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Biomimetics Scrivener Publishing 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J Beverly, MA 01915-6106 Biomimetics Scrivener Publishing 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J Beverly, MA 01915-6106 Biomedical Science, Engineering, and Technology The book series seeks to compile all the aspects of biomedi- cal science, engineering and technology from fundamental principles to current advances in translational medicine. It covers a wide range of the most important topics including, but not limited to, biomedical materials, biodevices and biosys- tems, bioengineering, micro and nanotechnology, biotechnology, biomolecules, bioimaging, cell technology, stem cell engineering and biology, gene therapy, drug delivery, tissue engineering and regeneration, and clinical medicine. Series Editor: Murugan Ramalingam, Centre for Stem Cell Research Christian Medical College Bagayam Campus Vellore-632002, Tamilnadu, India E-mail: [email protected] Publishers at Scrivener Martin Scrivener ([email protected]) Phillip Carmical ([email protected]) Biomimetics Advancing Nanobiomaterials and Tissue Engineering Edited by Murugan Ramalingam, Xiumei Wang, Guoping Chen, Peter Ma, and Fu-Zhai Cui Copyright © 2013 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved. Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem, Massachusetts. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or other - wise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifi cally disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fi tness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profi t or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com. For more information about Scrivener products please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com. Cover design by Russell Richardson Library of Congr ess Cataloging-in-Publication Data: ISBN 978-1-118-46962-0 Printed in the United States of America 10 987654321 Contents List of Contributors xvii Preface xxv Acknowledgements xxvii 1 Biomimetic Polysaccharides and Derivatives for Cartilage Tissue Regeneration 1 Ferdous Khan and Sheikh Rafi Ahmad 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Strategies for Cartilage Tissue Engineering 3 1.3 Designing Scaffold for Cartilage Tissue Engineering 4 1.4 Natural Polysaccharides for Cartilage Tissue Engineering 8 1.4.1 Chitin and Chitosan (CS)-based Materials 8 1.4.2 HA-based Materials 11 1.4.3 Alginate-based Materials 12 1.4.4 Starch-based Materials 14 1.4.5 Cellulose-based Materials 15 1.5 Conclusions and Remarks on Prospects 17 References 18 2 Biomimetic Synthesis of Self-Assembled Mineralized Collagen-Based Composites for Bone Tissue Engineering 23 Xiumei Wang, Zhixu Liu and Fuzhai Cui 2.1 Introduction 24 2.2 Hierarchical Assembly of Mineralized Collagen Fibrils in Natural Bone 25 2.2.1 Panorama of Natural Bone 25 2.2.1.1 Chemical Composition of Bone 25 v vi Contents 2.2.1.2 Hierarchical Organization of Natural Human Bone 26 2.2.2 Self-Assembly of Mineralized Collagen Fibrils in Nature 27 2.2.2.1 Collagen and Collagen Fibrils Array 27 2.2.2.2 Structural Organization of Mineralized Collagen Fibrils 28 2.2.2.3 Examples of Mineralized Collagen Fibrils in Natural Tissues 30 2.3 Biomimetic Synthesis of Self-Assembled Mineralized Fibrils 34 2.3.1 In Vitro Self-Assembly of Mineralized Collagen Fibrils 34 2.3.2 In Vitro Self-Assembly of Mineralized Recombinant Collagen Fibrils 37 2.3.3 In Vitro Self-Assembly of Mineralized Silk Fibroin Fibrils 38 2.3.4 In Vitro Self-Assembly of Mineralized Peptide-Amphiphilic Nanofi bers 39 2.4 Applications of Mineralized Collagen-based Composites for Bone Regeneration 40 2.4.1 Fabrication of Nano-HA/Collagen-based Composites 40 2.4.1.1 Three-Dimensional Biomimetic Bone Scaffolds: Nano-HA/Collagen/PLA Composite (nHAC/PLA) 40 2.4.1.2 Injectable Bone Cement: Nano-HA/ Collagen/Calcium Sulfate Hemihydrate (nHAC/CSH) 41 2.4.2 Functional Improvements of Mineralized Collagen-based Composites 42 2.4.3 Examples of Animal Models and Clinical Applications 43 2.5 Concluding Remarks 44 References 45 Contents