless of cycle times, outbreaks during the pre- industrial time were probably quite similar to that of present time.

Disease Indigenous diseases including Armillaria ostoyae Indigenous diseases would have been the The white pine blister rust is another and Inonotus tomentosus root rot pathogens, and the same for both the pre-industrial and example of how an introduced species can decaying fungi group described in the report would industrial time periods “in natural, play havoc with natural forest ecosystems likely have been at normal, endemic levels during the unmanaged areas”. However, the freshly cut and have catastrophic consequences. A pre-industrial period. There would not have been any stumps in harvested areas provide a White Pine Working Group is working to at “outbreaks” per se; levels of infection would be in significant increase in food source for least ensure the long-term survival of the proportion to physiological state of the affected pathogens and stumps provide increased species. forest. Older, decadent forest would have fungal inoculums and potential for infection proportionately higher level and stands with insect- of residual trees. related stresses would also have a relatively higher infection rate. Various silviculture treatment areas have also

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Element Pre-industrial Period Industrial Period Comments

been affected by root rot diseases. For example, some older areas planted with bare root seedlings have experienced (mostly minor) tree mortality from armillaria, which is noted for attacking trees under stress. Trees would become stressed if roots were torn or improperly placed during planting. Older pre-commercial thinning areas are also experiencing varying levels of butt rot. This is a result of root breakage caused by unstable trees swaying excessively in the wind, providing access for pathogens to enter the tree.

The most significant disease development during the industrial period was the accidental introduction of the white pine blister rust during the 1930s. Aside from the over-exploitation of white pine at the turn of the last century, the white pine blister rust has decimated many remnant mature trees and particularly wP regeneration, and has considerably reduced its occurrence on the landscape. Some experts even consider the long-term survival of this species as tenuous.

Blowdown Blowdown is a natural disturbance type of uncut With the exception of insect-killed areas, Older pre-commercially thinned stands that forest stands. There are two types: (1) catastrophic there appears to be no appreciable have developed higher incidents of butt rot windthrow resulting from storm events or periods of differences in blowdown from the pre- may be prone to more windthrow as they high winds, and (2) endemic windthrow occurring industrial period to the industrial period. get older. High hazard areas of this nature more regularly and on a smaller scale. This would be However, edge trees around cut blocks are will be targeted for harvest at the early end the type that takes down small clumps or areas of sometimes prone to blowdown. In the case of of the maturity scale. weakened trees from disease or old age. In the case insect-killed areas, the same would normally of insect killed-areas, the pre-industrial forests would be true for stands killed during the pre- have experienced significantly more blowdown as industrial period, except insect-killed stands the structure of killed trees eventually weakens and are usually targeted for an immediate salvage

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Element Pre-industrial Period Industrial Period Comments

they are easily blown down over a relatively short harvest. Blowdown in fire-killed areas would time period. be similar for both time periods as fire-killed trees are not normally salvage-harvested for pulpwood because of char issues.

Coarse Woody Coarse woody debris (CWD) levels would have been CWD levels in the industrial period would The level of CWD required for forest Debris (CWD) relatively high in the pre-industrial forests. CWD have been lower, as forest harvesting results ecosystems to properly develop is not well would have been generated in (1) developing in a significant removal of wood from the understood, and will likely vary from site to softwood stands where inter-tree competition results site. While many trees, pieces, stumps and site. It has become apparent that it is not in the death of weaker or more suppressed trees; (2) finer debris in the form of slash are left necessarily a case of “the more the better”. diseased trees and clumps of trees that eventually die behind, most of the larger pieces are and fall to the forest floor; (3) blowdown from both removed. Even insect-killed areas are Issues around CWD have two main catastrophic wind events and normal, endemic immediately targeted for harvest and have elements: Wildlife Habitat and windthrow; and (4) both insect and fire-killed stands the same general effect as regular harvest Sustainability of Soil Productivity. A model that result in significant accumulations of CWD in a areas. developed by the CFS in the 1980s relatively short period of time. (FORCYTE) that dealt with soil Managed stands will not generate significant productivity concluded that under volumes of CWD as stand densities are such conventional rotations, there would be no that most all of the trees will be harvested adverse impact on nutrient cycling and with only a minor number of trees productivity. However, short rotations succumbing from disease, blowdown and using whole tree harvesting systems were competition. problematic. On the wildlife side, CWD research is still in the early stages and In addition, forest harvesting operations in inconclusive thus far. specific areas are now also retrieving wood fibre from forest sites as biomass fuel for the Domestic firewood cutters are also mill‟s boilers. This includes all wood that removing CWD and snags, which will does not meet the company‟s pulpwood eventually be recruited as CWD. specifications such as hardwoods, wood with excessive cull, under-sized trees and dead wood. Along with biomass fuel from other sources, the mill now no longer requires Bunker C oil to meet its energy needs.

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Element Pre-industrial Period Industrial Period Comments

Snags Snags were very abundant in the pre-industrial Although not nearly as many, snags are also The company has had a Snag Management forest, and came from many sources. Inter-tree retained in harvesting areas. While most are Program since 2002 and produces annual competition in naturally developing stands resulted knocked down during the course of reports showing snag presence by operating in the death of many trees as they succumbed to harvesting, the Environmental Protection area, and other information including competition. While “useable” snags were generated Guidelines stipulate that a minimum of 10 diameter, species, use by cavity nesters, in the later mature period of stand development, and “wildlife trees” per hectare are to be left on bark levels, degree of decay, whether or not the highest quality snags, although fewer in number, cutover areas. The company conducts annual the top is broken and distance to forest edge. were generated in the older age classes. Of course, snag surveys to ensure that these guidelines Harvester operators are very aware of this many snags were also created as a result of insect are met. program and make every effort to leave high infestations, wildfires and trees that died from quality snags (those that are taller, of larger diseases diameter and close to the forest edge)

Species The species composition or “proportions” of species The species composition for western Composition would be quite different for western versus central Newfoundland is still dominated by balsam Newfoundland. In general terms, western fir with minor components of white birch and Newfoundland would be very dominant to balsam fir white spruce on the better sites. However, as with minor components of white birch and white a result of past railway fires, a number of spruce on the better sites, and components of black small hardwood areas have developed. spruce on the medium to poor sites, depending on the Extensive fires in central Newfoundland Damman site type. While fires were likely quite rare have higher proportions of black spruce as in this region during the pre-industrial period, areas compared to the pre-industrial period; and that did burn would regenerate to white birch on the stands of aspen and white birch are present better sites, and black spruce in other areas. throughout the whole region. These are probably in higher proportion now than in With lightning fires a relative rarity, central the pre-industrial period. Newfoundland would have had a higher percentage of balsam fir on medium to rich sites than is currently the case, according to the successional pathways outlined by Damman. Stable black spruce types such as black spruce-Kalmia would still have been very prominent on well-drained poor sites

