Ferment in among both Hindus and Christians Rethinking “Rethinking” by H. L. Richard

n the early and middle decades of the twentieth century there was something of a “Rethinking Movement” in Indian . From Ithe discussions stirred up by the remarkable leaders of that movement, “Rethinking” in the context of Indian church history refers to concerns to develop deeply Indian (contextual, in today’s terminology) expressions of biblical life and faith as against traditional patterns of Christian discipleship which were introduced to India from abroad.

The most noted expression of the Rethinking Movement, which gave it its name, was the book Rethinking . This Rethinking book was prepared in anticipation of the Tambaram International Conference held just outside Madras in 1939. The Rethinking Group (as the contributors to that volume and some of their friends are commonly known) objected severely to numerous aspects of the agenda of church and mission leadership both internationally and especially in India.

More explanation of the Rethinking Group and their concerns will be presented later in this paper. The paper seeks to outline a broad history of Rethinking, considering both forerunners and descendents of the Rethinking Group as well as that group itself. The topic is vast and so a focus is placed on conferences and organizations specifically concerned with analysis of the work of Christ in India. The point of the paper is to rethink the Rethinking agenda and analyze its continued relevance at the present time.1

Three different types of “Rethinking conferences” will be considered, with examples from each being introduced at some length. There have been numerous conferences over the decades that were called for broad and comprehensive discussions of church and mission policy and practice. These  broad conferences are the first type to be considered. It is tempting to leave such conferences out of the survey as not being particularly focused on “Rethinking.” But clearly a great deal of Rethinking went on in these gather- H. L. Richard is an independent ings, and to ignore them would be to distort the overall picture. The second research scholar presently focusing on issues in South Asian culture and type are highly activist groups that met not merely to rethink issues of the . gospel but immediately organised themselves as new churches intending International Journal of Frontier Missions 19:3 Fall 2002•7 8 Rethinking “Rethinking” H.L. Richard 9 to do things right rather than merely Anglican and the are references to what later became talking about what previously was Presbyterian Alexander Duff, while the Rethinking agenda. In fact, some wrong. The third type can be consid- also assisting in the conversion from of the radical Rethinkers to be men- ered as properly and fully Rethinking Congregationalist to Baptist of the tioned below addressed the Calcutta groups since their one agenda was great Adoniram Judson! 1882 and Bombay 1892 gatherings. creative rethinking of the meaning and Early were aware of In Bombay in 1892 the early expressions of Christianity in India. their pioneering situation and of the Rethinkers were given a platform to These groups met specifically with seri- facts that they had much to learn present their position. Kali Charan ous objections to existing Christianity and were certainly making mistakes Banurji and J. G. Shome, both and sought alternate models and meth- along the way. Carey is famous as a Bengalis about whom more will be said ods, but without immediately form- Bible translator but also translated the below under “new church attempts,” ing themselves as new church groups. Ramayana so that other missionar- spoke for a radical change in the way The paper will close with thoughts on ies could learn about Hinduism more Christianity functioned in India. Rethinking today. easily than he and his colleagues had Banurji presented a major paper on learned. This sense of missionary the topic “The Native Church—Its Comprehensive Discussions cooperation soon led to conferences Organization and Self-Support,” while Four examples will be given of to discuss aspects of mission work. Shome’s comments in the discussion conferences called for broad discus- As Calcutta was the first great center were reported in the printed volume sions about church and mission in of Indian Protestant missions it is no from the gathering. Banurji’s optimism India wherein the Rethinking agenda surprise to find the first large confer- in light of his being given such a plat- (concern to develop deeply Indian ence there in 1855, with 55 members form is perhaps understandable: expressions of biblical discipleship) from 6 missions attending. In 1857 had a part. The decennial missionary That the missionaries of India, workers from 7 societies met in conferences of the late 19th century the majority of whom represent Banaras. In 1858 in Ooty 32 mission- foreign missions, should, in confer- will first be noted, followed by the aries from 8 societies in ence assembled, embody, in their successor to these gatherings, confer- and Ceylon gathered (Latourette programme, the conception of ‘The ences associated with the National 1978 [1944]:129f). Native Church’, is an indication of Council of Churches in India. Stanley momentous significance. It signi- Jones’ Rethinking agenda at Sat Tal These and similar meetings paved the fies, on their part, a readiness to ashram will be briefly noted before way for the four great decennial mis- recognize the ideal that the Native recent Roman Catholic Rethinking sionary conferences held in Allahabad Church in India should be one, in 1872, in Calcutta in 1882, in not divided; native, not foreign. conferences are introduced. Nay, it conveys the promise that, Bombay in 1892, and in Madras in The Decennial henceforth, they shall not impose 1902. There was never a fifth gather- by rule, upon the converts they are Missionary Conferences ing as the great international gather- privileged to gather, the accidents of There is room for a great deal of criti- ing at Edinburgh met in 1910 with denominational Christianity, at once cism of missionary policy and work strong Indian involvement and in the divisive and exotic, with which they in India (and the rest of the world), follow-up gatherings after Edinburgh themselves happen to be identified. and critical historical study is vitally the National Christian Council (Banurji 1893a: 121-122, italics in original). necessary so that the mistakes of the of India (originally the National past are not repeated again in each Missionary Council of India and later Shome commented on his own succeeding generation. But it is fitting the National Council of Churches in optimism and enthusiasm, but also on to begin on a note of high commenda- India) was born as a permanent body how he was brought down to earth: tion for one aspect of past missionary to discuss and deal with mission and When I came into this hall and the endeavor. That is, critical reflection church issues. Scripture was read to us, my heart and meetings to analyze