vii 3 Biomimetic Mineralization of Hydrogel Biomaterials for Bone Tissue Engineering 51 Timothy E.L. Douglas, Elzbieta Pamula and Sander C.G. Leeuwenburgh 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 Incorporation of Inorganic Calcium Phosphate Nanoparticles into Hydrogels 52 3.2.1 Inorganic Nanoparticles 53 3.2.2 Hydrogel Composites Based on Natural Polymer Matrices 53 3.2.3 Hydrogel Composites Based on Synthetic Polymer Matrices 55 3.3 Biomimetic Mineralization in Calcium and/or Phosphate-Containing Solutions 56 3.3.1 Soaking in Solutions Containing Calcium and Phosphate Ions 56 3.3.2 In Situ Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite 57 3.4 Enzymatically-Induced Mineralization Using Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) 58 3.4.1 ALP-Induced Hydrogel Mineralization for Fundamental Research 58 3.4.2 Enyzmatic Mineralization for Bone Regeneration Applications 59 3.4.3 ALP Entrapment 60 3.5 Enhancement of Hydrogel Mineralization Using Biomacromolecules 60 3.5.1 Systems to Test Mineralization-Inducing Potential of Biomacromolecules 60 3.5.2 Biomacromolecule-Enhanced Mineralization for Bone Regeneration Applications 61 3.6 Conclusions 62 References 63 4 Biomimetic Nanofi brous Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering Applications 69 Robert J. Kane and Peter X. Ma 4.1 Bone Tissue Engineering and Scaffold Design 69 4.1.1 Biomimetic Bone Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 71 viii Contents 4.2 Self-Assembled Nanofi ber Scaffolds 73 4.2.1 Fabrication and Physical Properties 73 4.2.2 Biological Properties of PA Scaffolds 74 4.2.3 Conclusions 75 4.3 Electrospun Scaffolds 75 4.3.1 Fabrication and Physical Properties 75 4.3.2 Biological Behavior of Electrospun Scaffolds 78 4.3.3 Conclusions 79 4.4 Thermally Induced Phase Separation (TIPS) Scaffolds 80 4.4.1 Fabrication and Physical Properties 80 4.4.2 Biological Behavior of TIPS Scaffolds 81 4.4.3 Conclusions 83 4.5 Overall Trends in Biomimetic Scaffold Design 84 References 85 5 Bioactive Polymers and Nanobiomaterials Composites for Bone Tissue Engineering 91 Ferdous Khan and Sheikh Rafi Ahmad 5.1 Introduction 92 5.2 Design and Fabrication of Biomimetic 3D Polymer-Nanocomposites Scaffolds 93 5.2.1 Solvent Casting and Particulate Leaching 94 5.2.2 Melt Molding 94 5.2.3 Gas-Foaming Processes 95 5.2.4 Electrostatic Spinning 96 5.2.5 Microsphere Sintering 96 5.2.6 Rapid Prototyping 96 5.3 Nonbiodegradable Polymer and Nanocomposites 96 5.3.1 Polyethylene Nanocomposites 98 5.3.2 Polyamides Nanocomposites 99 5.3.3 Poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) Nanocomposites 100 5.3.4 Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) Nanocomposites 101 5.4 Biodegradable Polymer and Nanocomposites 102 5.4.1 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers and Nanocomposites 103 5.4.1.1 Poly(Lactic Acid) Nanocomposites 103 Contents ix 5.4.1.2 Poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) Nanocomposites 107 5.4.1.3 Polyglycolide and Poly(lactide-co- glycolide) Nanocomposites 108 5.4.2 Natural Polysaccharide Nanocomposites 109 5.4.2.1 Chitin and Chitosan and Their Nanocomposites 109 5.4.2.2 Starch Nanocomposites 111 5.4.2.3 Cellulose Nanocomposites 111 5.5 Conclusions and Future Remarks 112 References 113 6 Strategy for a Biomimetic Paradigm in Dental and Craniofacial Tissue Engineering 119 Mona K. Marei, Naglaa B. Nagy, Mona S. Saad, Samer H. Zaky, Rania M. Elbackly, Ahmad M. Eweida and Mohamed A. Alkhodary 6.1 Introduction 120 6.2 Biomimetics: Definition and Historical Background 121 6.2.1 Defi nition 121 6.2.2 Concept of Duplicating Nature 122 6.2.3 Strategies to Achieve Biomimetic Engineering 122 6.2.3.1 Physical Properties 124 6.2.3.2 Specifi c Chemical Signals from Peptide Epitopes Contained in a Wide Variety of Extracelluar Matrix Molecules 124 6.2.3.3 The Hierarchal Nanoscale Topography of Microenvironmental Adhesive Sites 125 6.3 Developmental Biology in Dental and Craniofacial Tissue Engineering: Biomimetics in Development and Growth (e.g. model of wound healing) 127 6.4 The Paradigm
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