The End of Imperial Diplomatic Unity, 1919-1928: Anglo-Canadian Relations from the British Perspective thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of London by Mary Kathleen McManus March 1992 UMI Number: U062B95 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U062395 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 -^ueses Library British Libraryof Political and Economic Science \iS> ABSTRACT During the first decade after the Great War, the relationship between Great Britain and Canada underwent profound changes: these years were significant in the transition of the British Empire to Commonwealth. One of these changes included Canada's severance from formal imperial diplomatic unity. From 1919 to 1928, Canada established the same complete control over its external affairs which it already enjoyed in its domestic affairs. Canada's break from imperial foreign policy was a major factor in Canada's evolution from subordinate status with respect to Britain to one of equality. As the senior Dominion, the action Canada took against Britain, by confronting Britain repeatedly in matters of foreign policy, made Canada a leader in the transition to Commonwealth. Events leading to Canada's legal disassociation from imperial foreign policy began with Resolution IX of the Imperial War Conference of 1917. Although recognition of changes in the imperial relationship came with the Balfour Declaration of 1926, it was the appointment of the first British High Commissioner to Ottawa in 1928 which confirmed Britain's participation in a new relationship with Canada. Resolution IX acknowledged that circumstances had changed in British-Dominion relations. The struggles over imperial foreign policy between 1919 and 1928 assisted in establishing the principle of equal status between Britain and the Dominions. These conflicts contributed to defining the evolution of the Anglo-Canadian relationship in its formal, legal sense. The Canadian involvement in these encounters has received a great deal of attention whereas the same cannot be said of the British side. Most historical writings have assumed that the reactions of Britain were consistently conservative and passive. The common supposition was that Britain reacted only when pressured by Canada. By reviewing these confrontations from the British perspective, this study will examine the attitudes of and the interaction among the British Cabinet, the Foreign and Colonial Offices in formulating a policy toward Canada in this era, and demonstrate that the transition to Commonwealth was neither inevitable nor smooth. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As I reflect upon the frustrations, loneliness and uncertainty which plagued me throughout and tempted me more than once to abandon the project, I am surprised that I have actually made it. But my reflections are not all bad because I also have the pleasant memories of all the people both in and beyond the history field who have given me assistance and much needed support. Among those who have been of great assistance, the British Council stands in a field by itself. The Council generously funded me for my three years in Britain and without this support I could never have undertaken this work. During my three years of research, my studies took me to many archives and libraries in Canada and in Britain. The able and willing staffs which assisted me wherever my research took me made my task substantially easier. Many people have given me support and encouragement at critical times in my historical studies. I regret that Professor Granter, one of the most important influences on my work in history, passed away before I completed my thesis. In one way, Professor Granter is to blame for my effort. It was while I was still a science student at Dalhousie University, Canada, that Professor Granter convinced me that the very least that I should do with my love of history would be to take a few more years and complete a degree in it. I am not sure that even he expected how far I would actually take my interest. I am sure, though, that he knew before I did of the pleasure and satisfaction I would derive with my further studies of history. I must also thank Professor Peter Burroughs and Professor P.B. Waite who not only guided me as an undergraduate, but also proved ever handy with words of encouragement and support when I lost confidence during this project. I was also fortunate to acquire during my stay in Britain other individuals who contributed to my efforts. I extend my thanks to John Barnes of the Government Department, London School of Economics, who aided me in accessing the Amery Diaries. I am also indebted to John Hilliker, Director of the Historical Division of the Canadian Department of External Affairs, for his insight and conversations about the historical treatment of the development of Canadian External Affairs. Wrestling with Canadian archival materials was made substantially easier because of Bill Russell, the Archives Officer at the Canadian High Commission during my time in Britain. The ever-enthusiastic support of Vivien Hughes of the Academic Relations at the Canadian High Commission bordered on blind faith, but I revelled in it regardless. I also must thank Vivien for linking me up with the British Association of Canadian Studies whose lively conferences and activities encouraged me that I was not studying British- Canadian relations in a vacuum. I extend my sincerest thanks to Dr. Robert Boyce who supervised this thesis. His skill in asking questions which at first appeared impossible to tackle were the very questions whose answers rested at the core of my thesis. Dr. Boyce also faced many hurdles as he challenged me to tackle my analysis with penetrating determination, clarity and precision. I sincerely hope that I have done him justice with this work. 5 Finally, I am indebted to my close friends and family who gave been nothing short of stoic throughout these last years. At times I found their faith in me unsubstantiated, but I never ceased to rely upon it. I extend a very special thanks to Julie Carroll and her editorial red pen. I apologise to her if I have alienated her from ever reading history again. I also am deeply in debt to Dr. Lieske Kuitert. Lieske has been truly an all-purpose friend, whose assistance ranged from giving patient, unflagging support to being a print and production assistant. My final word of thanks is reserved for my parents who certainly have proven their endurance by supporting me not only through this effort but throughout all the years leading up to this study. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 4 Table of Contents 7 Introduction 9 Chapter One SETTING THE STAGE FOR CHANGES 1900-1919 19 Chapter Two SETTING THE CAUSE BACK: 1919-1922 51 Chapter Three CANADIAN REPRESENTATION AT WASHINGTONS 1919-1926 100 Chapter Four THE AWAKENING CONSCIOUSNESS: 1922-1923 141 Chapter Five BRITAIN'S FIRST LABOUR GOVERNMENT AND ANGLO-CANADIAN RELATIONS 186 Chapter Six 1924—1926S THE LAST SUBSTANTIAL EFFORTS TO RETAIN FORMAL IMPERIAL DIPLOMATIC UNITY 220 7 Chapter Seven REDEFINING THE ROLE OF THE GOVERNOR GENERAL Chapter Eight 192 6-1928: THE BEGINNINGS OF A NEW ERA: THE APPOINTMENT A BRITISH HIGH COMMISSIONER TO CANADA Conclusion Bibliography INTRODUCTION Britain and its Dominions: Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, entered the First World War united members of the British Empire. They left the war still officially united. The Great War, however, initiated a series of events which ultimately ended the Dominions' role in the British Empire and eventually led to the Commonwealth in 1931. These events, which dramatically reshaped Britain's relations with its Dominions, centred primarily around the conduct of Britain's and the Dominions' shared foreign policy, frequently referred to as imperial diplomatic unity or imperial foreign policy. The struggles over imperial foreign policy began during the First World War and ended in 1926 when the Balfour Report shattered imperial diplomatic unity and each Dominion took control of its own foreign policy. This study will examine the reaction to the end of imperial diplomatic unity among British politicians and British civil servants in Whitehall. This study will examine and explore British reactions to the end of imperial diplomatic unity through an examination of British-Canadian relations 1919-1928. Of all the Dominions, Canada, the senior Dominion, was the most persistent in testing the boundaries of imperial unity. At times, Canada enjoyed the support of other Dominions, most notably South Africa and the Irish Free State, in its bid to break free from imperial diplomatic unity. No other Dominion, however, pursued the matter with Canada's single-minded consistency or spearheaded as many precedent- setting developments. As the senior Dominion, the impact of Canada's actions was decisive and far-reaching. Canada forced Whitehall to wrestle with issues Britain would have preferred to avoid. Canada's importance frequently caused Britain to tailor its responses to the attack on diplomatic unity to the Canadian context. The British Government recognised the centrality of Canada's position and the ramifications of Canada's actions. The struggles between Canada and Britain more often than not set both the agenda and the pace in the transition from Empire to Commonwealth.