and even Reports from the four great decennial leaped for joy, but I was very much minutely dissect all aspects of the disappointed when I heard that we ministry of the gospel. missionary gatherings were published were not to discuss whether there and are available in the best theo- should and could be one Church Interdenominational cooperation is logical libraries. A mere glance at organization, the Indian Church, one of the striking features of the the contents pages is enough to show but only how to best adapt the vari- Protestant missionary movement that the intent was comprehensive ous existing Church organizations and is nowhere seen more clearly discussion of every important area to the wants and circumstances of than in India. Protestant missions of mission life. Evangelistic, educa- the country. I must say the subject of the discussion for this session began with a Danish king sending tional, and medical work were always German missionaries (all Lutherans) as worded did not convey to my discussed; “the native church” was mind this idea—the subject was not into a mission later funded by British always a topic, except in the second ‘Native Churches and their organiza- Anglicans. Baptist William Carey gathering in Calcutta where a similar tions’ but ‘The Native Church and was an evangelical ecumenist who subject was instead termed “native its organization’—clearly pointing welcomed and encouraged the agency.” In all of these reports there out for our consideration, as to International Journal of Frontier Missions 19:3 Fall 2002 8 Rethinking “Rethinking” H.L. Richard 9

whether the Indian Christians were the mirth it provokes. It is a capital as the basic approach to Christian to remain divided into so many joke. (Chenchiah 1938:188) communication in India is obvious sects, or whether it was desirable Yet decades of denying that to all observers. But it illustrates the and possible for them to organize lineage of the Rethinking movement themselves into one Church. (Shome Christianity is a foreign religion and 1893:157-159) affirming that the church in India is while reminding that frustrating Indian seem to have induced a state failure was the lot of early Rethinkers, Banurji concurred with similar disap- of self-hypnosis, and certainly no one and there is no human reason to hope pointment and an explanation that today dares laugh at the Church of for better at the present time. much opposition was based on misun- South India and similar denomina- derstanding: One can only highly esteem mis- tions and their institutions. Rethinkers sion leaders for meeting regularly to The announcement by the Chairman who try to point out that “the emperor consult and reflect and seek to learn [W. Beatty of the Irish Presbyterian has no clothes” (let alone those with Mission, Surat] that the subject for and improve. Yet in looking back on consideration was, how Mission the courage, like Chenchiah, to mock) the decennial conferences it is evident Churches should be organised by are ignored or caricatured. But the that the agenda was too dominated their respective societies had disap- by western traditions and institu- pointed him . . . . The object was not tions. That so many weaknesses and to blot out denominations, but to errors are evident in the 19th century include them all in one organization. Decades of denying mission agenda despite such costly (Banurji 1893b: 171) that Christianity is a commitment to meet and discuss and But traditionalist missionary senti- learn only indicates that today also it ments carried the day. Rev. V. Ireland foreign religion and is desperately necessary to critically Jones of the Church Missionary affirming that the church reflect and rethink. Society in Calcutta spoke for the NCCI Gatherings majority when he disapproved of in India is Indian seems Banurji’s presentation: As noted above, the decennial mis- to have induced a state sionary conferences merged into His object is a noble one, but his the National Council of Churches method is undesirable . . . . Unity will of self-hypnosis never be advanced by multiplying in India. Kaj Baago has written the our denominations . . . . We are not history of the NCCI, and his study prepared to unlearn the lessons indicates clearly enough that this was of 18 centuries of the history of Rethinking agenda will never die, and generally a very conservative body the Church of Christ, and to start western Christianity will never deeply that did not take up the controversial afresh, ab initio, in some new enter- impact India. issues that define the Rethinking prise . . . . all the lessons of the past agenda.2 One exception to this is a have taught us to prefer experience Another striking voice from the spirited discussion in the mid-twen- to experiments. (Jones 1893: 161) decennial missionary conferences ties on , and Similar issues were under discus- must be heard before closing this sec- church membership. The first meet- sion half a century later and remain tion. Rev. H. Haigh of the Wesleyan ing of the National Christian Council relevant to the present time. Church Missionary Society working in (named changed from National union schemes have a dominant place Mysore City in south India suggested Missionary Council in 1923) in 1924 in the history of Christianity in India that a revolution was needed in Indian gave a full day to discussing these in the first half of the twentieth cen- Christian literature, which might by topics; but tury, and three of the most insightful God’s grace lead to a revolution in at the end of the discussion, the chapters of Rethinking Christianity in Indian Christianity: Council agreed on a wordy resolu- India were devoted to this topic. P. The principle I contend for, then, tion, the vagueness of which no Chenchiah diced the romantic irrel- is this: that the books which we doubt aimed at reconciling the evance of those who still stood for the publish should be carefully related differences of opinion within the “experience” of the church in the West to Hindu thought, expressed in Council itself (Baago 1965:42). above new “experiments” in India: its terms, done in its style, adopt- ing where it can its positions, and The Madras Christian Council It appears to a convert indescribably leading on, still in Hindu fashion which had contributed greatly to funny that anybody should entertain and in its terminology, from points this discussion followed up with a the idea that by knocking together of agreement to essential points conference in 1926 led by Stanley the Church of , the Church of difference. In this way we may, Jones and Kandaswamy Chetty, an of Scotland, Swedish and Lutheran perhaps, be able to furnish an avowed Hindu disciple of Jesus.3 But and American churches, an Indian effectual exhibition of legitimately Church would be produced. But “Hinduized Christianity.” (Haigh again there was no agreement and the for the fact that the religious man 1893: 667, italics in original) discussion soon died out, with social rarely has any sense of humour, the concerns and mass movements coming scheme would never have survived That nothing even vaguely approxi- to the forefront of NCCI discussions. mating to this has ever been accepted