Age Classes A determination of the age class structure during the The age class distribution of the industrial One has to bear in mind that the target age pre-industrial period would require knowledge of the period forests are relatively well regulated. class range for harvest of managed forests is

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Element Pre-industrial Period Industrial Period Comments

frequency and size of forest disturbances. Wildfires This is mostly the result of 85 years of typically in the 40 to 60 year period. (mostly would have been infrequent, or rare, and insect harvesting activity at relatively even harvest 50+ yrs) epidemics would have occurred whenever climatic levels. A look at representative age class conditions were favourable and stand conditions maps, e.g. FM 15 also shows a relatively were at their most vulnerable state, usually over- good distribution of these age classes mature balsam fir. Based on the sheer extensiveness of some of the disturbances experienced during the early to mid part of the industrial period, the age classes may not have had a particularly even structure. However, it is highly likely that all age classes would have been represented, particularly the older age classes. There were uneven-aged forests as well, including fungal-mediated gap-dynamic forests and insect-mediated forests created by high frequency, light to moderate insect outbreaks.

Patch size The range of patch sizes from natural disturbances in As noted in the opposite section, Many ecosystem management approaches the pre-industrial forest is not known, nor is it known measurements or assessments of patch sizes suggest that the variability range of harvest for the industrial period. As these measurements or were never made for any of the disturbances patch sizes should resemble the variability assessments were never made, assessment of pre- during the industrial period; and therefore the range of natural disturbance patch sizes. We industrial patch sizes is based mainly on anecdotal same commentary applies. However, with need to better understand the situations evidence and opinions from individuals directly respect to fires, an analysis of DNR wildfire where both larger and smaller patches may involved in mapping and assessing these data over the past 20 years on CBPPL limits be appropriate. disturbances. shows that there were some 16,670 ha burned from a total of 885 fires. This gives Five individuals were interviewed and all said that average fire size of some 18 ha. The range there was considerable variation in virtually every was from <1 ha to 5,600 ha. While the situation. They did agree that hemlock looper average fire size was 18 ha, the average infestations tended to be patchier, but that this was patch size would have been smaller. often affected by the contiguity of the forest stands. Patches can range in size from one or two ha to 50 – As for harvest patch sizes, the size and shape 75 ha. It was also pointed out that damage in certain of the various natural disturbances that areas was often “mixed” throughout the stand, generated the stands being harvested is often creating tiny openings from the death of individual a significant determining factor in the size

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Element Pre-industrial Period Industrial Period Comments

or small groups of trees. These areas were retyped as and shape of the cutover. It is also quite the same age class but given a different crown common to see patches of all shapes and closure class. On the other very hand, the looper sizes left within cut blocks that originated infestation during the late 1960s killed large sections from some sort of disturbance that occurred with virtually no surviving trees. maybe a few decades beforehand. In addition, terrain conditions that favour The spruce budworm infestation during the 1970s excessive drainage or poor drainage affect tended to be more solid in its mortality pattern. stand productivity and leads to patchiness in However, again there were many small discrete the harvested landscape. patches of mortality, as well as areas of mixed tree death. As in the case of natural disturbances, harvest patch sizes are also very much Burns also created patches, both by leaving unburned affected by the size and physical areas and skips within the main burn area, and arrangement of scrub, waterbodies and bogs patches of burned timber occurred outside the main that are intermixed throughout the harvest burn area. Again, patches had a considerable range in operating areas. A meaningful patch size sizes. While all disturbance types created patches, comparison of harvest areas and natural the disturbed areas were nevertheless quite extensive disturbances areas cannot be made at this on many occasions. point in time owing to the relatively coarse level of stand type mapping in the provincial inventory.

Landscape Landscape characteristics are largely determined by In western Newfoundland, forest landscapes Characteristics the disturbance history of an area and the are often defined by a mosaic of age classes successional patterns associated with each site type and the colour tones associated with the and specific disturbance type. various stages of succession ranging from cutovers, to managed, juvenile stands to Many forest landscapes in the pre-industrial forests mature stands. Snags are also quite visible in would likely have been expansive, covering large younger disturbance areas. Of course, areas, depending on the contiguity of forest land topography and the distribution of various types and geographical features. This would have land class types (bogs, scrub, waterbodies, resulted from catastrophic disturbances running etc) are also contributing factors. unabated, left only to the natural controls of rain, wind and other weather elements. Large-scale In central Newfoundland, the forest disturbances including fire and insect outbreaks landscapes are also defined by a mosaic of would have also generated skips and patches age classes. While the balsam fir areas will

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Element Pre-industrial Period Industrial Period Comments

throughout the landscape, creating a mosaic of age look much the same as in western classes and species-related changes in some Newfoundland, the black spruce-kalmia instances. Other landscapes would have been shaped cutover areas do not go through the same, by uneven-aged forests (fungal-mediated and insect- quick-flush green up period as in richer fir mediated forests) described above. areas. Most of the green up is with the planted trees themselves, and a flush of kalmia is readily visible in many areas.

Many areas in central Newfoundland have evidence of fire disturbances which can include patches with standing dead snags, or patches of aspen and pin cherry which commonly occur after wildfires.

Stand-level When a wildfire, wind storm or insect outbreak The harvest and removal of wood from a Characteristics passes through a boreal forest stand, its immediate forest site is perhaps the most visible and effect on plant and animal communities and on forest obvious stand-level change that occurs in soils depends on its severity. industrial forestry. While some measure of coarse woody debris (CWD) is invariably In the pre-industrial forests, disease and blowdown left on the site, it is in stark contrast to what would be present at endemic levels, especially within would be left after insect infestations, the older forests. They would have created small blowdown and low-intensity fires. Most of patches within forest stands that generated new age the snags in an operating area are knocked classes and other forest diversity elements. down during harvesting and add to the CWD on the forest floor. There would have been ample levels of coarse woody debris in most of the pre-industrial forests These managed stands will not generate the that would have been generated from inter-tree same levels of snags and CWD as would be competition in developing stands and from the case for natural stands. Managed stands catastrophic disturbances. typically have a density of approximately 2,500 trees/ha. While a number of stems will Snags are also generated from inter-tree competition invariably die from disease and/or as over-dense stands develop over their rotational life blowdown, the intent or objective is to have cycle and through the immediate effects of nearly all of the trees available for harvest at catastrophic disturbances including insect outbreaks maturity. and fires. Lots of high-quality snags would have

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Element Pre-industrial Period Industrial Period Comments

been generated through the course of natural stand Up until crown closure, thinned stands can development. Older stands would have fewer, but provide excellent habitat for hares and higher quality snags that are generally larger in grouse due to sprouting birch stumps and the diameter. flush of herbaceous plants and berry bushes between the softwood crop trees. These sites provide both a good food source and protection from predators.

