ECO-CHRONICLE 85

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 2. June 2008, pp: 85 - 90

A STUDY ON GROUNDWATER QUALITY IN THE PONDICHERRY REGION

Pethaperumal, S.1, Chidambaram, S.3, Prasanna, M.V. 3, Verma, V.N.2, Balaji, K. 3, Ramesh, R. 3, Karmegam, U. 3, and Paramaguru, P. 3

1 State Ground Water Unit, Department of Agriculture, U.T. of Pondicherry. 2 Joint Director of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture, U.T. of Pondicherry 3 Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu.

ABSTRACT

The Pondicherry region is characterized by different geological formations, and groundwater is the major source for domestic, agriculture and other water-related activities. Hydrogeochemical analysis of groundwater was done to assess the quality of groundwater for drinking and agricultural + + + + - purposes. Chemical parameters of groundwater such as pH, EC, TDS, Na , K , Ca , Mg , Cl-, HCO3 - , SO4 , PO4 and H4SiO4 were determined. Interpretation of analytical data shows that Ca-Na, Cl-SO4-

HCO3 is the dominant facies in the study area. Groundwater in the area is generally hard and fresh brackish in nature. High EC and TDS in a few locations indicates its the unsuitability for drinking and irrigation. Such areas require special care to provide adequate drainage and introduce alternative salt tolerance cropping.

INTRODUCTION bounded on the east by Bay of Bengal and on the remaining sides by lands of South Groundwater contains dissolved minerals Arcot district. The region is 293 sq. km. in from the soil layers through which it passes. extent and consists of 179 villages. The It may also contain some harmful Pondicherry region, in general is a flat contaminants through the process of peneplain with an average elevation of about seepage from the surface water and 15m above MSL. The terrain becomes a biological activities. On the other hand, the little undulating with prominent high grounds surface water contains a lot of organic varying from 30 to 45m above MSL towards matter, mineral nutrients and other interior northwest and north eastern part of contaminants brought by run off from the region. Three major physiographic units agriculture fields such as fertilizers, are generally observed namely (i) Coastal pesticides, soil particles, waste chemicals plain (ii) Alluvial plain and (iii) Uplands. from industries and sewage of cities and There are two major rivers draining the rural areas. These water are also inturn Pondicherry region namely the Gingee river infiltrates into the subsurface. In the present in the north and Ponnaiyar river in the south. study a detailed investigation on ground The Gingee river runs for 34 km in the region water quality of Pondicherry was carried out before joining the Bay of Bengal. The mean with respect to various aquifer systems. monthly temperature ranges between 22° C and 33° C. The average annual rainfall at The area chosen, Pondicherry is located on Pondicherry is 1254.4mm (CGWB, 1993). the east coast of India forming enclaves The geology of the area includes alluvium, within the South Arcot district of Tamilnadu. tertiary and cretaceous sedimentaries It is bounded by north latitudes 11° 45’ and underlined by crystallines. 12° 03’ and east longitudes 79° 37’ and 79° 53’ and forms parts of survey of India MATERIALS AND METHODS topographical maps no 58M/9, M/13, and 57P/12 and P/16 (Fig 1). The region is 44 water samples from bore wells were 86 ECO-CHRONICLE collected during the south west monsoon 1994). Silica is the second most abundant 2006 in order to cover different litho units of element in the earth crust and essential the study area from the Alluvium (11), component of almost all minerals. Tertiary (Upper cuddalore sand stone) (9), Bicarbonate is the dominant anion followed Tertiary (Lower cuddalore sand stone) (15) by Chloride, Sulfate and Phosphate and Cretaceous (9) (Fig 1). The samples irrespective of terrains. were analyzed using standard procedures (APHA, 1998). Cations

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Sodium is the important and most abundant alkali metal which is highly mobile A maximum, minimum and average value and soluble in groundwater. Potassium in for the chemical composition of groundwater is generally lesser due to its groundwater is given in the Table 1. higher stability (Herman Bouwer, 1978). The dominant cations are as follows Na+ > Ca2+ Hydrogeochemistry > Mg2+ > K+ in Alluvium, Tertiary (upper) and Anions Cretaceous formations. In Tertiary (lower) formation, Sodium is the dominant cation Bicarbonate represents the major sum of followed by Magnesium, Calcium and alkalinity. Alkalinity in water is the measure Potassium. of its capacity of neutralization. It is formed mainly due to the action of atmospheric CO2 Water Quality and CO 2 released from organic decomposition. Cl- is higher indicating the The voluminous raw hydrogeochemical saline water intrusion and Base Exchange data analyzed is often processed manually reactions (Freeze and Cherry, 1979) Sulfate for interpretation. To simplify the is found in water due to its lesser breaking interpretation of the data, a computer down of organic substances from programme WATCLAST in C++ weathered soil/water and due to the (Chidambaram, 2003), which was used for influence of saline waters (Miller, 1979; calculation and graphical representations (Table 1). Ca-Na and Cl-SO -HCO is the Craig and Anderson, 1979; Singh et al., 4 3 ECO-CHRONICLE 87 dominant facies irrespective of terrain in the Lower) formation, hardness varies from soft study area. to moderately hard. Similar trend was observed in Cretaceous formation. Hardness of the water refers to the soap neutralizing power of water. Hardness refers Na is an important cation which in excess to the reaction with soap and scale deteriorates the soil structure and reduces formation. It increases the boiling point and crop yield (Srinivasamoorthy, 2005). SAR do not have adverse effect on health of values in all the major litho units ranges human. Temporary hardness (TH) is higher from excellent to good category. According in all litho units when compared to the non to Wilcox classification (1955) the water is carbonate hardness (Table 2). Hardness classified based on the Na% with respect in Alluvium varies from slightly hard to to the other cations present in water. The moderately hard. In Tertiary (Uppper and Na% is expressed by Wilcox (1955) and Eaton (1950). Table 1. Geological Succession of the Study area

ERA PERIOD FORMATION LITHOLOGY

Quarternary Recent Alluvium Sands, Clays, Silts,Kankar and Gravels

Sandstone, Pebbly and gravelly Tertiary Mio-Pliocene Cuddalore and coarse grained with minor clays and silt stones and thin seams of lignite ------UNCONFORMITY------Tertiary Palaeocene Manaveli Yellow and Yellowish brown, greay calcarious siltstone and claystone and shale with thin bands of limestone.

Yellowish white to dirty white, Tertiary Palaeocene Kadapepperikuppam sandy, hard fossiliferous limestone, calcareous sandstone and clay. ------UNCONFIRMITY------Mesozoic Upper Turuvai Limestone Highly fossiliferous limestone, Cretaceous conglomeritic at places, calcareous sandstone and clays

Upper greyish to greyish green Mesozoic Cretaceous Ottai Claystone claystones, siltstone with thin bands of sandy limestone and fine grained calcareous sandstone.