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One NCCI gathering (which post- block to many men of other faiths, genius touched and controlled by dates Baago’s 1965 study) must be and a hindrance to the growth and the spirit of Christ, so much as it is the deepening of the experience of the blossom of an unnatural copy- mentioned as definitely involving a ing. [Jones 1932:2] Rethinking agenda. That is the 1966 the Indian Church. We also believe that many converts, particularly These are Rethinking words if ever National Consultation on the Mission from Hinduism, find it difficult to of the Church in Contemporary adjust to the Church in its present any were written, but the papers India held in Nasrapur (and so com- form. (Lyon and Manuel 1968: 233) presented at this and other Sat Tal monly referred to as the Nasrapur gatherings were so broad and com- Consultation). A book was rushed Discussion of these matters continued prehensive that it seems best to list for some time, M. M. Thomas espe- these under the latter category. At into print in 1967 in time for the 16th 4 triennial assembly of the NCCI, and cially stirring up interaction. But the that 1931 gathering there was a series reprinted in an expanded form in discussions, still occasionally referred of 20 lectures on “The History of 1968 including the entire text of the to today, have produced precious little Indian Culture”, another lecture Nasrapur Report (Lyon and Manuel change, and the problems described in series on Islam (these series were not 1968). This gathering is mentioned the Nasrapur Report remain as strik- published), a paper on “The Christian here under conferences for broad ingly offensive now as they were then. Message on Sex” and another on and comprehensive discussions since Numerous other conferences with a “Science and Religion”. The 1932 papers were presented on church unity, focus on specific aspects of Christian gathering attempted to keep to one approaches to men of other faiths, life and ministry were sponsored by subject, but the chosen subject was Christian higher education, healing the NCCI and also, after its found- hardly narrow and focused; it was ministry, theological education, the ing in 1957, by the NCCI-sponsored “The Kingdom of God”! church in industrial India, etc. Christian Institute for the Study of About 25 leading lights of church But the conference is especially Religion and Society (CISRS). These and mission, often including bishops, remembered for its discussion of bap- are considered outside the scope of were invited to these gatherings, and tism and the existence of disciples of this paper, although without question others could join the sessions as well. Jesus outside the Christian churches. at times vital Rethinking about the Jones was a Rethinking advocate and church and its ministry occurred in involved other such in the pro- Two important sections of the state- 5 ment are worth quoting as representa- some of these gatherings. gramme; but others who participated tive of the Rethinking position. Sat Tal Ashram Gatherings were hardly committed to rethink or The new converts should, therefore, A third example of broad conferences reform church and mission in India. be recognisable as the first fruit for discussing numerous aspects of life In theory these meetings still go on Christ of the society to which they and work for Christ in India with a every summer; clearly for a time under belong, bringing their specific gifts definite Rethinking agenda is the Sat Stanley Jones there was a dynamic in into the fellowship. This means Tal Ashram program of E. Stanley these meetings that excited partici- that the Church must not seek to Jones. These gatherings could easily pants; clearly today the meetings are impose its whole traditional style a hollow shell. When, why and how of life upon the new convert. We be defined outside the area of this have to confess that because this paper, or on the other hand could be the decline set in and how rapidly the has often been done in the past, counted as fully “Rethinking confer- reality evaporated would make for an baptism has been made to appear ences” rather than as broad and com- instructive historical study. as an act by which a person repudi- prehensive discussions. From 1931 Roman Catholic Conferences ates his ancient cultural heritage there were special summer ashram and accepts an alien culture. So long Two of the greatest of activist as this is so we cannot judge those sessions and a diversity of topics was Rethinkers were the Roman Catholic who while confessing faith in Jesus, covered over many years. missionary Robert de Nobili (1577- are unwilling to be baptised . . . . In Volumes were published after the Sat 1656) and the remarkable Hindu- the perspective of the Bible, conver- Tal gatherings in 1931 and 1932. In Christian Brahmabandhab Upadhyay sion is “turning from idols to serve (1861-1907). But no Rethinking a living and true God” and not his introduction to the 1931 volume moving from one culture to another, Stanley Jones wrote that conferences or movements are related or from one community to another We feel very definitely that unless to these men, although a Calcutta community as it is understood in Christianity becomes more truly School in the 1930s, which traced its the communal sense in India today. Indian and more truly Christian it roots to Upadhyay, deserves men- (Lyon and Manuel 1968:220) will not make much headway into tion. (See Mattam 1974, 1975 on the . . . In India as in many other Asian the soul of India. In the Ashram Calcutta School.) we try to produce the Indian spirit, countries the Church to a very Vatican II (1962-1965 in Rome) large extent took over the foreign or rather to let it have full play. patterns of institution, liturgy and Westernism has made so much of brought fresh breezes to Roman theology, incorporating only in a our Christianity in the East unnatu- Catholics across the world, and very small degree indigenous cul- ral and copyist. The Christianity we brought Rethinking to the center of tural values. This foreignness of the have produced, for the most part, the Roman Catholic agenda in India. Indian Church is a serious stumbling is not the flowering of a national A special All India Seminar on the International Journal of Frontier Missions 19:3 Fall 2002 10 Rethinking “Rethinking” H.L. Richard 11 Church in India Today was held in New Church Attempts was more moderate than a number of Bangalore in 1969 specifically to The second broad category of others who were involved. address the impact of Vatican II dis- Rethinking groups and gatherings are Kali Charan Banurji (also spelled as cussions on Indian church and mission the radical activists who were not con- “Banerjea” by Baago) was the central realities. All aspects of church life were tent with thinking but took immedi- figure in the Christo Samaj and is considered, but relating