Moose Aside from what is believed to be an unsuccessful Moose were introduced to Newfoundland in introduction of moose in 1878, moose did not exist 1904 and, since wolves were extirpated in in Newfoundland prior to the industrial period. the early 1900s, this ungulate species quickly colonized the Island and exploited new habitat. Moose currently exceed 4 / km2 in many forested habitats, well in excess of the 2 moose / km2 considered as above normal management targets.

The overabundance of moose is having a significant and enduring effect on biodiversity in specific areas of the Island‟s boreal forest as well as significantly influencing forest succession and composition in some ecosystems. With the decimation of balsam fir regeneration in high-density moose areas, many cutovers only have scattered white spruce left surviving.

Other traditionally balsam fir areas in the province are now being planted to white spruce, regardless of balsam fir stocking. Moose overabundance has also caused significant damage in pre-commercial thinning, as well as presenting a major management problem for both Federal Parks in the province, where moose are destroying natural balsam fir ecosystems.

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2 Tikina, A.V. and Innes, J.L. 2008. A framework for assessing the effectiveness of forest certification. Can. J. For. Res. 38: 1357-1365 (doi:10.1139/X08-011).

3 Rametsteiner, E. and Simula, S. 2003. Forest Certification – an instrument to promote sustainable forest management. J. Environ. Mgmt. 67: 87-98.

4 Forest Stewardship Council Canada, National Boreal Standard, p. 65, (www.fsccanada.org/nationalboreal.htm).

5 Ibid. P. 64

6 Tittler, R., Beaulieu, N., Boudreau, P., and Thibault, D. 2009. Portrait de la forêt préindustrielle, actuelle, analyse d‟écart, et identification d‟enjeux d‟aménagement pour la forêt publique de la région administrative de la Mauricie [Portrait of the preindustrial and current forest, gap analysis, and identification of management issues for the public forest of the Mauricie administrative region]. Report written for the Conférence régionale des élus de la Mauricie, Quebec. Version d‟octobre 2009, 74 pp.

7 Smith, M.L. and D‟Eon, R.G. 2006. Pre-Industrial Forest Condition Report for Alberta-Pacific Forest Industries Inc. Forest Management Agreement Area, Alberta-Pacific Forest Industries Inc., Boyle, Alberta, 54 pp.

8 Manitoba Model Forest. 2006. Simulating the pre-industrial condition of the Pine Falls Forest using LANDIS II. Prepared by ArborVitae Environmental Services Ltd & KBM Forestry Consultants Inc. Final Report, April 11, 2006, 42 pp.

9 Szuba, K., Ley, K.A. and Forrest, M. 2008. Pre-Industrial Condition of the Pineland Forest. Report prepared to address the requirements of FSC Canada‟s National Boreal Standard. Domtar Inc., Version 2.0, November 6, 2008, 52 pp.

10 MacPherson, J.B. 1982. Postglacial vegetational history of the Avalon Peninsula, Newfoundland, and Holocene climatic change along the eastern Canadian seaboard. Géographie physique et Quaternaire Vol 36: 163-182.

11 MacPherson, J.B. 1995. A 6 KA BP reconstruction for the Island of Newfoundland from a synthesis of Holocene lake-sediment pollen records. Géographie physique et Quaternaire Vol 49 (1): 163-182.

12 Ritchie, J.C. 2004. Postglacial Vegetation of Canada. Cambridge University Press, New York. 196 pp.

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13 Damman, A.W.H. 1964. Some forest types of central Newfoundland and their relationship to environmental factors. Forest Science Monograph No. 8, 62 p.

14 Damman, A.W.H. 1967. The forest vegetation of Western Newfoundland and site degradation associated with vegetation change. PhD. Thesis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 319 pp.

15 Rowe, J.S. 1972. Forest regions of Canada. Canada,. Dept. Environment, Canadian Forest Service (Ottawa), Publ. # 1300, 172 pp.

16 Meades, W.J. and Roberts, B.A. 1992. A review of forest site classification activities in Newfoundland. The For. Chron. 68:25-33.

17 Page, G., Wilton, W.C. and Thomas, T. 1974. Forestry in Newfoundland, Newfoundland Forest Research Centre, Environment Canada, Forestry Service, St. John‟s, Nfld. 118p.

18 McCarthy, J.W., and Weetman, G. 2007. Stand structure and development of an insect-mediated boreal forest landscape. For. Ecol. Mgmt. 241: 101-114 (doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2006.12.030).

19 McCarthy, J.W., and Weetman, G. 2007. Self-thinning in a balsam fir (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.) insect- mediated boreal forest chronosequence. For. Ecol. Mgmt. 241: 295-309 (doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2007.01.001).

20 Government of Newfoundland and Labrador. Department of Natural Resources. Productive Forest Landbase Map (http://www.nr.gov.nl.ca.

21 McCarthy, J.W. 2001. Gap dynamics of forest trees: A review with particular attention to boreal forests. Environ. Rev. 9(1): 1-59 (doi:10.1139/er-9-1-1).

22 McCarthy, J.W. and Weetman, G. 2006. Age and size structure of gap-dynamic, old growth boreal forest stands in Newfoundland. Silva Fennica 40(2): 209-230.

23 Damman, A.W.H. 1983. An ecological subdivision of the Island of Newfoundland. In: South, R. (ed.), Biogeography and ecology of the Island of Newfoundland, Monographiae Biologicae 48: 163-206, W. Junk Publ., The Hague.

24 Damman, A.W.H. 1979. The role of vegetation analysis in land classification. The For. Chron. 55:175-182.

25 Rowe, J.S. 1972. Forest regions of Canada. Canada,. Dept. Environment, Canadian Forest Service, (Ottawa), Publ. # 1300, 172 pp.

26 Damman, A.W.H. 1983. An ecological subdivision of the Island of Newfoundland. In: South, R. (ed.), Biogeography and ecology of the Island of Newfoundland, Monographiae Biologicae 48: 163-206, W. Junk Publ., The Hague.

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27 Roberts, B.A. 1983. Soils. In: South, R. (ed.), Biogeography and ecology of the Island of Newfoundland, Monographiae Biologicae 48:107-161. W. Junk Publ, The Hague.

28 Roberts, B.A. 1986. The importance of soil drainage and soil seepage factors in assessing forest site capacity in central Newfoundland. Proc. IUFRO working party S.02.06, Forest Site Classification Methods, Fredericton, New Brunswick Canada, P.89-100.

29 Meades, W.J. and Roberts, B.A. 1992. A Review of forest site classification activities in Newfoundland. The For. Chron. 68:25-33.

30 Roberts, B. A. 1980. Some chemical and physical properties of serpentine soils from western Newfoundland. Can. J. Soil Sci. 60:231-240.

31 Damman, A.W.H. 1983. An ecological subdivision of the Island of Newfoundland. In: South, R. (ed.), Biogeography and ecology of the Island of Newfoundland, Monographiae Biologicae 48: 163-206, W. Junk Publ., The Hague.