Upper QuartzoseQuartzos sandstone, hard coarse Mesozoic Cretaceous Vanur Sandstone grained, occasionally felspathic or calcareous with minor clays.

Mesozoic Lower Ramanathapuram Black carbonaceous, silty clays and Cretaceous (unexposed) fine to medium grained sands with bands of lignite and sandstone, medium to coarse grained. ------UNCONFIRMITY------Achaeans Eastern Ghats Charnockite and biotite hornblende complex gneisses 88 ECO-CHRONICLE and pH) s/cm μ Table Table 2. The Maximum, minimum, and average of the 44 samples collected (all values are in mg/l except, EC in ECO-CHRONICLE 89 ALL ALL - Alluvium, TER (U) - Upper TERTertiary, (L) - Lower CRETertiary, - Cretaceous Table Table 3. Summary of the geochemical characters of the groundwaters in different Stratigraphic units 90 ECO-CHRONICLE Chloro-alkaline indices i.e. CAI1 and CAI2 Chidambaram, S., Ramanathan, A. L., are used to measure the extent of Base Srinivasamoorthy, K. and Anandhan, P., Exchange during rock water interaction. 2003. WATCLAST – A Computer Program There is an exchange of Na and K in for Hydrogeochemical Studies, Recent groundwater with Mg or Ca in rock matrix trends in Hydrogeochemistry (case studies when both the indices are positive. All the from surface and subsurface waters of ionic concentrations are expressed in epm. selected countries). Published by Capital Majority of samples show negative values Publishing Company, New Delhi, 203 - 207. in all the litho units. Craig, E. and Anderson, M. P. 1979. The In Scholler (1967) classification of water effects of urbanization of groundwater types (Table 2), majority of samples quality. A- Case study of groundwater. 17. irrespective of terrains fall in type I with minor 456 – 562. representation in type II and type III, indicating longer residence time of water Eaton, E. M., 1950. Significance of with more prominent Base Exchange. Carbonate in irrigation water, Soil Science, v.69, pp.123 – 133. CONCLUSION Freezy, R. A. and Cheery, J. A., 1979. Interpretation of hydrochemical analysis Groundwater. Prentice Hall, Englewood reveals that the groundwater in Pondicherry Cliffs. region has slightly hard to moderately hard category and requires softening before use. Herman Bouwer. 1978. Groundwater quality.

Ca-Na, Cl-SO4-HCO3 is the dominant facies Groundwater hydrology, Mc.Graw-Hill in the study area. In sodium concentration, Kogakusha Ltd., 339 - 375. majority of the samples fall from doubtful to unsuitable range. The SAR shows that most Miller, G. T., 1979. Living in the environment, of the samples are grouped under excellent Belmond California. Wadsworth publishing category of classification. The EC ranges company, p. 470. from good to permissible category. Chloro- alkaline indices reveal that majority of Schoeller, H. 1967. Methods and techniques samples show negative values in all the of ground water investigation and litho units indicating exchange of Na and K development. Water Resources Series no: in rock with Mg or Ca in groundwater. 33, UNESCO. Scholler classification of water indicates that longer residence time of water with Singh, R. P., Khanna, P.P. and Banerjee, A. more prominent of base exchange. High EC K., 1994. Groundwater toxicity in Rajpur- and TDS in certain locations prove to be canal command area. Regional workshop unsuitable for drinking and irrigation. on environmental aspects of groundwater Kurukshetra, (Eds) Singhal Dc, 76 - 85. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Srinivasamoorthy, K., Chidambaram, S., The authors wish to express thank to State Anandhan, P. and Vasudevan, S. 2005. Agricultural Department, Pondicherry for Application of statistical analysis of the data collection and to the Department of hydrogeochemical study of groundwater in Earth Sciences, Annamalai University for hard rock terrain, Salem District, Tamilnadu, their cooperation. Journal of geochemistry, v.20, pp.181-190.

REFERENCES Stuyfzand, P. J., 1989. Non point sources of trace elements in potable groundwater in APHA., 1998. Standard methods for the the Netherlands. Proceedings 18th TWSA examination of water and waste water, 19th Water Workings. Testing and Research edition, APHA, Washington DC, USASS. Institute KIWA.

CGWB., 1993. Ground Water Resources Wilcox, L. V., 1955. Classification and use and Development Prospects in Pondicherry of irrigation water. U.S. Geological Region, Union Territory of Pondicherry. p. 50. Department Agri Circ, v. 969, 19p. ECO-CHRONICLE 91

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 2. June 2008, pp: 91 - 92

STUDIES ON LEAF ROT AND SHOT - HOLE DISEASE IN NUT MEG (MYRISTICA FRAGRANS. VAN HOUTTEN)

Venugopal, S. P.G. Department of Botany, N.S.S College, Pandalam, Pathanamthitta (Dist), Kerala.

ABSTRACT

The present investigation deals with cultural and morphological characters, pathogenicity and effective management of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, the pathogen of leaf rot and shot hole disease of nut meg (Myristica fragrans. Van Houtten).

Key words: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, leaf rot and shot hole