more deeply to ate action to create new church groups one of the most esteemed of Indian Indian cultures was one of the cen- that carried out the Rethinking ideals. Rethinkers. In 1870 as a qualified tral thrusts of the entire proceedings. Three such new church movements lawyer yet only 25 years of age he Fr. Jerome D’Souza went so far as to will be briefly introduced. started a newspaper called The Bengal consider the seminar “The Return of Christian Herald, later changed to de Nobili” (D’Souza 1969:551). The Calcutta Christo Samaj The Indian Christian Herald. The first The Christo Samaj of Calcutta was But de Nobili is more easily honoured issue of this paper stated that one of a number of striking devel- in theory than in practice. A recent opments from the stirrings among In having become Christians, we book studies the changes in Indian have not ceased to be Hindus. Catholicism that followed from the We are Hindu Christians, as thor- 1969 all India seminar. Augustine oughly Hindu as Christian. We have Kanjamala advocates the Rethinking embraced Christianity, but we have position of a life in Christ that is The initiative not discarded our nationality. We are as intensely national as any of deeply related to Indian realities for Rethinking our brethren of the native press can (“inculturated”, the word favoured be. (Baago 1967: 67) by Roman Catholics rather than Christianity in India “contextual”). This means moving Baago summarises the next stage of beyond the traditional transplanting in recent decades has development in this way: of “Christian” institutions and prac- been very heavily with In 1877 K. C. Banerjea and J. G. tices from abroad. But Kanjamala Shome went on to organize the laments (in accord with other the Roman Catholic Bengali Christian Conference creat- contributors to this volume) the lack Church ing thereby a forum where they of progress despite resolutions from could present their programme. They criticised the missionaries of Vatican II and the all India seminar: denationalizing the Indian Christians, “the shift from the transplantation making them into compound model to the inculturation model of the 19th century Hindus caused by the converts, but first and foremost Church seems to be very slow as well as introduction of western Christianity of transferring the theological and painful.” (2000:27) to Bengal. Sisir Kumar Das (1974) ecclesiastical differences of the has written an excellent survey of the West to India, thereby dividing the Also in the ferment stirred by Vatican period with a focus on the Brahma Indian Christians into numerous II, the Catholic Bishops Conference denominations. At the same time Samaj and the Ramakrishna Mission, of India instituted the National they demanded indigenous forms of which were the most significant Biblical, Catechetical and Liturgical worship. (1967: 68) developments. He neglects to mention Centre (only finally in this form in the Christo Samaj, which never had Banurji and Shome participated in Bangalore in 1971). From and at this any great influence. The first issue the 1882 Calcutta decennial mission- centre Rethinking processes both of the Indian Church History Review ary conference as well as the 1992 mightily impressive and stunningly in June 1967 ran an article discuss- Bombay conference, as already noted progressive have emanated. The  above. By 1887 Banurji and Shome ing the Christo Samaj entitled “The initiative for Rethinking Christianity First Independence Movement among took action and left their churches in India in recent decades has been Indian Christians,” by the esteemed to form the Calcutta Christo Samaj, very heavily with the Roman historian Kaj Baago. which affirmed only the Apostles Church and only nominally with Creed and had no clergy. So the Protestants. There is a great deal to be The antecedents of the Christo broad organisation of 1868 became a learned from the voluminous Catholic Samaj are interesting indeed. In Rethinking group in 1877 and then writings on Rethinking lines that 1868 a number of educated Bengali a new church movement in 1887. But continue to flow from the presses; but Christians formed an associa- this Christo Samaj survived for only a the majority of this literature is clearly tion called “The Bengal Christian few years. Banurji’s biographer, B. R. written with modernist or liberal Association for the Promotion of Barber, summarises that presuppositions and either ignores Christian Truth and Godliness, and the Protection of the Rights of Indian for eight years these pioneers of or distorts or openly disagrees with unity struggled onward seeking the Bible. Further discussion of this Christians.” Krishna Mohun Banerjea to found the church of India; but subject must sadly be curtailed due to was the first president and Baago denominationalism proved far too constraints of space. suggests that the missionaries would strong for them. The Somaj never have been relieved by this as Banerjea

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grew to any proportions, and finally seen in Hinduism as Parmeshwar and all assistance, including Eucharistic died out in 1895. (1912:49) Parvati and their children Subramanya celebration. In 1954 Williams broke the deadlock by administering the It is easy with the clarity of hind- and Ganpati (Andy 1894:3). Indian Lord’s Supper himself; a year later sight to say that Banurji should have temples are copies of Solomon’s temple he was accepted as a deacon and by foreseen that there was no hope for in Jerusalem, built by ancient mem- 1966 Exarch of India and All Asia in his new non-denominational Indian bers of the Masonic Order (1894:5; the Syro-Byzantine tradition of the church to overtake the already long cf. “As far as my researches go, I am Orthodox Catholic Apostolic Primitive established mission churches with all convinced that Primitive Hinduism is Church of Antioch (Singh n.d.:7). their resources. What practical steps pure Masonry” (1894:42)). he might have wisely taken in his time Yet Houghton’s concluding analysis of Ramkrishna Modak (1891-1969) are not easily discerned even from the why Andy and other Rethinking pio- was the founder of the AIFNC perspective of more than a century neers failed to make a lasting impact in 1953. He was from a famous later, so it is best to honour his faith is striking indeed: Maratha Christian family, married an American, and (like Williams but and vision and seek ways to be faithful Missionaries seemed unwilling to to his insights in the present time. divest themselves of their authority before him) was made a bishop by the Antiochene Orthodox Church (his The National Church in the overall interests of the devel- opment of the Indian Church. The Orthodox ordination took place in the of India (Madras) frustrations of Pulney Andy in his USA around 1950; see Modak 1970: Baago (1967:71f) suggests that Parani attempt to establish the National 219f). There seems to have been a (or Pulney) Andy who founded the Church of India, make this very clear. core of valid concern in these men for National