32 Banfield, C.E. 1983. Climate. In: South, R. (ed.), Biogeography and ecology of the Island of Newfoundland, Monographiae Biologicae 48:137-106. W. Junk Publ, The Hague.

33 Ibid.

34 Ibid.

35 Ibid.

36 Graph modified from Wells, E.D. and Pollett, F.C. 1983. Peatlands. In: South, R. (ed.), Biogeography and ecology of the Island of Newfoundland, Monographiae Biologicae 48:207-266. W. Junk Publ, The Hague.

37 Banfield, C.E. 1983. Climate. In: South, R. (ed.), Biogeography and ecology of the Island of Newfoundland, Monographiae Biologicae 48:137-106. W. Junk Publ, The Hague.

38 Ibid.

39 Williams, H. 2003. Geologic ancestors to the Atlantic: The Geology of Newfoundland. Newfoundland Quarterly 96(3), Issue #410, 5 pp.

40 Neale, E.R.W. 1974. The eighth wonder of the world. Geos. Summer 1974: 2-4.

41 Rogerson, R.J. 1983. Geological Evolution. In: South, R. (ed.), Biogeography and ecology of the Island of Newfoundland, Monographiae Biologicae 48:5-36. W. Junk Publ, The Hague.

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42 Roberts, B.A. 1983. Soils. In: South, R. (ed.), Biogeography and ecology of the Island of Newfoundland, Monographiae Biologicae 48:107-161. W. Junk Publ, The Hague.

43 Williams, H. 1979. Applachian orogen in Canada. Can. J. Earth Sci. 16: 792-807.

44 Ibid

45 Williams, H. 1979. Applachian orogen in Canada. Can. J. Earth Sci. 16: 792-807.

46 Government of Newfoundland and Labrador. Department of Natural Resources. Forest Management History (www.nr.gov.nl.ca/nr/forestry/forest/history.html).

47 Roberts, B. A. and Bajzak, D. 1984. A forest site classification for the Boreal Forest of Central Newfoundland, Canada (B.28a) using a bio-physical soils approach. Paper Presented at the joint meetings of the working parties No. 1.02-06 and 1.02-10, IUFRO, Qualitative and Quantitative Assessment of Sites with Special Reference To Soil, Birmensdorf, Switzerland, 18pp.

48 Munro, J.A. 2001. Pitprops and Pulpwood. A history of export wood operations in Newfoundland and Labrador. 1898-1992. Govt NL, Department of Forest Resources and Agrifoods, 77 pp.

49 Damman, A.W.H. 1964. Some forest types of central Newfoundland and their relationship to environmental factors. Forest Science Monograph No. 8, 62 p.

50 Ibid

51 Damman, A.W.H. 1967. The forest vegetation of Western Newfoundland and site degradation associated with vegetation change. PhD. Thesis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 319 pp.

52 Meades, W.J. and Moores, L. 1989. Forest Site Classification Manual. FRDA Report 003. Second Edition. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service and Department of Forestry and Agriculture, Corner Brook, Nfld.

53 Bajzak, D. and Roberts,B. A. 1996. Development of Ecological Land Classification and mapping in support of forest management in northern Newfoundland, Canada. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 39: 199-213.

54 Wells, R.E. and Roberts, B.A. 1973. Bio-physical Survey of the Badger-Diversion Lake area, Newfoundland. Newfoundland Forest Research Centre, St. John's, Newfoundland. Info. Report N-X- 101, 55 p.

55 Wells, R.E., Bouzane, J.P., and Roberts, B.A. 1972. Reconnaissance Land Classification of the Corner Brook area, Newfoundland. Newfoundland Forest Research Centre, St. John's, Newfoundland. Information Report N-X-83, 123 p., maps.

131 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

56 Bajzak, D. and Roberts,B. A. 1996. Development of Ecological Land Classification and mapping in support of forest management in northern Newfoundland, Canada. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 39: 199-213.

57 Bajzak, D., 1964. Interpreting Phytosociological Forest Site Types from Aerial Photographs. Mimeographed publication by the St. John's District Office, St. John's, NF.

58 Delaney, B.B. 1974. Land Capability Classification for Forestry in Newfoundland. Government Of Newfoundland, Department of Forestry and Agriculture. Newfoundland Forest Service Report, 103 p.

59 Moores, L.J. and Pitmann, B. 1996. Forest ecological classification and mapping: Their application in ecosystem management. Newfoundland Forest Service, Corner Brook, Newfoundland, and WNMF: 6-103-001, 10 pp.

60 Rousseau, L.Z., McArdle, R.E., and Hodgins, H.J. 1970. Report to the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador of the Royal Commission on Forestry. Government of Newfoundland, St. John's, Nfld., 63 pp.

61 Sheppard, R.D. and Carroll, W.J. 1973. Report of the Newfoundland Federal-Provincial Task Force on Forestry. Newfoundland Dept. Forestry and Agriculture, St. John's, Nfld., 137 pp.

62 Ibid.

63 Rowe, J.S. 1972. Forest Regions of Canada. Canada Dept. Environment, Canadian Forest Service (Ottawa), Publ. # 1300, 172 pp.

64 Government of Newfoundland and Labrador. Department of Natural Resources. Maps: Regional and District Boundaries (http://www.nr.gov.nl.ca).

65 Map modified from “Primary Damman Forest Type Map of Western Newfoundland Model Forest (WNMF)” produced by Newfoundland Forest Service in cooperation with WNMF.

66 Ibid.

67 Damman, A.W.H. 1967. The forest vegetation of Western Newfoundland and site degradation associated with vegetation change. PhD. Thesis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 319 pp

68 Meades, W.J. and Moores, L. 1989. Forest Site Classification Manual. FRDA Report 003. Second Edition. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service and Department of Forestry and Agriculture, Corner Brook, Nfld.

69 Damman, A.W.H. 1964. Some forest types of central Newfoundland and their relationship to environmental factors. Forest Science Monograph No. 8, 62 p.

132 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

70 Meades, W.J. and Moores, L. 1989. Forest Site Classification Manual. FRDA Report 003. Second Edition. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service and Department of Forestry and Agriculture, Corner Brook, Nfld.

71 Stocks, B.J., pers com, (Retired) Fire and Climate Change Research Scientist, NRCan-CFS, Sault Ste Marie, ON.

72 Ibid

73 Damman, A.W.H. 1964. Some forest types of central Newfoundland and their relationship to environmental factors. Forest Science Monograph No. 8, 62 p.

74 Rowe, J.S. 1972. Forest regions of Canada. Canada,. Dept. Environment, Canadian Forest Service (Ottawa), Publ. # 1300, 172 pp.

75 MacPherson, J. B. 1995. A 6 KA BP Reconstruction for the Island of Newfoundland from a synthesis of Holocene Lake-Sediment pollen records. Géographie physique et Quaternaire 49:163-182.