INTRODUCTION collected from local variety of nutmeg grown in different localities of Pathanamthitta Nutmeg plant (Myristica fragrans. Van District, Kerala state. Potato Dextrose Agar Houtten) is one of the chief tree spices in (PDA) medium was used for isolation of India. It is widely cultivated as a mixed crop fungi from collected samples. The in various parts of the country including identification of the fungus was confirmed Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The by comparing with culture collection at importance of the nutmeg is due to its Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, medicinal properties. It is used for curing Kayamkulam, Kerala. Pathogenicity many diseases like diarrhea, disease of experiment was conducted on detached liver, spleen, head ache etc. Its products are healthy leaves by multiple pin prick method. also used as condiments in the food items. The cultural characters such as growth and The major problem in nutmeg growing sporulation of the pathogen was studied in garden is the attack of various diseases. Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA), Oat Meal Agar The disease may adversely affect the (OMA), Czapek Dox Agar (CDA), Carrot Agar growth rate and thereby the yield rate. The (CA) and Sabouraud Dextrose Agar leaf spot disease, fruit rot disease, immature (SDA).Relative efficacy of eight fungicides drop of fruit, fruit split are the various and five plant extracts on the growth and diseases that affect the plant. Among them, sporulation was evaluated by poisoned food leaf rot and shot hole disease is the most technique (Nene, 1971). dangerous and serious problem. The leaf rot and shot hole disease is caused by RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is prevalent in all nutmeg growing area of the country. The leaf rot and shot hole disease is a Detailed information on symptomatology disastrous problem in nutmeg growing and etiology are very important for effective areas of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. management. The limit of the available The disease was reported by Menon and literature indicates no studies have been Remadevi (1967), Karunakaran and Nair conducted on causal organism. The (1980), The isolation of causal organism present investigation deals with cultural and from the samples collected during the morphological characters of the pathogen present study constantly yielded including pathogenicity, efficacy of some Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. The important fungicides and plant extracts in pathogenicity was established by artificial inhibiting growth. inoculation on healthy leaves. The cultural characteristic of the pathogen was also MATERIALS AND METHODS varied in different solid media. The studies revealed that there is marked variation Leaf samples with rotting symptoms were among the isolates of Colletotrichum in their 92 ECO-CHRONICLE cultural and morphological characters. On Spreng) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale. the basis of their colony colors, the isolates Rose). Among the extracts Lawsonia were grouped as white, dark and light type. inermis and Ocimum sanctum showed least The present finding was in accordance with growth rate at 4%concentration. Leucas ChandraMohanan et al. (1987). Colonies aspera did not exhibit any effect in controlling of white types were characterized by the growth rate. Other plants also had abundant mycelial growth and poor inhibitory effect on C. gloeosporioides at sporulation. The dark gray type colonies their higher concentration. appeared grey from above and grey to black below with abundant sporulation.The light REFERENCES type colony appeared in light grey from above and below. Colletotrichum ChandraMohanan, R. and Kaveriappa, K.M. gloeosporioides causing leaf rot and shot 1984. Efficacy of fungicides to control three hole in nutmeg exhibited marked variation virulent isolates of Colletotrichum in rate of growth and cultural characteristics gloeosporioides on cocoa. Proc. Placrosym on five different solid media. The highest VI. 159-169 pp. growth rate was observed in Czapek Dox Agar media followed by Potato Dextrose ChandraMohanan, R ., Kaveriappa, K.M. and Agar. The least growth was observed in Nambiar, K.K.N. 1987. Variation in cultural Carrot Agar. ChandraMohanan (1987) tried and morphological characters within cocoa various media for C. gloeosporioides, isolates of Colletotrichum gleosporioides. pathogenic on cocoa and found that Potato Proc. 10th International Cocoa Research Dextrose Agar was the most suitable Conference 17 – 23 May 1987, Santo medium for growth and sporulation of this Domingo Republic. Pp . 491-497. pathogen. Chauhan, M.S. and Duhan, J.C. 1977. The efficacy of fungicides in controlling the Efficacy of some systemic and non foliar infection caused by C. systemic compounds to control gloeosporioides was studied. The study anthracnose and ripe fruit of chillies indicated that systemic fungicides were Pesticides 11: 11-18. superior to contact fungicides in checking the growth of C. gloeosporioides. Bavistin Karunakaran and Nair, M.C. 1980. Leaf spot at 0.05 – 02% concentration, Contaf 0.2 – and die- back disease of Cinnamomum 0.5%, Mancozeb at 0.3% Copper oxychloride zeylanicum. Pant Disease 64: 220 -221. at 0.5% were also found to be fungicidal in action. There was considerable variation in Mahadevan, A.1982. Biochemical aspects growth among the isolates at different of plant disease resistance Part1. concentrations of the fungicides tested. The Preformed inhibitory substances- result of the present study corroborates with Prohibitions. Today and Tomorrow’s findings of Chauhan and Duhan (1977) and Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, India, ChandraMohanan and Kaveriappa (1984). 425 pp. The presence of antifungal compounds in higher plants has long been recognized as Menon, R.M.and Remadevi, L. 1967. A. leaf an important factor to disease resistance disease of nutmeg. Sci. Cult.33:130. (Mahadevan,1982). Such compounds, being biodegradable and selective in their Nene, Y.L. 1971. Fungicides in plant disease toxicity, are considered as valuable in control. Oxford and IBH publishing Co., New controlling some plant diseases (Singh Delhi. 385 p. and Dwivedi,1987).The relative efficacy of five different plants was studied in vitro by Singh, R.K. and Dwivedi, R.S. 1987. poisoned food technique. The plants used Fungitoxicity of different plant species were henna (Lawsonia inermis. L), neem against Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc., a foot- rot (Azadirachta indica. A. Juss) Tulsi (Ocimum pathogen of barley. Nat. Acad. Sci. Letters sanctum.L), Thumba (Leucas aspera India. 10: 89-90. ECO-CHRONICLE 93

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 2. June 2008, pp: 93 - 99.

TEXTURE AND MINERALOGY OF THE BEACH SANDS OF ALAPPUZHA DISTRICT, KERALA.

Santhosh, V 1., Santhosh, S 2., Baijulal, B 1. and Baiju, R. S. 1

1. Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Kerala, Kariavattom, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. 2. Department of Geology, University of Kerala, Kariavattom, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

ABSTRACT

The Kerala state has a coastal line of about 560km. The coasts often backed by cliffs are with or without sandy beach. The Kerala coast is known for the occurrence of many strategic placer minerals like Monazite, Zircon, Ilmenite etc. The present paper deals with the textural and heavy mineralogical analyses of the beach sands of Alappuzha coast.

Key words: Texture, Heavy minerals, Beach sands, Provenance

INTRODUCTION Different studies have been carried out on texture and mineralogy of beach sands. A number of classic attempts have been The Kerala State is blessed with a coastal made to assess the relationship between line of about 560km. The Kerala coast is mineral constituents and texture of generally straight trending NNW-SSE. sediments (Folk, 1966; Pettijohn, 1957; Generally, the coastal zone is characterized Friedman and Sanders, 1978). Experts by broad stand plains and often with cliffed opine that textural and mineralogical shoreline. By definition, beaches are zones studies, particularly of heavies help in of unconsolidated sediments that extend comparing the source and the sorting from the uppermost limit of wave action to effects. They also discussed the low tide mark. The materials that comprise development of placer deposits in relation beach and nearshore zones vary in size, to climate and velocities of long shore shape and composition. In most places the currents and waves. beach material is locally derived. Another important source of beach and nearshore MATERIALS AND METHODS material is reworking and shore ward movement of materials from the inner shelf. The study area extends from Thottappally Through detailed studies of the composition to Vandanam in the Alappuzha district of of beach materials, it possible to determine Kerala State. A total of 10 locations were the provenance of the sediments. The chosen in the beach stretch. In each composition of beach material is location 3 samples are taken; one each dependant on various factors. Most from foreshore, bermcrest and backshore beaches are composed of quartz and (Fig. 1). The textural and mineralogical feldspar forms second in abundance. In analyses were carried out using standard addition to these, beach sands contain procedures. Various statistical methods many strategically significant heavy were adopted to achieve the objective of the minerals as well. investigation. 94 ECO-CHRONICLE ENVIRONMENTAL SETTINGS OF THE The direction and speed of the wind in the STUDY AREA. region are controlled by orographic features. The wind speed is high during southwest The study area includes the costal tract of monsoon and the direction is being north- Alappuzha district from Thottappally to west. And, the wind speed decreases from Vandanam. The area lies between north November to April. The Palaghat gap has a latitudes 9º18’5" to 9º26’ and east significant bearing in determining the longitudes 76º18’ and 76º25’ (Fig. 1). climate of the State. The mountain ranges and the high intensity of rainfall during the The beach width varies significantly from monsoon gave birth to a number of Thottappally to Vandanam. The maximum perennial rivers which are responsible for wave height recorded in the near shore of the formation of the unique landforms in the Alappuzha is about 3.8m during the peak State. monsoon. During the rough season (May- October), the waves periods are smaller RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS compared to the fair season (November- April). The waves are more nearly parallel Texture to the shoreline and are steeper during the rough season due to their generation under The grain size distribution study is the influence of southwest monsoonal important in delineating the sedimentary winds. Generally the longshore currents are environments. The grain size parameters weak and northerly in direction except during are used for the interpretation of the origin the peak monsoon, when they are strong of ancient clastic deposits and for the and southerly in direction. determination of the direction of sediment transport. The results of the various grain Figure 1. Study Area size parameters such as mean, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis of the beach sands are given in Table 1. Scatter plots of different size grade parameters are shown in Fig 2.