Church of India in Madras The pathetic presuppositions held what we now call contextual expres- by many missionaries, fashioned in was influenced by Calcutta stirrings sions of faith, but the controversial even though his new church move- large measure by Englishmen in the service of the , was that and combative nature of much of their ment was formed in 1886, i.e. before their Indian workers were an inferior program militated against that valid the Calcutta Christo Samaj. Baago order of beings, not fit for positions core developing into vital faithful points out that there were also definite of trust and responsibility. As a movements. For whatever reasons, no influences from liberal theological result, missionaries tended to justify lasting impact was made. Numerous thought in England. Here also the their presence and leadership roles; other such small and ineffective new and gathered around themselves in point was anti-western denomina- church movements could be men- tions, anti-western creeds, and anti- a state of dependency, the type of agents that only fulfilled their expec- tioned. And of course many other new western leadership. tations. (Houghton 1983: 246) church movements thrived, includ- Graham Houghton outlines the story ing many of Pentecostal persuasion; No continuing church movement of Andy and his National Church in but these generally had no element of developed from Parani Andy’s efforts. his study of the Protestant Church in Rethinking in their program and so Madras (1983). He notes that Andy The Azad Hind Church are not mentioned here at all. was born in a Hindu home in 1831, and the All Indian Federation was baptised in 1863, studied in of National Churches Rethinking Groups London from 1859 to 1862, becom- More than a generation after the Three examples of full and proper ing a member of the Royal College two new church attempts mentioned Rethinking groups will now be con- of Surgeons (1983:184); he does not above this movement was born. R. sidered. These are all rather loosely mention the date of Andy’s death. C. Das knew the leaders and is my structured groups/gatherings, lacking At the birth of the National Church source for most information.6 The organizational cohesion but with of India in 1886 Andy spoke on Azad Hind church started in Bombay a clear agenda for Rethinking and the need for self-support and self- as a congregation that sought to leave reforming Christianity in India. governance for Indian Christians. the in order to A. R. C. Das’ Retreat Conferences Quoting Houghton, “he concluded be Indian. It was taken to court where R. C. Das gives his own description of by predicting that unless Christianity it was vindicated and allowed to leave. his “retreat conferences”: was adapted ‘to suit the tastes of the J. S. Williams (1907-?), who led the Since the year 1911 there has been Eastern nations, it will continue to Azad Hind church rebellion against make little or no progress’” (1983:185). at various centres in N.E. and N. the Anglicans, was general secretary India a retreat conference in which Some few missionaries and many and later archbishop of the All Indian a serious attempt has been made Indian Christians sympathized with Federation of National Churches. to indigenise as fully under the Andy’s agenda, but he had some Williams was a lay reader in St. Paul’s circumstances as possible the mode Anglican church in Bombay when he of Christian worship, social life and strange ideas that militated against intellectual processes in interpreting wide acceptance of his attempt. In “took charge” in 1947 (Singh n.d.:6). In 1950 the church declared freedom the Bible in an eastern way both for his book Are Not Hindus Christians? ourselves, Christians, for the enrich- Andy suggests that Adam and Eve from all foreign control, and the ment of our life and for Hindus so with their children Cain and Abel are Anglicans responded by withholding that the beauty and power of the

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personality of Jesus Christ may be In order to advance our cause and intelligibly presented and naturally integrate our purposes we have he mixed nature understood and accepted . . . . [Das recently had a service of ordination 1957:15] of some servants of God. These of the fellowship as have justified their calling by their Both Indians and foreign mis- life of witness and service in various partly a Rethinking sionaries joined in these gatherings ways and fields. We believe that true T which received a travel subsidy from and authoritative ordination and group and partly a new the National Council of Churches. appointment come only from God church movement seems to Generally 15 to 20 people would and man must recognise it. Most of gather for about 2 weeks. That this these have never been and would me to have commendable never have been, recognised by the was a rethinking group is apparent existing denominations because of features . . . from the above and also from these sectarian bias which the fellowship further explanations by Das: discards. The understanding of the apparently in the teens of this century. This purposeful creative retreat has qualifications for the ministry in They developed a habit of meeting been held for over half a century the churches is so far removed from annually in May for two weeks, and often more than once a year . . . . those found in Scripture that many these meetings became known as the Over this long period we received true servants of God have no chance of any recognition. Realising this sad Bangalore Conference Continuation certain insights from an unbiased (i.e. the continuation of the conferences study of the Bible and felt the need fact the fellowship took this step of of an indigenous self supporting consecrating these different and initiated by the Young Liberal’s Club). and independent (non-attached independent workers for God and At these annual meetings papers were to western church-mission system) man. They are all unsalaried and free. read, in the words of Rajasekaran, All of them belong to some church or church in India if Hindus were to on various topics relating to the be attracted to Christ’s Fellowship. other. The fellowship is not primarily a church but in certain circumstances Christian Church and the Indian While holding water-baptism as Christian community and these important for fellowship and not nec- and in some places it has to act as a church. [Richard 1995:222-223] were discussed frankly and consen- essarily for salvation, we worked out sus arrived at on important issues. an indigenous constitution suitable I have never been able to find anyone [1993:117] for the spiritual culture of India and declared the “Bharat Khrist Sangh” who was associated with the Bharat met with in 1955 by having a dozen men and Khrist Sangh. I suspect it did not members of this group on his south women ordained representatively as survive long and never grew to any India tour in 1918, and following that original leaders and spearheads for vitality. The mixed nature of the fel- the Christo