76 Ibid.

77 McCarthy, J.W. 2001. Gap dynamics of forest trees: A review with particular attention to boreal forests. Environ. Rev. 9(1): 1-59 (doi:10.1139/er-9-1-1).

78 Ibid

79 Ibid

80 Roberts, B. pers. comm. Wildland Associates, St. John`s, NL.

81 Faegri K., and Iverson, J. 1989. Textbook of pollen analysis. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 328 pp

82 Davis, M.B. 1963. On the theory of pollen analysis. Amer. J. Sci. 262: 897-912.

83 Birks, H.H., and Birks, H.J.B. 2005. Reconstructing Holocene climates from pollen and plant macrofossils. In: Mackay, A., Battarbee, R.W., Birks, H.J.B., and Olfield, F. (eds). Global change in the Holocene, Hodder Arnold, London, pp: 342-357.

84 Faegri K., and Iverson, J. 1989. Textbook of pollen analysis. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 328 pp

85 Macpherson, J.B. 1981. The development of the vegetation of Newfoundland and climate change during the Holocene. In: Macpherson, A.G. and Macpherson, J.B. (eds), The Natural Environment of Newfoundland, past and present. Memorial University Of Newfoundland, Department of Geography, Ch. 6, pp. 189-217.

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86 Macpherson, J.B. 1982. Postglacial vegetational history of the eastern Avalon Peninsula, Newfoundland, and Holocene climatic change along the eastern Canadian seaboard. Géographie physique et Quaternaire 36: 175-196.

87 MacPherson, J. B. 1995. A 6 KA BP Reconstruction for the Island of Newfoundland from a synthesis of Holocene Lake-Sediment pollen records. Géographie physique et Quaternaire 49:163-182.

88 Terasmae, J. 1963. Three C-14 dated pollen diagrams from Newfoundland. Advancing Frontiers of Plant Sciences 6: 149-162.

89 Davis, A.M. 1980. Modern pollen spectra from the tundra-boreal forest transition in northern Newfoundland, Canada. Boreas 9: 89-100.

90 Davis, A.M. 1984. Ombrotrophic peatlands in Newfoundland, Canada: Their origins, development and trans-atlantic affinities. Chem. Geol. 44: 287-309.

91 MacPherson, J. B. 1995. A 6 KA BP Reconstruction for the Island of Newfoundland from a synthesis of Holocene Lake-Sediment pollen records. Géographie physique et Quaternaire 49:163-182.

92 Anderson, T.W. and Lewis, C.F.M. 1992. Climatic influences of deglacial drainage changes in southern Canada at 10 to 8 ka suggested by pollen evidence. Géographie physique et Quaternaire 46: 255-272.

93 MacPherson, J. B. 1995. A 6 KA BP Reconstruction for the Island of Newfoundland from a synthesis of Holocene Lake-Sediment pollen records. Géographie physique et Quaternaire 49:163-182.

94 Ibid.

95 Ibid.

96 Ibid.

97 Ibid.

98 Wells, E.D. and Hirvonen, H.E. 1988. Wetlands of Atlantic Canada. In: “Wetlands of Canada”, prepared by National Wetlands Working Group, pp. 249-303. Publ. By Ecological Land Classification Series, No 24, Sustainable Development Branch, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, and Polyscience Publications Inc., Montreal, Quebec

99 MacPherson, J. B. 1995. A 6 KA BP Reconstruction for the Island of Newfoundland from a synthesis of Holocene Lake-Sediment pollen records. Géographie physique et Quaternaire 49:163-182.

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100 Wilton, W. C. and Evans, C. H. 1974. Newfoundland forest fire history 1619-1960. Canadian Forest Service Inf. Rept. N-X-116. St John‟s, Newfoundland.

101 MacPherson, J. B. 1995. A 6 KA BP Reconstruction for the Island of Newfoundland from a synthesis of Holocene Lake-Sediment pollen records. Géographie physique et Quaternaire 49:163-182.

102 Cyr, D., Gauthier,S., Bergeron, Y., Carcaillet, C. 2009. Forest management is driving the eastern North American boreal forest outside its natural range of variability. Front Ecol Environ 2009; 7 (10); 519 – 524.

103 Stocks, B.J., pers com, (Retired) Fire and Climate Change Research Scientist, NRCan-CFS, Sault Ste Marie, ON.

104 Stocks B.J., Mason, A., Todd, B., Bosch, M., Wotton, M., Amiro, B., Flannigan, D., Hirsch, K., Logan, K., Martel, D., Skinner, W. 2003. Large forest fires in Canada, 1959 – 1997. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 108. No. D1, 8149.

105 Stocks, B.J. Pers Com. (Retired) Fire and Climate Change Research Scientist, NRCan-CFS, Sault Ste Marie, ON.

106 Ibid

107 R. G. Power, 1996. Fire History and Vegetation Analysis of Terra Nova National Park

108 Stocks B.J., Mason, A., Todd, B., Bosch, M., Wotton, M., Amiro, B., Flannigan, D., Hirsch, K., Logan, K., Martel, D., Skinner, W. 2003. Large forest fires in Canada, 1959 – 1997. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 108. No. D1, 8149.

109 Stocks B.J., Mason,A., Todd, B., Bosch, M., Wotton, M., Amiro, B., Flannigan, D., Hirsch, K., Logan, K., Martel, D., Skinner, W. 2003. Large forest fires in Canada, 1959 – 1997. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 108. No. D1, 8149.

110 Kurz, W.A. and Apps, M.J., 1999. A 70-year retrospective analysis of carbon fluxes in the Canadian forest sector. Ecol. Appl. 9: 526–547.

111 Andison, D.W. 2003. Tactical forest planning and landscape design, pp. 433-480, In: Burton, P.J., Messier, C., Smith, D.W. and Adamowicz, W.L. (editors.). 2003. Towards Sustainable Management of the Boreal Forests. NRC Research Press, Ottawa, ON, Canada, 1039 p.

112 Bergeron, Y., Engelmark, O., Harvey, B., Morin, H. and Sirois, L. 1998. Key Issues in Disturbance Dynamics in Boreal Forests. J. Veget. Sci. 9 (4): 464-468.

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113 Otvos, S., Moody, B. 1978. The spruce budworm in Newfoundland: history, status and control. Environ. Can., Can. For. Serv. Nfld. For. Cent., St. John‟s, Nfld, Inf. Rep. N-X-150, 76 p.

114 Blais, J.R. 1965. Spruce budworm outbreaks in the past three centuries in the Laurentides Park, Quebec. For. Sci. 11: 130–138.

115 Boulanger, Y. and Arseneault, D. 2004. Spruce budworm outbreaks in eastern Quebec over the last 450 years. Can. J. For. Res. 34 (5) : 1035-1043.