Mean size

The value of the mean size for the beach sands were plotted for shoreface, bermcrest and backshore. In backshore area, most of the samples have a mean size of less than 1.8(). The average mean size of the samples of the shoreface region and the bermcrest are 1.6 () and 1.7 () respectively. Along the profile there is gradual increase in phi mean from shoreface or forshore region to backshore in almost all sampling locations. Generally majority of the samples are medium sand, but in some areas the size ranges from coarse to medium sand. Fine sand is also seen at certain locations. No significant variations in size behavior of sediments are noticed in the study area.

The mean grain size of beach sand is a function of the incident wave energy and nature of available sand. Thus mean size ECO-CHRONICLE 95 Table 1. Different grain size parameters of the Alleppey beach sands 1. Back shore Sample Sand % Mean () S.D () Skewness Kurtosis No Coarse Medium Fine 1a 1.73 89.67 8.91 2.24 0.555 0 1.05 2a 1.17 93.6 5.02 2.13 0.57 0.058 0.853 3a 1.64 93.3 4.75 2.13 0.527 -0.01 1.03 4a 19.5 79.64 0.74 1.5 0.71 0.01 1.07 5a 33.35 65.3 1.27 1.31 0.84 0.015 1.043 7a 9.7 88.6 1.62 1.75 0.595 0.038 0.998 8a 9.34 89.27 1.17 1.65 0.61 -0.012 0.97 9a 8.19 90.59 0.75 1.75 0.568 0.079 1.01 10a 6.95 91 1.82 1.76 0.63 0.02 1.075

2. Berm

Sample Sand % Mean () S.D () Skewness Kurtosis No Coarse Medium Fine 2b 12.47 83.15 3.7 1.8 0.675 -0.0348 0.979

3b 25.5 73.7 0.65 1.35 0.746 0.0102 1.004

4b 29.79 69.5 0.67 1.18 0.774 -0.0259 0.995

5b 25.71 73.5 0.84 1.38 0.678 -0.0296 0.97

7b 4.23 93.3 2.26 1.92 0.734 0.0238 0.983

8b 19.4 78.52 1.99 1.85 0.643 0.00 0.956

9b 1.22 96.68 1.93 2.05 0.53 -0.035 0.995

10b 1.86 92.2 5.6 2.1 0.6 0.00 1.024

3. Foreshore

Sample Sand % Mean () S.D () Skewness Kurtosis No Coarse Medium Fine 2c 27.8 70.6 1.45 1.4 0.72 -0.0306 0.956

3c 4.23 93.3 2.26 1.45 0.6 0.00 1.17

4c 7.36 83.6 8.94 1.9 0.75 0.00 1.02

5c 29.7 70.1 0.05 1.6 0.73 0.027 1.004

6c 6.19 92 1.45 1.76 0.54 -0.0451 0.92

7c 13.86 82.3 3.68 1.6 0.8 0.018 0.987

8c 6.6 90.72 2.62 1.76 0.74 -0.094 1.37

9c 26.72 68.08 5.15 1.4 0.9598 0.00 1.008

10c 5.27 91.04 2.91 2.25 0.64 0.00 1.14 96 ECO-CHRONICLE Figure 2. Scatter plots of different size grade parameters of Alleppey beach sands

0.12 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 -0.02 Skewness Skewness -0.04 -0.06 -0.08 -0.12 -0.1 1 1.5 2 2.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 Mean S.D

1 1.6

0.9 1.4 1.2 0.8 1 S.D

0.7 Kurtosis 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.4 1 1.5 2 2.5 -0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1 Mean Skewness

1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1 Kurtosis Kurtosis 1 1 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 1 1.5 2 2.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 Mean S.D variation can be related to changing energy reasons for this decrease of grain size levels and local sand sources or a along the coast is the southward longshore combination of both. The coarse sands are transportation of sediments. It is generally present in high energy environment and fine agreed that, if the amount of sand deposited sediments in low energy environment. The on the beach from on shore transport is low, particle size becomes more in beaches then the direction of decreasing mean size where transportation is less. This is should coincide with the direction of net because of the close vicinity of source littoral transport (Komar, et al 1984). materials. Standard Deviation The study of the mean size of these microenvironments such as backshore, Standard deviation reflects the energy of berm and shoreface, reveals a general depositional environment and the presence decrease in values from north to south, with or absence of coarse/fine grained fractions. some minor variations. One of the main The standard deviation increases with an ECO-CHRONICLE 97 increase in  (phi) mean size. The standard Kurtosis deviation of backshore region shows a general decrease of grain size from north In the present study, the kurtosis value does to south. This may be attributed to the not show any significant/clearcut variation decrease of grain size from north to south. along the profile of the coast. Generally the There is no significant variation observed values are ranging from 0.9 to 1.3 indicating in the berm crest and foreshore region. Here that the sands are mesocurtic. Less amount majority of the samples are moderately of samples are coming under the class sorted. The standard deviation varies in leptokurtic which are representing the certain regions from well sorted to poorly foreshore region. sorted. But majority are moderately sorted. Better sorting may be due to the constant Heavy mineralogy action of waves, currents etc. on the sediments. The deposition of heavy minerals in the beaches can be attributed to varying wave Skewness energy and longshore currents. The concentration of heavies is found to be more The general trend of the skewness value along the shoreface or foreshore region with shows that there is slight decrease from the highest percentage of more than 80%. north to south. In general the value ranges The percentage of heavy minerals in the between 0.09 to 0.07. The value indicates sand samples of foreshore region is given that they are nearly symmetrical. In the in Table 2. The important beach sand heavy backshore area, majority of the sample fall mineral deposit contains Ilmenite, Rutite, between -0.03 to 0.07 which indicate that Zircon, Monazite, Sillimanite and Garmet. they are nearly symmetrical. In the foreshore Of the heavy minerals, opaques are the region, the values range from -0.09 to 0.02. dominant type in all the samples. Next to Skewness measures the asymmetry of the opaques, Zircon is more dominant mineral distribution. Positive values of skewness fallowed by Sillimanite. It is also found that indicate that samples are having a tail of in the study area, the percentage of heavies fines and negative value indicate a tail of is increasing towards south. The coarse. The general trend of the skewness distribution pattern of heavy minerals and value shows that there is a slight decrease the mean size of the bulk sediments are from north to south. shown in Fig 3.