Samaj was organised in the indigenous movement. Church lowship as partly a Rethinking group congregations, Ashrams, schools, hos- Madras. According to Rajasekaran, and partly a new church movement there was a distinctly evangelistic pitals, individuals and small groups seems to me to have commendable are its constituents in fellowship . . . . motive and [Richard 1995:215-216] features; it is in fact a rather Hindu- type loose affiliation that avoided the many non-Christians used to attend Our methods are revolutionary but the weekly prayer meetings held in meticulous organisational standards of the residence of V. Chakkarai and constructive. We want for the church the west. in India an indigenous polity and form took part in the common worship of worship, unfettered and creative and heard the Christian message. The Madras Christo Samaj [1993:117] theological thinking, administrative The Madras Christo Samaj is one and financial freedom, in fact, a true But primarily the Rethinking Group pattern of the church of the apostles of the organizational expressions of in India. We encourage simple living, the striking group of south Indian proclaimed a prophetic message to sacrifice, ventures of faith, new exper- Christians who have become generally the body of Christ in India. They iments and creative efforts on the known as “the Rethinking Group.” started a weekly journal called The part of all workers for the kingdom of P. Chenchiah and V. Chakkarai were Christian Patriot that ran for ten God. We have also been encouraging the leading figures, and the son of the years; the nationalistic flavour of the ashram, sanyasi and sadhu life as the latter and nephew of the former, V. C. title gives enough indication of the natural expressions of contents. Later they took over the ideals in Indian environment and as Rajasekaran, has outlined the devel- suitable approaches to Hinduism. We opment of this striking association of publication of The Guardian, another have also tried to foster the study of thinkers. Rajasekaran [1993:116-117] Christian weekly. They formed the Hinduism especially its practical and lists only 10 men as constituting the Indian Christian Book Club which popular aspects. [Richard 1995:222] group, but it seems certain this is a list published their best known and most striking work, Rethinking Christianity You will notice a line perhaps being of only the leading lights and there in India, and also Asramas Past and crossed here as the Rethinking group must have been many others associ- Present, which is available now again organised itself and even began ated with the ideas and ideals that in a recent reprint. Chenchiah took ordaining leaders. Note Das’ further were propagated. over editorship of Pilgrim magazine, explanation on this point: This Rethinking group started as the responding to an appeal from R. C. Young Liberal’s Club in Bangalore,

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Das. The final form under which this Missionaries were in the vanguard dengue at the mention of Sankara. striking group of men met was as The of this new line. One should under- Why? Is it prejudice or panic? The stand the reason for this. They come point to be noted is that the papers Verandah Club, known as such since kept to Barth and did not pay they met on Chenchiah’s verandah from independent, prosperous and contented countries and had been homage to Sankara. So all should be in Egmore, Madras. This really was brought up and trained in a free well. [Chenchiah 1950:6-7] a dialogue group of Christians and atmosphere, their minds were Chenchiah still managed to end his Hindus who discussed together and liberal and unafraid to think and prayed together over various concerns. judge. [Das 1975:215] analysis of the gathering [Chenchiah had earlier been forced on a positive note: The second gathering was at to resign as editor of due to Not by design, but by accident a Pilgrim Serampore in 1946. P. Chenchiah’s his advocating praying together of layman and a non-theologian pre- rather biting comments on this con- Christians and Hindus.] sided over the Serampore Conference. ference deserve a careful hearing. He If Indian Christian theology is to be These remarkable men and their mes- wrote that founded by laymen who have the vision of laymen’s Christianity—have sage continue to be discussed wher- As you heard the papers and fol- we not already indicated to the world ever there is any serious discussion lowed the debates, you felt that that we are going to rescue theology of indigenous Christianity in India. everything was proceeding on safe, from ecclesiasticism? In Hinduism ordained text book lines, and that They remained loyal to the church theologians were all laymen. Another the dangers of deviation from the and dreamed of impacting the church straw to indicate how the wind is main road, even out of curiosity towards contextual faith and life. Yet blowing. [1950:9] did not exist. “Revelation” was the today they are honored only in name subject. The good old things were But the wind in fact was blowing (if at all) and their impact has been said about it in the good old man- negligible. A few years ago in review- another direction, and after the third ner . . . . The perturbation caused by conference in Jubbalpore in 1950 the ing the a new collection of the shorter the suggestion before and after writings of V. Chakkarai I wrote that Tambaram that the Old Testament meetings ceased. The Indian Journal should not be regarded as integral of Theology was begun, allegedly with It must be counted one of the great to Christian Scriptures has not the purpose of furthering the aims of tragedies of the twentieth century evidently died out. Arguments not Indian church that the prophetic these gatherings. R. C. Das’ analysis altogether convincing rallied to the of these developments is controversial mantle of Chakkarai and Chenchiah support of Judaism in the name of fell to the ground unclaimed (or, indeed, but needs to be considered. Jesus who did more to over-rule He wrote that arguably, was removed from the than consummate it. It was equally earth by God). [Richard 1994:9] significant that Sankara should Probably, dismayed by the influence D. A. Thangasamy quotes a striking prove a red-tag to Indian theolo- of Indian thought unfettered by word picture from Chakkarai that gians and it was left to a Catholic western control, and concerned for Father to defend him. the preservation of the purity of summarises the aim of the Madras authoritarian theology, the N.C.C. Rethinking group: Christianity in This Sankara business is rather together with leaders of theological India should become “‘a river filled amusing. The Western theology of education thought it wise to discon- from the rains from heaven’ and not the Roman Catholic type derives its tinue its original conference and its philosophical and theological sup- remain ‘a lake fed by the still and somewhat radical publications. After port from two pagans, Plato and some hibernation and cogitation they stagnating waters from the Western