116 Morin, H. 1994. Dynamics of balsam fir forests in relation to spruce budworm outbreaks in the boreal zone, Qu6bec. Can. J. For. Res. 24: 730-741.

117 Bergeron, Y., 2000. Species and stand dynamics in the mixed woods of Quebec‟s Southern boreal forest. Ecology 81, 1500–1516.

118 Royal Commission on Forest Management and Protection. 1981. Part I: Commissioners: Dr. Cyril Poole (Chairman), Dr. W. J. Carroll, Dr. A. T. Rowe.

119 Jardon, Y. and Doyon, F. 2003. Balsam fir stand dynamics after insect outbreak disturbances in western Newfoundland ecoregion (Corner Brook sub-region). A joint publication of the Model Forest Network, Canadian Forest Service, Institut Quebecois d'Amenagement de la Foret Feuillue, Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd. and the Department of Forest Reources and Agrifoods, Newfoundland and Labrador Forest Service.

120 Blais, J., 1983. Trends in the frequency, extent and severity of spruce budworm outbreaks in eastern Canada. Can. J. For. Res. 13: 539-547.

121 Royama, T., 1984. Population dynamics of spruce budworm Choristoneura fumiferana. Ecol. Monogr. 54: 429-462.

122 Otvos, S. And Moody, B. 1978. The spruce budworm in Newfoundland: history, status and control. Environ. Can., Can. For. Serv. Nfld. For. Cent., St. John‟s, Nfld, Inf. Rep. N-X-150, 76 p.

123 Royal Commission on Forest Protection and Management, 1981; Part I; Commissioners: Dr. Cyril Poole (Chairman), Dr. W. J. Carroll, Dr. A. T. Rowe.

124 Hudak, J. and Raske, A.1981. Review of the spruce budworm outbreak in Newfoundland – its control and forest management implications. Environ. Can., Can. For Serv., Nfld. For. Cent., St. John‟s, Nfld, Inf. Rep. N-X-205, 280p

125 Royal Royal Commission on Forest Protection and Management, 1981; Part I; Commissioners: Dr. Cyril Poole (Chairman), Dr. W. J. Carroll, Dr. A. T. Rowe.

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126 Wellington, W. G. 1950. Effects of radiation on the temperatures of insectan habitats. Sci. Agr. 30(5) : 209-234.

127 Pilon, J.G., and Blais, J.R. 1961. Weather and outbreaks of the spruce budworm in the province of Quebec from 1939 to 1956. Can. Entomol. 93: 118–123.

128 Ives, W. G, H. 1974. Weather and outbreaks of the spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Can. For. Serv., North. For. Res. Centre, Inf. Rep. NOR-X-118.

129 Ibid.

130 Ibid.

131 Stone, D., pers. comm. , (Retired), Forest Technologist, NRCan-CFS, Corner Brook, NL.

132 Iqbal, J., ,MacLean, D., and Kershaw, J., 2011. Impacts of hemlock looper defoliation on growth and survival of balsam fir, black spruce and white birch in Newfoundland, Canada. Forest Ecology and Management 261: 1106 – 1114.

133 Otvos, I., Clark, L., and Durling, D. 1979. A history of recorded hemlock looper outbreaks in Newfoundland. Environ. Can., Can. For. Serv., Nfld. For. Cen., St. John‟s, Nfld., Inf. Rep. N-X-150, 76 p.

134 Crummy , H, 1995 Insect Control in Newfoundland, 1973 - 1989; Chapter 62; Forest Insect Pests in Canada; Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Science and Sustainable Development Directorate, Ottawa 1995; Editors: J. Armstrong and W. Ives

135 Otvos, I., Clark, L., and Durling, D. 1979. A history of recorded hemlock looper outbreaks in Newfoundland. Environ. Can., Can. For. Serv., Nfld. For. Cen., St. John‟s, Nfld., Inf. Rep. N-X-150, 76 p.

136 Belbin, L. pers. comm. Forest Engineering and Industry Service, L DNR.

137 D., pers. comm. , (Retired), Forest Technologist, NRCan-CFS, Corner Brook, NL

138 Weldon, S., pers comm., (Retired) Woodlands Manager, Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd., Corner Brook, NL

139 Hudak, J. et al 1978.

140 Royer, L., pers comm., Insect Ecologist, NRCan-CFS, Quebec City, Que

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141 Whitney, R.D., 1988. The Hidden Enemy; A Forester‟s Guide to Identification and Reduction of Major Root Rots in Ontario; Root Rot Technology Transfer Project [Canadian Forestry Service and Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources

142 Warren, G., pers. comm., Forest Pathologist/Mycologist, NRCan-CFS, Corner Brook, NL.

143 Ibid

144 Ibid

145 Whitney, R.D. 1977. Polyporus tomentosus root rot of conifers. Fisheries and Environment Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Great Lakes Forestry Centre. Forestry Technical Report 18.

146 Whitney, R.D. 1962. Studies in forest pathology. XXIV. Polyporus tomentosus Fr. As a major factor in stand-opening disease of white spruce. Can. J. Bot. 40: 1631-1658.

147 Whitney, R.D., 1995. Root-rotting fungi in white spruce, black spruce, and balsam fir in northern Ontario. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 25(8): 1209-1230.

148 Van Groenewoud, H. 1956. A root disease complex in Saskatchewan white spruce. For. Chron. 32: 11- 13.

149 Wilcox, W.W. 1978. Review of literature on the effectsof early stages of decay on wood strength.Wood and Fiber 9: 252-257.

150 Warren, G., pers. comm. , Forest Pathologist/Mycologist, NRCan-CFS, Corner Brook, NL.

151 Ibid

152 Ibid

153 Ibid

154 Pittman, B., Pers Comm, Supervisor of Inventory, Forest Ecosystem Management Division, Dept. Nat. Res, Govt. NL, Corner Brook, NL.

155 Ruel, J. 1995. Understanding windthrow: silvicultural implications. For Chron. 68: 434 – 445.

156 Strathers, R.J., Rollerson, T.P and S.J. Mitchell. 1994. Windthrow handbook for British Columbia forests. B.C. Min. For., Victoria, B.C. Working Paper 9401.

157 Osmond, M., pers. comm., (Retired) Supervisor of Inventory, NL DNR.

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158 Belbin, L., pers. comm., Conservation Officer, Insect and Disease, Forest Engineering and Industry Services Division, NL DNR

159 Jardon, Y. and Doyon, F. 2003. Balsam fir stand dynamics after insect outbreak disturbances in western Newfoundland ecoregion (Corner Brook sub-region). A joint publication of the Model Forest Network, Canadian Forest Service, Institut Quebecois d'Amenagement de la Foret Feuillue, Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd. and the Department of Forest Reources and Agrifoods, Newfoundland and Labrador Forest Service.