Fig. 3 Distribution Pattern of Heavy Minerals and the mean size of Bulk Sediments

80 70 60 50 40 30

Heavy minerals % Heavy 20 10 0 1.46 1.6 1.66 1.7 1.6 1.78 2.25 Mean size ()

Mesh+120 Mesh+170 Mesh+230 98 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 2. Heavy mineral concentrations in the shoreface sediments of the Alleppey beach areas

Sample Heavy minerals No. Mesh size Opaque Zircon Silimanite Rutile Hypersthene Garnet No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % 3c 170 75 19 3 1 0.5 1 230 77 15 4 2 1 0 4c 120 80 18 1 0 0 0.4 170 79 17 0.4 0 0.34 0.4 230 82 10 3 2.4 0 0 5c 120 51 44 1.4 1.1 0.5 0.5 170 70 26 1.8 1.8 0 0 230 75 21 1.3 1.3 0.4 0 6c 120 32 61 0.5 0.5 0 0 170 50 44 0.74 0.74 0.5 0 230 90 6 0.58 0.58 0.5 0 7c 120 65 28 0 0 0.9 0.5 170 49 46 1.4 1.4 0.5 0.5 8c 120 35 62 0 0 0 0 170 82 12 1.1 1.1 0.5 0.29 230 84 11 1.06 1.06 0 0.35 10c 120 35 59 1.2 1.2 0 0.3 170 53 45 0 0 0.32 0 230 76 21 0 0 0 0

The percentage of opaques increases SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. when the mesh size increase or gain size decreases. The maximum percentage of The study summarises the textural and opaque is about 90% in the 230 mesh size mineralogical analyses of the beach sands and minimum is 35% in the 120 mesh size. of Alappuzha area. The textural analysis This can be explained by the theory of suggests that most of the sediments fall in hydraulic equivalence which states that the the category of medium sands. The average grains of different sizes and densities will value of the mean size is 1.8 (). The mean be deposited under the same conditions. grain size of beach sand is a function of the That is why concentration of heavy minerals incident wave energy and the nature of show large variation in the samples. So it available sand. Standard deviation indicates can be realized that the lesser concentration that the sediments are moderately sorted of the heavies from south towards the north and the average value of standard deviation of the study area may be attributed to the is 0.67 (). Better sorting may be due to the longshore currents and the minor constant action of waves, currents etc. in geomorphic features characteristic of the the region. Skewness values of the study area. sediment samples reveal that majority of ECO-CHRONICLE 99 the samples are nearly symmetrical, mechanically and some of them are suggesting a moderate energy environment corroded chemically. The edges and corners under which the sediments are deposited. of most of the grains are subrounded Kurtosis values do not show any specific probably due to the medium distance of trend and majority of the samples are transportation they have undergone. Some mesokurtic in nature. The energy levels that of the opaque grains show the corrosion operate in the nearshore region will greatly on their boarders suggesting the chemical influence the sorting of the material on the weathering in the environment of deposition. shore face of the beach. The medium size Although the sizes and shapes of the heavy of beach sands in the study area suggests minerals reveal that their distance of that the sediments experience a moderate transportation is short and the subrounded energy. As there is no sufficient supply of to rounded nature of the opaque suggests sediments to this region by any notable that they have undergone modifications in rivers, it is possible that the sediments the beach under moderate to high energy which have been supplied earlier and the conditions. little amount of sediments that are being supplied through Thottappally Spillway ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS might be undergoing reworking processes by the nearshore waves and currents and The authors thank Prof. A.C. Narayana for seasonal literal currents. guidance and Dr. D. Padmalal, scientist, CESS for encouragements. Heavy minerals form important constituents of placers, which are known from a number REFERENCES of localities along the west coast of India. Of the total heavy mineral concentration, Folk, R.L., 1966. A review of grain- size opaques constitute a major part in the study parameters. Sedimentology, 6: 73 - 93. area. The occurrence also depends on the type and association of host rocks in the Pettijohn, F.J., 1957. Sedimentary nearby areas. The geology of hinterland rocks,(Harper and Bros), New York, 718. suggests that gneisses, charnockites and Khondalites are the most dominant rock Fried man, G. M. and Sanders, J. E., 1978. type and these would be acting as the source Principal of sedimentology. Wiley,New York, for the supply of heavy mineral to the coastal 792. environment. Komar, P.D. and Wang, C. 1984. Processes In short, the mineralogical studies reveal of selective grain transport and the that the edges of some of the grains of formation of placers on beaches, Jour. hornblende and sillimanite are broken Geol., V-92, and PP.637-655. 100 ECO-CHRONICLE ECO-CHRONICLE 101

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 2. June 2008, pp: 101 - 108

GIS ANALYSIS FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF SHALLOW GROUNDWATER WEATHERED ZONE USING GEOPHYSICAL DATA IN UPPER THIRUMANIMUTHAR SUB BASIN, CAUVERY RIVER, TAMILNADU, INDIA.

Suresh, M.1, Gurugnanam, B.1, Vasudevan, S.2, Kumaravel, S.1, Dharanirajan, K.3

1 Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu. 2 Department of Geology, Bharathidasan University, Trichy, Tamil Nadu. 3 Department of Ocean Studies, Pondichery University, The Andamans.

ABSTRACT In the present investigation 47 VES survey were carried out in upper Thirumanimuthar sub-basin, Cauvery River, Tamil Nadu. The field data were interpreted by curve matching techniques and RESIST 87 software to determine the resistivity and thickness of the different layers. By using conventional GIS method, the spatial distribution maps for weathered zone resistivity and thicknesses were prepared. Integration of the said themes were carried out in GIS. Weathered zone thickness and resistivity maps were overlaid and the polygon combinations were brought out. 15 combinations were arrived, and designated as output map 1. This map was superposed over geology map. The suitable zones for groundwater were delineated from weathered zone combinations of VLRVHT (Very Low Resistivity and Very Low Thickness) in Hornblende-Biotite-Gneisses and Charnockite areas. The integrated approach was successful in the study area to find out the best subsurface lithology for groundwater targeting. GIS analysis is very well used in the present investigation to locate the best groundwater domain. A total of 53 various combinations of ground water potential zones were arrived in the final map. Presenting spatial distributions of individual polygons of the said combination is also given.

Key words: GIS (Geographic Information System); Hard rock areas; VES (Vertical Electrical Sounding).