Aristotle, who remain the Gurus of Churches’.” [Thangasamy 1966:3] have now brought forth a child of Western theology and philosophy, fear and caution. [Richard 1995:266] even as they are parents of its cul- The Indian Christian ture. German philosophy, generally Judging motives is dangerous, and Das Theological Conference anti-Christian, was always absorbed at least qualifies his judgement above The Indian Christian Theological by Christian theology. Existentialism with a “probably”. On the journal Conference first met in 1942 in Pune as pure philosophy was not only pessimistic but also non-Christian. itself, however, and its very name, it is and twice subsequently. The Bulletin impossible to disagree with R. C. Das: published after the discussions shows In the latest literary developments in France “existence” is regarded as the depth of interaction and desire to We do not want an Indian journal essentially irrational. These philoso- (paper, ink and get up), we want rethink. R. B. Manikam wrote on the phers however are woven into the Indian Christian theology. But the origin of the meetings that texture of Christian theology by the Indian disciples of western theologi- In recent year Christians in India, magician Barth without any offence cal gurus are so grateful, docile and both national and foreign, have to the sensitive Christian conscience. obedient that they have no mind of begun to rethink the Christian Was it not a fashion till yesterday to their own. So far the literature pro- message in the context of the rapid swear by Barth, in the theological duced by these faithful followers are changes of the modern nation. colleges? Some of the papers at the a clear echo of foreign masters—a [Manikam 1950:2] Conference did not get rid of the veritable His Master’s Voice. India Barthian neurosis. has a mind. She need not borrow R. C. Das reflecting on these confer- Yet the theologians showed and from others though she would ences pointed out that manifested all the symptoms of not despise others. Second hand thoughts, however true and clever,

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will never effectively communicate the Christian faith to the whole A very strong case could be made the Christian message to the Indian spectrum of Indian life and culture, that a new Rethinking Group and heart and soul. [Richard 1995:265] and to develop indigenous patterns Movement is the need of the hour, of Christian worship, witness, and but in light of the failure of previ- The strength of western ecclesiasti- work. [TRACI 1981: unpaginated] cism destroyed the budding effort at ous Rethinking efforts this is highly rethinking theology that the three But it is doubtful that this should suspect. Institutional Christianity Indian Theological Conferences be considered a rethinking group in India has shown that it is easily to some extent evidenced. There is on the lines of those of Das and able to resist and outlast Rethinking little sign of any original biblical Chenchiah. In the second issue of the efforts at reform. A new Rethinking Rethinking emanating from any of TRACI Journal (May 1975) Vishal effort aimed at changing the churches the theological seminaries of India Mangalwadi wrote that will almost surely fail as its prede- which are a western training model We in TRACI are seeking to thrash cessors has. (Might the dynamic that continue as strongholds of out a comprehensive biblical phi- Rethinkers in present day Catholicism Westernism in Indian Christianity. losophy of life for India and the actually succeed in changing that manner and means of communicat- church? It seems unlikely.) ing it. At the moment the purpose Summary Reflections of my articles is to stimulate the One of the lessons of the history above Looking over the men and movements Church and reassure it that it alone seems clearly to be that deeply Indian discussed above some striking trends has the ultimate answers to the chal- Christianity will not arise from the are apparent. Few missionaries played lenges that are before the country. existing Christian churches. Herbert any significant role in Rethinking [Mangalwadi 1975:42] E. Hoefer pointed this out in his fasci- Christianity, although there were The guiding force of TRACI was Dr. nating study of Churchless Christianity: notable exceptions like E. Stanley Jones. Bruce Nicholls, who after a consul- Can Christianity really be absorbed There were also few Indians from tation on the nature and mission of into this totally different religio- Christian families involved. Rethinking the church in 1983 himself entered cultural environment? Certainly, it has largely been dominated by converts the mainstream of the church by cannot be done by the church, but to Christianity from Hindu homes, becoming a CNI pastor. It seems that it has already begun among the and by those striking individuals who non-baptised believers as we have evangelicals in India are blind to the seen in our survey . . . . I disagree refused to convert but affirmed them- radical implications of their “Bible selves as Hindu disciples of Jesus Christ. therefore, with those who hold the as sole authority” theology, as they church to blame for lack of progress It is also striking that a wide range of blindly promote traditional western in developing indigenous church theological perspectives are evident church methods and theologies as forms . . . .The real move toward in those who shared the common adamantly as high church Protestant an indigenous Christian faith can ground of concern for deeply relat- and traditional Roman Catholic never come from the Christian community. It must grow out of ing discipleship to Jesus with classical teachers. While Das and Chenchiah the ‘Churchless Christianity’, with Indian cultures. Roman Catholic, and Banurji before them also had a the help and encouragement of the mainstream Protestant, and indepen- theology of the church, as everyone church. (Hoefer 1991:207-209) dent Indian positions are apparent. It conversant with the New Testament is striking that evangelicalism hardly must, it does seem that TRACI was ”Churchless Christianity” is not a seems to have noticed the Rethinking too deeply committed to the presently happy terminological innovation; agenda. But an evangelical group that existing church to properly qualify as Hindu disciples of Jesus who stay out approximates to a Rethinking Group a Rethinking group. of the church are also staying out of should perhaps be noted. the Christian religion, and to suggest Conclusion that they are somehow still within The TRACI (Theological Research Surveying the present scene it seems “Christianity” seems false and in and Communication Institute) com- fair to conclude that Rethinking has some cases is offensive. But Hoefer’s munity that continues to function in had a meager impact on Christianity point is clear: contextual discipleship Delhi had potential to develop as a in India. Stimulating movements with to Jesus will not develop from existing vital evangelical rethinking group, multiple publications are apparent Christian churches, and Rethinking and to a certain extent it was this for from those advocating Dalit theol- within (or even on the edges of) a time. In 1975 there were 5 members ogy and from those pressing for a Indian Christianity and its institu- of the community; by 1980 there were pluralistic theology of . But tions is an exercise in futility. 