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The Use of Visual Data to Explore Invisible Nationalism

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The Use of Visual Data to Explore Invisible Nationalism The Use of Visual Data to Explore Invisible Nationalism © 2019 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. This PDF has been generated from SAGE Research Methods Datasets. SAGE SAGE Research Methods Datasets Part 2019 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 2 The Use of Visual Data to Explore Invisible Nationalism Student Guide Introduction The dataset explores how the photographs utilised in the article “Football, the Military and Invisible Nationalism in Contemporary Britain” published in Armed Forces & Society in 2016 were created, selected, and incorporated within a wider hermeneutic enterprise designed to probe “invisible nationalism.” The dataset emphasises that the meaning of these photographs can only be understood within the wider context of the sociological narrative within which they are embedded. This narrative was the product of employing a wide range of sociological concepts and research techniques which included observation, interviews, focus groups, and historical research. The photographs came from a variety of sources. The majority were taken by Roger Penn, but others were supplied by specific football clubs in England. These latter photographs were not taken with any sociological intent but rather for matters internal to these clubs themselves. The overall topic for the research lay at the interface of the sociology of sport and the sociology of the military but, more widely, sits within the parameters of cultural and visual sociology. The Use of Visual Data to Explore Invisible Nationalism The use of visual materials is relatively uncommon in the sociology of sport and almost non-existent in the sociology of the military. This is perhaps surprising given the highly visual nature of contemporary sport. However, this reflects a wider reluctance by sociologists to embrace the visual within their main concerns. Page 2 of 16 The Use of Visual Data to Explore Invisible Nationalism SAGE SAGE Research Methods Datasets Part 2019 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 2 The present dataset illustrates how visual methods can enhance a sociological explanation. Visual data in general, and photographs in particular, do not speak for themselves. They have multiple meanings dependent both upon the intentions of their auteurs and the interpretations of their audiences. Visual data require interpretation, and the dataset takes readers through the process whereby the nine photographs were incorporated into a wider hermeneutic process of understanding and explanation. Central to this is the notion of context: visual methods make sense within a wider narrative discourse that involves a combination of a range of different, albeit complementary, qualitative methods. In the research discussed, these included observations, interviews, historical research, and focus groups. The dataset devotes considerable attention to explaining how the photographs illustrated and enhanced the wider sociological argument presented in the published research. Data Exemplar The research reported in this dataset began in 2014 as a result of a puzzle surrounding the 2014 Football Association [F.A.] Cup Final. Whilst watching the game on television, as the players of both teams were standing in the tunnel ready to walk out onto the Wembley turf, Professor Penn was surprised to see a naval rating holding the new F.A. Challenge Cup trophy alongside these players. He was then shown walking onto the field and placing the trophy on a plinth beside the pitch. This evoked no comment from the television commentary team covering the match for BT Sport, but Penn wondered what this signified. This prompted further research in 2014 and 2015 involving a range of different qualitative methods. These included observations, interviews, historical research, and focus groups as well as the visual data that forms the centrepiece of this dataset. The research formed part of a wider set of visual projects in sociology and Page 3 of 16 The Use of Visual Data to Explore Invisible Nationalism SAGE SAGE Research Methods Datasets Part 2019 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 2 was designed to integrate visual methods within a wider sociological explanatory framework. The research took place in the United Kingdom, but most of the photographs dealt specifically with English football. Most of the photographs were taken by the main author of the published research, Professor Roger Penn of Queen’s University in Belfast. Analysis This Qualitative Method Dataset explores the process whereby visual images were deployed as part of the examination of invisible nationalism in contemporary British sport. In particular, a series of photographs were taken to illustrate various elements within the overall interpretation that was published as an article in Armed Forces & Society (Penn & Berridge, 2016). Another version was published in a collected edition of papers presented at the European Association for the Study of Sport Conference in Dublin in 2015 by Dolan and Connolly in 2017. The dataset emphasises the central importance of grasping the overall substantive empirical argument in order to understand the role and importance of the photographs used in the article. Visual Data in the Sociology of Sport Visual data have rarely been used in the sociology of sport. Over the last 20 years, sociologists and ethnographers have begun increasingly to incorporate visual materials into their research strategies (one example is Margolis & Pauwels, 2011). Such ocular data can be generated relatively easily using digital cameras, camcorders, and mobile phones. There are some recent examples of the use of visual data in the sociology of sport (for example, Hockey & Collinson, 2006) but not in the main specialist journals in the field. Conversely, the main visual sociology journals rarely contain articles examining sport. Page 4 of 16 The Use of Visual Data to Explore Invisible Nationalism SAGE SAGE Research Methods Datasets Part 2019 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 2 Photographs as Illustrations Embedded Within a Wider Narrative Photographs have long been used to depict social life. Riis (1890/1971) published a seminal study of poverty and social life in late 19th century America in his How the Other Half Lives, which incorporated a wide range of photographic evidence. Subsequently, the Documentary Movement in the United States produced an efflorescence of books examining American life through the use of photography (see, for example, Agee & Evans, 1939; Frank, 1959). This spread to Europe with the publication in 1967 of Berger and Mohr’s classic study of migrants. Anthropologists have also deployed photographic evidence in their research publications, most notably in Bateson and Mead’s (1942) classic Balinese Character. In a seminal reaction to the use of photographs as self-evident “facts,” Becker (1974) argued that photographs reflect the point of view of their auteur and that their meanings are embedded within the narratives in which they are deployed. The use of photographs as sociological evidence is inherently recursive: there is a process of interpretation that goes to and fro in a dialectical fashion. A photograph generates reactions and reflections both for the original taker of the photograph and amongst its viewing audience. The nine photographs used within the original article to illustrate the overall argument can only be understood within the wider hermeneutic interpretation presented. This wider framework involved a combination of a wide range of other sociological concepts and research methods, including observations, interviews, focus groups, and historical research. Parameters of the Overall Argument The central argument of the published research was that sport, and association football in particular, has been at the epicentre of efforts by successive British Governments and the military itself to promote the armed services and to Page 5 of 16 The Use of Visual Data to Explore Invisible Nationalism SAGE SAGE Research Methods Datasets Part 2019 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved. 2 legitimize the near-permanent state of war in the country. The research began with an observation and a puzzle. Whilst watching the 2014 Football Association Cup Final on television, as the players of both teams were standing in the tunnel ready to walk out onto the Wembley turf, Professor Penn was surprised to see a naval rating holding the new F.A. Challenge Cup trophy alongside these players. The sailor was then shown walking onto the field and placing the trophy on a plinth beside the pitch. This evoked no comment from the television commentary team covering the match for BT Sport. He wondered what this signified. The next day he consulted the main UK Sunday newspapers and discovered that they had not mentioned this either. This led him through a convoluted Internet search to try and uncover the back story to this event about which both the visual and print media had been silent. In the end, he discovered part of the answer on the Ministry of Defence’s website. The sailor – Liam O’Grady – had won the Military Cross in Afghanistan in 2012. He had been a Royal Navy medical assistant on secondment to the British Army and had displayed conspicuous gallantry during a grenade attack. As this initial exploratory phase of the research progressed, Penn was reminded of an event he had witnessed at an earlier play-off match between Rochdale and Stockport County at Wembley in 2008. At that game, prior to the players entering the arena, a parade of members from different
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