INTRODUCTION Schlumberger resistivity method is the most GIS has emerged as a powerful technology suitable method for groundwater for instruction, for research, and for building investigations in hard rock area compared the stature of programs (Openshaw 1991; to other geophysical methods. Delineation Longley 2000; Sui and Morrill 2004). GIS is of fracture zones in low permeability hard an important technology for geologists rock area is still a very challenging task. (Baker and Case 2000). Geophysical surveys for groundwater exploration in hard rock areas have been Groundwater is the largest available source attempted by many authors Bernard and of fresh water. It has become crucial not only Valla, 1991; Ronning et al., 1995; Kaikkonen to find out groundwater potential zones, but and Sharma, 1997; Ramteke et al., 2001; also to monitor and conserve this important Krishnamurthy et al., 2003; Sharma and resource (Rokade et. al., 2004). GIS Overlay Baranwal, 2005; Porsani et al., 2005; Flathe, analysis is highly helpful in locating the 1955; Zohdy, 1969; Fitterman and Stewart, groundwater potential zones (Rokade et. al., 2007). 1986 and McNeill, 1991. 102 ECO-CHRONICLE STUDY AREA (2.5%). The resistivity of different layers and the corresponding thickness are The study area, lies between the latitudes reproduced by a number of iteration until 11°31’57" N to 11°48’05" N and longitudes the model parameters of all the VES curves 78°02’33" E to 78°21’13" E covering an area are totally resolved with the fitting error. of 442.78 Km2. In these, plain area covers an area of 346.40 Km2 (Fig.1). The study Base map was prepared from toposheets area falls in Salem district of central Tamil 58 I/1, 2, 5 and 6 of 1:50,000 scale. The Nadu, South India. The major source for toposheet was traced, registered and recharge of water in this area is rainfall, digitized the drainages (Upper during monsoon season. The average Thirumanimuthar) and GP locations. Their annual rainfall is 852 mm (1998 to 2007). attributes are added and analyzed in ArcGIS As the study area is underlain by the version 9.1 software. Spatial analysis tools Archaean crystalline rock, groundwater may were used for the preparation of occur in the fractured rocks. interpolation map. The maps were interpolated by using inverse distance METHODOLOGY methods to prepare the spatial distribution map. These maps were then integrated one Schlumberger Vertical Electrical Soundings over the other to find out the best (VES) survey was carried out in the present combinations for groundwater targeting. study. The VES study was conducted at 47 The final map shows the individual polygon locations, with the maximum electrode combinations, such as its weathered zone spacing of 150 m. The current electrode (AB/ resistivity and thickness. The geology of the 2) spacing varied from 1 to 150 m and the area was prepared using Geological Survey potential electrode (MN/2) spacing varied of India map. The map was traced, from 0.5 to 15 m. The field data were registered and digitized. The weathered interpreted by curve matching techniques. zone resistivity map was superposed over For this, computer software RESIST 87 was weathered zone thickness map and the used. The degree of uncertainty of the resultant map was designated as output computed model parameters and the map 1. This output map 1 was superposed goodness of fit in the curve fitting algorithm over Geology map and the resultant output are expressed in terms of RMS fitting error map-2 was derived with 53 combinations.

Fig.1. Study area ECO-CHRONICLE 103 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Gneisses. Charnockite is the dominant group of rocks covering major parts of the Geology study area, followed by the Hornblende- The study area is mainly underlined by Biotite-Gneissic rocks. The spatial Charnockite and Hornblende-Biotite- distribution results of the geological units are given in the table 1. Hornblende-biotite- Table 1. Geology – GIS Spatial Distribution gneiss is relatively porous and can be Results considered as favorable for groundwater storage (Fig 2). This rock type and its Rock Types Area2 in associated combinations are usually acted Km as a favorable zone for groundwater. Charnockite 192.43 Weathered zone - Resistivity and Alluvium 18.49 Thickness

Siderite – Ankerite Gneiss 2.22 The results of the weathered zone minimum and maximum resistivity and thickness are Fissile Hornblende – Biotite 116.2 shows in table 2. The maximum resistivity Gneiss value was observed in Minnampalli (VES Magnetite Quartzite 0.44 No.8) as 770 (Ohm-m) at a depth of 9.6 m. The high resistivity indicate that the Pyroxenite, Dunite, Peridotite 2.22 formation is compact at this depth. It is also evidenced in the field that, open well near Dunite 1.73 by this location by a former. This area does Pyroxenite 12.67 not yield good amount of water. Low Table 2. Maximum and Minimum Results – Weathered zone Resistivity and Thickness

Maximum / Village Weathered zone Village Name Weathered zone Minimum Name Resistivity and Thickness and

Thickness Resistivity

u u

Maximum Minnampalli 770 ? m. (9.6 m) Vaikalpattarai 18 m. (238 ? m)

u u Minimum Valasaiyur 14.1 ? m. (2.75 m) Redipatti 0.3 m. (329 ? m)

Fig.2. Geology 104 ECO-CHRONICLE resistivity values indicate the water bearing at a depth of 2.75 m with its resistivity of formation. The highest weathered zone 14.1 Ohm-m. Similarly, the high thickness thickness was observed in Vaikalpattarai zone also reveals good amount of (VES No.33) 18 m with its resistivity of 238 groundwater infiltration. (Ohm-m). It shows drastic variation in resistivity and thickness in the study area. Weathered Zone – Spatial Distribution The field evidence also proves that low Results resistivity (LR) area yield good groundwater Weathered zone resistivity spatial distribution map (Fig 3) was prepared using Table 3. Weathered Zone Resistivity - the geophysical results. The spatial Spatial distribution Results distribution map results are given in Table

Class Weathered zone - Area2 in resistivity (Ohm-m) Km Table 5. Weathered Zone Resistivity and Thickness maps integration results VLR Less than 200 124.47

Sl.No. Combinations Area2 in LR 200 - 500 196.70 Km MR 500 – 1000 19.76 1 VLRLT 5.70 2 VLRMT 45.54 HR More than 1000 5.47 3 VLRHT 53.40 4 VLRVHT 19.82 Table 4. Weathered Zone Thickness - 5 LRLT 7.04 Spatial distribution Results 6 LRMT 38.61 7 LRHT 72.11 Class Weathered zone - Area2 in thickness (m) Km 8 LRVHT 78.94 9 MRLT 1.25 VHT More than 8 100.58 10 MRMT 5.66 11 MRHT 11.28 HT 4 - 8 141.99 12 MRVHT 1.58 MT 2 – 4 89.83 13 HRMT 0.02 14 HRHT 5.21 LT Less than 2 13.99 15 HRVHT 0.25

Fig.3. Weathered Zone – Resistivity Map ECO-CHRONICLE 105 3. In the present investigation, weathered MT, HT, and VHT. The best groundwater zone resistivity was classified into four potential areas are indicated by VHT (Very classes, such as VLR, LR, MR and HR. high thickness). Very high thickness zones Groundwater potential zones are relates by cover an area of 100.58 Km2. VLR (Very low resistivity). Very low resistivity zones cover an area of 124.47 Km2. GIS Analysis