160 McCarthy, J. 2004. Natural disturbance and structure in two primary boreal forests of western Newfoundland. Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculity of Graduate Studies; Department of Forest Sciences; Faculity of Forestry; the University of British Columbia. April 2004.

161 Damman, A.W.H., 1964. Some forest types of central Newfoundland and their relationship to environmental factors. Forest Science Monograph No 8, 62 p.

162 Roberts, B., pers. comm., Wildlife Associates Ltd., St. John‟s, NL

163 Stocks, B.J., pers com, Fire and Climate Change Research Scientist (retired), NRCan-CFS, Sault Ste Marie, ON.

164 Gauthier, S., Leduc, A., and Bergeron, Y. 1996. Forest dynamics modelling under a natural fire cycle: A tool to define natural mosaic diversity in forest management. Environ. Monit. Acces. 39: 417-434.

165 Harvey, B., Leduc, A., Gauthier, S., and Bergeron, Y. 2002. Stand-scape intervention in natural disturbance-based management of the southern boreal forest. For. Ecol. Manage. 155: 369 – 385.

166 Haeussler, S. and Keeshaw, D., 2003. Comparing forest management to natural processes. Ch. 9 In: Burton, P., Messier, C., Smith, D., and Adamowicz, W (eds.), “Towards Sustainable Forest Management of the Boreal Forest”. NRC Research Press, Ottawa 2003.

167 Andison, D., 1999. Natural pattern emulation for forest management: buyer beware. In Science and practice: sustaining the boreal forest. Proceedings of the 1999 Sustainable Forest Management Network Conference, 1999, Edmonton, Alberta.

168 Gandhi, K., Spence J., Langor, D. and Morgantini, L., 1999. Fire skips and carabid beetles of northern Rockies: Natural lessons for the forest industry. In Science and Practice: sustaining the boreal forest. Proceedings of the 1999 Sustainable Forest Management Network Conference, Edmonton, Alberta.

169 Dettki, H., Klintberg, P., and Esseen, P. 2000. Are epiphytic lichens in young forests limited by local dispersal? Ecoscience 7: 317 – 325.

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170 McCoomb,W. and Lindenmayer, D., 1999. Dying, dead and downed trees. In: Hunter, M. Jr. (ed), “Maintaining biodiversity in forest ecosystems.” Cambridge University Press, Cambridge U.K. pp. 335 – 372.

171 Roberts, B. A. and Mallik A. U. 1994. Responses of Pinus resinosa in Newfoundland to wildfire. J. Veg. Sci.. 5:187-196.

172 Arsenault, A., pers. comm., Forest Ecologist, NRCan-CFS, Corner Brook, NL.

173 Warren, G., pers. comm. , Forest Pathologist/Mycologist, NRCan-CFS, Corner Brook, NL.

174 Stevens, V., 1997. The ecological role of coarse woody debris: an overview of the ecological importance of CWD in B.C. forests. Res. Br., Min. For., Victoria, B. C. Work. Pap 30/1997.

175 Kimmins, H., 1997. Balancing Act - Environmental Issues in Forestry. Second Edition. UBC Press, Vancouver, BC

176 Stevens, V., 1997. The ecological role of coarse woody debris: an overview of the ecological importance of CWD in B.C. forests. Res. Br., Min. For., Victoria, B. C. Work. Pap 30/1997

177 Ibid.

178 Arsenault, A., 2002. Managing coarse woody debris in British Columbia's forests: a cultural shift for professional foresters? USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-181. 2002

179 Thompson, I., Larson, J., and Montevecchhi, W. 2003. Characterization of old “wet boreal” forests, with an example from balsam fir forests of western Newfoundland. Paper presented at the “Old-Growth Forests in Canada: A Science Perspective” Conference, Saulte Ste Marie, Ont. October 2001.

180 Kimmins, H., 1997. Balancing Act - Environmental Issues in Forestry. Second Edition. UBC Press, Vancouver, BC

181 Ibid.

182 Bunnell, F., Kremaster, L., and Wind, E. 1999. Managing to sustain vertebrate richness in forests of the Pacific Northwest: relationships within stands. Environmental Revues 7: 97 – 146.

183 Spiering, D., Knight, R., 2005. Snag density and use by cavity-nesting birds in managed stands of the Black Hills National Forest. Forest Ecology and Management 214: 40 – 52.

184 Raphael, M., and White, M. 1984. Use of snags by cavity-nesting birds in the Sierra Nevada. Wildlife Monographs 86.

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185 Martin, K., Aitken, K., and Wiebe, K. 2004. Nest sites and nest webs for cavity nesting communities in the interior British Columbia Canada: nest characteristics and niche portioning. The Condor 106: 5- 19.

186 Walter, S.T. and Maguire, C.C. 2005. Snags, cavity-nesting birds, and silvicultural treatments in western Oregon. J. Wildlife Mgmt. 69: 1578 - 1591.

187 Remm, J., Lohmus, A., and Remm, K. 2006. Tree cavities in riverine forests: what determines their occurrence and use by hole-nesting passerines? For. Ecol. Mgmt. 221: 267 – 277.

188 Bull, E., Twombly, A., and Quigley T. 1980. Perpetuating snags in managed mixed conifer forests of the Blue Mountains, Oregon. In: Management of Western Forests and Grassland for Nongame Birds. Workshop Proceedings. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-86. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah, pp. 325 – 336.

189 Schieck, J. and Song, S.J. 2006. Changes in bird communities throughout succession following fire and harvest in boreal forests of western North America: literature review and meta-analyses. Can. J. For. Res. 36: 1299 – 1318.

190 Runde, D.E. and Capen, D.E. 1987. Characteristics of northern hardwood trees used by cavity nesting birds. J. Wildlife Mgmt 51: 217 – 223.

191 Smith, C., Warkentin, I., and Moroni, M. 2008. Snag availability for cavity nesters across a chronosequence of post-harvest landscapes in western Newfoundland. For. Ecol. Mgmt. 256: 641 – 647.

192 Thompson, I., Larson, J., Montevecchhi, W. 2003. Characterization of old “wet boreal” forests, with an example from balsam fir forests of western Newfoundland. Paper presented at the “Old-Growth Forests in Canada: A Science Perspective” Conference, Saulte Ste Marie, Ont. October 2001.

193 Carroll, W.J. 1990. A History of the Newfoundland Forest Protection Association. Prepared by Newfoundland Forest Protection Association, 59 pp

194 Kennedy, H.K. 1955. Report of the Newfoundland Royal Commission on Forestry. Newfoundland. Printed by David Thistle, MBE., Printer to the Queen‟s Most Excellent Majesty.