20. Their original purpose statement the classic Rethinking agenda is said that “the members are committed This insight no doubt lies behind largely forgotten. Token discussions to research and writing for the task of some of the “new church” Rethinking in seminaries and isolated individu- communicating the gospel in modern efforts discussed above. But these als who live and minister in line with India.” [TRACI 1975: unpaginated]. invariably were reacting against exist- Rethinking (acharya Daya Prakash By 1981 this was adapted to read ing churches and provoked strong Titus is a noteworthy example) are all reactions from those churches as well. The members are committed to that can be found. A reactionary atmosphere is hardly research into the application of International Journal of Frontier Missions 19:3 Fall 2002 16 Rethinking “Rethinking” H.L. Richard 17 suitable for building sound contextual Notes Faith in India No. 4. Madras, patterns of discipleship to Jesus. And India: The Christian Institute 1. I am indebted to Dr. Siga Arles of for the Study of Religion and most such movements still remain the Center for Indian Missiological Edu- Society and the Christian within the ambit of what Hoefer cation for coining the title for this paper. Literature Society. condemned as inadequate; there 2. For example, Baago is deeply critical Banurji, Kali Charan was already too much “Christianity” of the National Missionary Council (the 1893a “The Native Church—Its imbibed and influences from the first name of what later became the NCCI) Organization and Self-Support, Christian community will invariably position on the Indian independence move- First Paper.” In Report of the taint efforts towards deeply contextual ment, saying that its “statements were so Third Decennial Missionary life in Christ. vague, woolly and cautious in their choice of Conference held at Bombay, 1892- words, that they could be interpreted both 93, vol. 1. A. Manwaring (ed.). If the Rethinking goal of deeply con- ways . . . . One cannot but deplore its lack of Bombay: Education Society’s textual discipleship to Jesus in Hindu courage. Had the National Council taken a Steam Press. Pp 121-127. contexts is to be realized it will surely positive stand for political independence it 1893b “Discussion.” In Report of the only be through new movements that might have encouraged many more Indian Third Decennial Missionary are born in Hindu society. The way Christians to active participation in the strug- Conference held at Bombay, 1892- to contextual discipleship to Jesus in gle for freedom” (1965:28-29). In his epilogue 93, vol. 1. A. Manwaring (ed.). the Hindu world must be through the Baago has a question: “One wonders why the Bombay: Education Society’s Steam Press. Pp 171-172. birthing of Christ centered move- N.C.C. in the past fifty years contributed so Barber, B. R. ments within Indian cultures and little to the indigenisation of the Church in India.” (1965:85, emphasis in original) 1912 Kali Charan Banurji: Brahmin, communities. Suspicion from Hindus Scholar, Saint. Madras: The towards efforts in this direction (that 3. See Chetty’s brilliant paper “‘Why I am Not a Christian’: A Personal State- Christian Literature Society for this is a new face (or new spin) for the India and Calcutta: The National ment” in Baago 1969. same old Christian agenda) are under- Council of Young Men’s 4. See my discussion of some of standable and must be respected; and Christian Associations of India Thomas’ later writings on this subject in in time it must be shown that this is and Ceylon. my study that rethinks community (Rich- Chenchiah, P. indeed something strikingly different. ard 2000). 1938 “Church Union: A Study of 5. A list of CISRS sponsored con- This is hardly a new idea; it is as old Underlying Ideas”. In Rethinking sultations can be found in CISRS 1987: as the Gentile mission of the New Christianity in India. D. M. Testament. Jerusalem “Christianity” 139-140, which includes such topics as Devasahayam and A. N. had remarkably slight impact on the the gospel to the Indian intellectual, the Sudarisanam (eds.). Madras: A. Gentile mission that eventuated in meaning of baptism and conversion in the N. Sudarisanam. Pp. 171-190. context of Indian culture, the authority the Christian religion of the Roman 1950 “The Serampore Conference” of the Bible for Christian action in India Empire. The apostle Paul who in The Bulletin of the Indian today, etc. Christian Theological Conference from early times led that diversified 6. None of Das’ references to these No. 3, pp. 6-9. movement never sought co-work- movements appear in my collection of Das’ CISRS ers from the Jerusalem churches, but writings. See pp 91ff in chapter 8 of his 1987 List of Publications on Religion appointed them from within his own unpublished autobiography (Das 1975). and Society, 1953-1985. The network. And what resulted from Christian Institute for the his efforts was strikingly different Study of Religion and Society: from anything Jerusalem orthodoxy References Cited Bangalore, India. could have conceived (or desired). Andy, S. Pulney Das, R. C. Likewise, orthodox Christianity will 1894 Are Not Hindus Christians? 1957 “Christian Worship” in The Seeker no doubt be shocked and offended by A Lecture Delivered Before and Pilgrim 11:4, pp. 10-16. the Madras Native Christian 1975 Autobiographical Reflections, new movements that arise for Christ Literary Society on the 22nd March unpublished manuscript. in the Hindu world; the corollary 1888. Second edition, revised that Hindus will be pleased with such and enlarged. Madras: The Das, Sisir Kumar developments rather than offended as Cosmopolite Press. 1974 The Shadow of the Cross: by traditional Christianity can also be Baago, Kay Christianity and Hinduism in a Colonial Situation. New Delhi: expected to prove true. 1965 A History of the National Munshiram Manoharlal. Christian Council of India, Concern and efforts towards con- 1914-1964. Nagpur, India: The D’Souza, Jerome textual movements of discipleship to National Christian Council. 1969 “The Return of de Nobili”. In Jesus within Hindu communities thus 1967 “The First Independence All India Seminar: Church in seems a, if not the, legitimate succes- Movement Among Indian India Today. New Delhi: CBCI sion from the Rethinking movements Christians” in Indian Church Centre. Pp. 551-557. of the past. Will a new generation of History Review 1:1, June, 1967, Haigh, H. Rethinking activists arise? IJFM pp. 65-78. 1893 “Vernacular Literature.” In Report 1969 Pioneers of Indigenous of the Third Decennial Missionary Christianity. Confessing the Conference held at Bombay, 1892-

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