Similarly weathered zone thickness spatial The weathered zone resistivity map was distribution map (Fig 4) was prepared using superposed over weathered zone thickness GIS. The spatial distribution results are map the output map 1 is designated as given in Table 4. Weathered zone thickness weathered zone – Resistivity and thickness was classified in to four class, such as LT, integration map (Fig 5) and its results are Table 6. Weathered Zone Resistivity and Thickness maps integration resulted map and overlaid results

Sl. Class Area2 in Sl. Class Area Sl. Class Area2 in No. Km No. in 2 No. Km Km 1 VLRLT 1.85 19 LRMT 0.90 37 MRLT 0.88 - CH - ALM - CH 2 VLRLT 3.85 20 LRMT 0.43 38 MRLT 0.37 - Hbg - Ank - Hbg 3 VLRMT 37.17 21 LRMT 15.81 39 MRMT 0.88 - CH - Hbg - CH 4 VLRMT 8.37 22 LRMT 0.54 40 MRMT 1.36 - Hbg - Pdp - ALM 5 VLRMT 0.00 23 LRMT 1.18 41 MRMT 3.42 - Mq - Uma - Hbg 6 VLRHT 46.37 24 LRHT 35.45 42 MRHT 4.09 - CH - CH - CH 7 VLRHT 0.10 25 LRHT 1.41 43 MRHT 1.93 - ALM - ALM - ALM 8 VLRHT 6.92 26 LRHT 0.91 44 MRHT 5.26 - Hbg - Ank - Hbg 9 VLRHT 0.02 27 LRHT 30.76 45 MRVHT 0.46 - Mq - Hbg - CH 10 VLRVHT 3.72 28 LRHT 0.41 46 MRVHT 1.12 - CH - Mq - Hbg 11 VLRVHT 5.65 29 LRHT 1.11 47 HRMT 0.00 - ALM - Pdp - ALM 12 VLRVHT 10.45 30 LRHT 2.06 48 HRMT 0.02 - Hbg - Umc - Hbg 13 LRLT 3.59 31 LRVHT 38.06 49 HRHT 0.17 - CH - CH - CH 14 LRLT 0.03 32 LRVHT 4.55 50 HRHT 2.53 - ALM - ALM - ALM 15 LRLT 2.36 33 LRVHT 0.89 51 HRHT 2.50 - Hbg - Ank - Hbg 16 LRLT 0.51 34 LRVHT 24.78 52 HRVHT 0.04 - Pdp - Hbg - ALM 17 LRLT 0.55 35 LRVHT 0.05 53 HRVHT 0.20 - Uma - Pdp - Hbg 18 LRMT 19.75 36 LRVHT 10.61 - - - - CH - Umc 106 ECO-CHRONICLE

Fig.4. Weathered Zone – Thickness Map

Fig. 5. Weathered Zone – Resistivity and Thickness Integration Map

Fig. 6. Weathered Zone – Resistivity and Thickness and Geology Integration Resulted Map ECO-CHRONICLE 107 given in the table 5. The results show that covers an area of 3.72 Km2. This area is number of combinations. It is highly helpful suitable for the construction of open wells. in assessing the best groundwater Similarly, 53 combinations (Table 6) and potential area. There are fifteen their attributes are brought out in the present combinations observed in the results, such study. It clearly reveals that the Geographic as VLRLT, VLRMT, VLRHT, VLRVHT, LRLT, information system enables simultaneous LRMT, LRHT, LRVHT, MRLT, MRMT, MRHT, evaluation of number of parameters for MRVHT, HRMT and HRVHT (Low Resistivity demarcating groundwater potential zone and Very High Thickness) combination through overlay analysis. covers a large area (78.94 Km 2). The second dominant polygons are LRHT REFERENCES group. It covers an area of 72.11 Km 2. VLRHT combination comes in third level Baker Thomas, R. and Case Steven, B., and covers an area of 53.40 Km2. VLRVHT 2000. Let GIS be your guide. The Science combination covers an area of 19.82 Km2. Teacher, 67, no.7: 24 - 26. http://kangis.org/ In this combination shallow depth of learning/publications/science-teacher/print/ groundwater zone predicated. This is also tst0010-24.pdf. verified in the field. Bernard, J. and Valla, P., 1991. Ground water This output map 1 was superposed over exploration in fissured media with electrical Geology map for the resultant output map- VLF methods. Geoexploration, 27, 81 - 91. 2 (Fig 6). The final output map-2 shows that there are 53 combinations (Table 6). The Fitterman, D.V., Stewart, M.T., 1986. following combinations are the highly Transient electromagnetic sounding for expected zone of groundwater potential ground water. Geophysics, 51, 995 - 1005. zone. VLRVHT in Alluvium combination covers 5.65 Km2, VLRVHT in Hornblende- Flathe, H., 1955. Possibilities and biotite-gneiss combination covers 10.45 limitations in applying geoelectrical Km 2 and VLRVHT in Charnockite methods to hydrogeological problems in the combination covers an area of 3.72 Km2. It coastal areas of north-west Germany. is also verified in the field. This combination Geophysical prospecting, 3, 95-110. is noticed in the foot hill areas and Alluvium river course. This area is recommended for Kaikkonen, P. and Sharma, S.P., 1997. the construction of open wells. Delineation of near-surface structures using VLF and VLF-R data- an insight from the CONCLUSION joint inversion result. The leading edge, 16 (11), 1683 - 1686. The final integration map gives 53 combinations of different lithology with Krishnamurthy, N.S., Kumar, D., Rao Anand, weathered zone resistivity and thickness. V., Jain, S.C., and Ahmed, S., 2003. The VLRVHT combination is found in the Comparison of surface and sub-surface Alluvium region, covering an area of 5.65 geophysical investigations in delineating Km2. This is the most favorable zone for fracture zones. Current Science 84 (9), groundwater potential in the study area. After 1242- 1246. the investigation, field validation was done it in this area. This area proves with good Longley, Paul A., 2000. The academic groundwater zones. The second favorable success of GIS in geography: Problems and zones for groundwater are evidenced from prospects. Journal of Geographical Systems the combinations of VLRVHT in 2 no. 1: 37 – 42. Hornblende-biotite-gneiss, which covers an area of 10.45 Km2. The third favorable zone Mc Neill, J.D., Labson, V.F., 1991. for groundwater is the combinations Geological mapping using VLF radiofields, VLRVHT in Charnockite region, which In: Nabighian, M.C. (Ed.), Geotechnical and 108 ECO-CHRONICLE Environmental Geophysics, Review and Rokade, V.M., Kundal, P. and Joshi, A. K., Tutorial, Vol. 1. Society of exploration, Tulsa, 2007. Groundwater potential modelling pp: 191 - 218. through Remote Sensing and GIS: A case study from Rajura Taluka, Chandrapur Openshaw, S., 1991. A view on the crisis in District, Maharastra. Journal of Geological geography, or using GIS to put humpty- Society of India, Vol.69, May 2007, pp.943- dumpty back together again. Environment 948. and Planning A 23, no. 5: 621-628. Ronning, Jan, S., Lauritsen, T., Mauring, E., Porsani, J.L., Elis, V.R., Hiodo, F.Y., 2005. 1995. Locating bedrock fractures beneath Geophysical investigations for the alluvium using various geophysical characterization of fractured rock aquifers methods, Journal of Applied Geophysics, in Itu, SE Brazil. Journal of Applied 34, 137 - 167. Geophysics 57, 119-128. Sharma, S.P., Baranwal, V.C., 2005. Ramtek, R.S., Venugopal, K., Ghish, N., Delineation of groundwater bearing fracture Krishnaiah, C., Panvaikar, G.A., and Vaidya. zones in a hard rock area integrating very S.D., 2001. Remote sensing and surface low frequency electromagnetic and geophysical techniques in the exploration resistivity data. Journal of Applied of groundwater at Usha Ispat Ltd., Sindhurg Geophysics 57, 155, 166. Dist., Maharastra, India. Journal of IGU 5 (1), 41-49. Sui, Daniel and Richard Morrill, 2004. Computers and geography: From Rokade, V.M, Kundal, P. and Joshi, A.K. automated geography to digital earth. In 2004. Water resources Development Action Geography and Technology, edited by plan for Sasti Watershed, Chadrapur Stanley D. Brunn, Susan L. Cutter, and J.W. District, Maharashtra using Remote Harrington, Jr. Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer. sensing and Geographic Information System. Jour. Indian. Soc. Remote Sensing, Zohdy, A.R.R., 1969. The use of v.32(4), pp.359-368. Schlumberger and equitorial soundings in ground water investigations neal El Paso, Texas. Geophysics, 34, 713 - 728. ECO-CHRONICLE 109