195 Robertson, A.R. 1979. Water Power Sawmills in Newfoundland (www.library.mun.ca/qeii/cns/waterpoweredsawmills.pdf)

196 Ibid.

197 Ibid

141 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

198 Transportation and Land-Based Industries. (www.heritage.nf.ca/society/transportation_impacts.html).

199 Carroll, W.J. 1990. A History of the Newfoundland Forest Protection Association. 59 pp

200 Roberts, B.A. 1983. Soils of Newfoundland: An Introduction. In: South, E.D. (ed.) “Biogeography and Ecology of the Island of Newfoundland,” Monographiae Biologicae 48:107-161. Dr. W. Junk, The Hague.

201 Kennedy, H.K. 1955. Report of the Newfoundland Royal Commission on Forestry. Newfoundland. Printed by David Thistle, MBE., Printer to the Queen‟s Most Excellent Majesty.

202 Town of Millertown. (http://www.communityofmillertown.ca/about.php)

203 Kennedy, H.K. 1955. Report of the Newfoundland Royal Commission on Forestry. Newfoundland. Printed by David Thistle, MBE., Printer to the Queen‟s Most Excellent Majesty

204 Transportation and Land-Based Industries (www.heritage.nf.ca/society/transportation_impacts.html)

205 Millertown Museum Gallery www.museevirtuel.ca/pm.php?id=thumbnail gallery&fl=0&lg=English&ex=294&pos=19

206 Carroll, W.J. 1990. A History of the Newfoundland Forest Protection Association. 59 pp.

207 Ibid

208 Weldon S., 2000. Forest Operations Sustain Newsprint Production at Corner Brook – 1925 to 2000. Internal Report, Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., Corner Brook, NL.

209 Weldon, S., pers comm., (Retired) Woodlands Manager, Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd., Corner Brook, NL

210 Hudak,J. 1995. Forest Insect Pests in the Newfoundland and Labrador Region. In: Armstong, J. and Ives, H. (eds), Forest Insect Pests in Canada. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service,. Science and Sustainable Development Directorate.

211 Ibid

212 Harris, J. and Bowers, W. 1995. Woolly Adelgids. In: Armstong, J. and Ives, H. (eds), Forest Insect Pests in Canada. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service,. Science and Sustainable Development Directorate.

213 Schooley, H. and Bryant, D. 1978. The balsam woolly aphid in Newfoundland. Newfoundland Forest Research Centre, St. John‟s, NL. Rep. N-X-160.

142 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

214 Hudak,J. 1995. Forest Insect Pests in the Newfoundland and Labrador Region. In: Armstong, J. and Ives, H. (eds), Forest Insect Pests in Canada. Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service,. Science and Sustainable Development Directorate.

215 Schooley, H. and Bryant, D. 1978. The balsam woolly aphid in Newfoundland. Newfoundland Forest Research Centre, St. John‟s, NL. Rep. N-X-160.

216 Balch, R.E. and Carroll, W.J. 1954. Forest entomology in Newfoundland. Submission to the “Report of the Newfoundland Royal Commission on Forestry. Pp. 87-99.

217 English, B. 1998. Prescribed burning in Newfoundland Forestry: A retrospective. Silviculture Notebook, Newfoundland Forest Service, NL DNR. No 37, March 1998, 8 pp.

218 Wilton, W. and Evans, C. 1974. Newfoundland forest fire history 1619-1960. Canadian Forest Service Inf. Rept. N-X-116. St John‟s, Newfoundland.

219 Ibid

220 Carroll, W.J. 1990. A History of the Newfoundland Forest Protection Association. 59 pp.

221 Ibid

222 Wilton, W. and Evans, C. 1974. Newfoundland forest fire history 1619-1960. Canadian Forest Service Inf. Rept. N-X-116. St John‟s, Newfoundland.

223 Fire Records of the NL Department of Natural Resources,

224 Earl. E., pers. comm., Headquarters Operations - Forest Ecosystems, St. John‟s, NL.

225 Warren, G., pers. comm. , Forest Pathologist/Mycologist, NRCan-CFS, Corner Brook, NL.

226 Warren, G., pers. Comm., Forest Pathologist/Mycologist, NRCan-CFS, Corner Brook, NL.

227 Flynn, L., pers. comm.., Reforestation Supervisor, Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd, Corner Brook, NL.

228 Warren, G., Baines, P., and Swift, E. 2006. Root and butt rots in semi-mature, pre-commercially thinned stands of balsam fir in Atlantic Canada.

229 Flynn, L., pers. comm.., Reforestation Supervisor, Corner Brook Pulp and Paper Ltd, Corner Brook, NL.

143 THE PRE-INDUSTRIAL CONDITION OF THE FOREST LIMITS OF CORNER BROOK PULP AND PAPER LIMITED

230 Warren, G., and English, B. 2003. Root and butt rots in semi-mature, pre-commercially thinned stands of balsam fir in Newfoundland. Pp. 413-418. In: Root and Butt rots of Forest Trees, Proceedings of IUFRO Working Party 7.02.01. Laurentian For. Centre Info Rep LAU-x-126.

231 English, B., Moores, L., Smith, H., Mann, H., MacDonald, J., Berube, J., Linguard, M. and Mosseler, A. 1997. White Pine Protection Strategy for Newfoundland and Labrador. White Pine Working Group. NL Govt-DNR.

232 Mosseler, A. and Roberts, B. 1992. Red pine and white pine: “Rare” and “vulnerable” tree populations in Newfoundland. Woody Points Newsletter 21.

233 English, B. 1998. Prescribed burning in Newfoundland forestry: A Retrospective. Silviculture Notebook No. 37. Newfoundland Forest Service.

234 Pimlott, D. H. 1959. Reproduction and productivity of Newfoundland moose. Journal of Wildlife Management 23: 381-401.

235 McLaren, B., Roberts, B., Djan-Chekar, N., and Lewis, K. 2004. Effects of overabundant moose on the Newfoundland landscape. Alces 40: 45-59.

236 Newfoundland and Labrador Inland Fish and Wildlife Division, unpublished.

237 McLaren, B., Roberts, B., Djan-Chekar, N., and Lewis, K. 2004. Effects of overabundant moose on the Newfoundland landscape. Alces 40: 45-59.

238 McShea, W., and Rappole, J. 1997. Herbivores and the ecology of forest understory birds. Pages 298- 309. In: The Science of Overabundance, Deer Ecology and Population Management. Smithonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., USA.

239 McLaren, B., Roberts, B.A., Djan-Chekar, N. and Lewis, K. 2004. Effects of overabundant moose on the Newfoundland landscape. Alces 40: 45-59.

240 Ibid.

241 Government of Newfoundland and Labrador. Department of Natural Resources. 2003. Provincial Sustainable Forest Management Strategy. 77 pp.

242 Meades, W.J. pers comm. (Retired) Science Director, NRCan-CFS-, Sault Ste Marie, ON

243 Arsenault, A., pers. comm. Forest Ecologist, NRCan-CFS, Corner Brook, NL.

244 Skinner, W., pers. comm.., (Retired) Wildlife Biologist, NL Department Forestry and Wildlife, Wildlife Division

144