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 2. June 2008, pp: 109 - 112

INFLUENCE OF MONSOONAL RAINFALL TO THE GROUNDWATER LEVEL - A CASE STUDY IN MAILAM BLOCK, VILLUPURAM DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU, SOUTH INDIA

Karthikeyan, A.1, Sabanayagam, R.1, Gowtham, B.1, Lawrence, J.F.1 and Senthilkumar, G.R.2

1. Department of Geology, Presidency College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu. 2. Department of Geology, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, Tamil Nadu.

ABSTRACT

River basins are the traditional agricultural land because of their highly favourable geomorphic terrain, productive soil cover and abundant water supply. These basins with rich alluvial soil, which gets enriched annually, and good irrigation network of canals and tube wells, support multiple cropping patterns and provide relatively high crop yield. It becomes essential to evaluate qualitatively and quantitatively the existing ground water resources and also the influence of the monsoon rainfall on the groundwater. Recharging also depends on the other factors such as climate, geomorphology, topography, soil and most importantly sub surface geology.

More than 50 % of rainfall of Tamil Nadu is contributed by the northeast monsoon, which occurs during the months of October, November and December. An attempt has been carried out to study the influence of rainfall on the groundwater of the Mailam Block of Tindivanam Taluk, Villupuram District. It falls between the latitudes 79o26’ to 79o44’N and longitudes 12o3’ to 12o19’ E and forms part of survey of India Top sheet No.57 P/12. The geomorphic units play a vital role in groundwater occurrence and help in locating groundwater potential horizons. The average annual rainfall of the study area is 1240 mm. The depth to the water level varies from 3.99 m to 7.96 m (bgl) during pre monsoon period and 3.94 m to 7.94 m (bgl) in post monsoon. The water level is deeper in topographically elevated regions and shallower in plain surface terrain. From the water level maps, it is inferred that the groundwater flow direction is north – south. The groundwater has been recharged by the monsoon rainfall to a considerable extent which has been reflected in the water level maps and chart. The geological and geomorphological features of the surface and subsurface of the study area favour the rainwater recharge and flow towards the plain land surface. Key words: Meteorology, water level, Fluctuation

INTRODUCTION natural annual hydrological cycle where groundwater-yielding aquifer is principally The science of hydrogeology is primarily recharging through rainwater (Satyajit concerned with the evaluation of Biswas, 2003). Recharging also depends occurrence, availability and quality of on the other factors such as climate, groundwater (Lohman, 1979). Evaluation of geomorphology, topography, soil and most aquifer parameters is an important aspect importantly sub surface geology. More than of all groundwater resource assessment. 50 % of rainfall of Tamil Nadu is contributed Groundwater is basically a dynamic by the northeast monsoon, which occurs resource, which may be expressed as the during the months of October, November quantity of water measured by the difference and December. One or two cyclone crosses between optimum and minimum water the area during this season with heavy rain. table within the aquifer. This annual periodic This state is also receiving southwest fluctuation of water table results from the monsoon and non-monsoon rain. 110 ECO-CHRONICLE STUDY AREA Fig. 2. Geomorphology

The study area Mailam Block of Tindivanam Taluk, Villupuram District, falls between the latitudes 79o26’ to 79o44’N and longitudes 12o3’ to 12o19’ E and forms part of survey of India Top sheet No.57 P/12 (Fig-1). National Highway (NH45) passes through the study area, which connects Chennai and Dindigul. The study area is surrounded by Marakkanam Block and Olakkur Block in the east and northeast and Vallam block and Vikravandi block in west and southwest, respectively. Fig. 1. Location Map

CLIMATE AND RAINFALL

To have a better understanding in the field of hydrogeology, a periodical hydro- meteorological monitoring is needed. Some of the important hydrometeorological parameters are rainfall, temperature, evaporation, evapotranspiration, humidity, soil moisture and wind velocity. The study area falls in tropical climate with the highest temperature of about 43oC during months of March, April and May, while GEOMORPHOLOGY the months October, November and December experience the lowest The study area is a hilly terrain with, much temperature of about 18oC. The soil types undulation and major geological structures, in this area are suitable for cultivation of such as pediplains, Drainages, hillocks, sugarcane, cotton, groundnut, plantains, residual, rock exposure (Fig. 2). The millets and paddy. Agriculture is the prime geomorphic units play a vital role in occupation of Mailam Block, Tindivanam groundwater occurrence and help in Taluk of Villupuram District. Well irrigation locating groundwater potential horizons. and canal irrigation is mainly practiced. The study area is marked with Pediplains and good drainages which lead to Veedur Long-term rainfall data have been collected dam. There are low undulating topography from various Central and State Government with clay gravels and shales. Moderate organizations. From these data (1995 – infiltration with more runoff and their ground 2004), average annual rainfall is calculated. water potential is moderate. The area receives rainfall mostly by the ECO-CHRONICLE 111 influence of two monsoons, viz: Northeast discharge and secondarily by the influence Monsoon and Southwest Monsoon. of local transmissivity and storativity. Occasionally, non-monsoon rainfall also contributes sufficient amount of The long-term water level data of this area, precipitation. The average annual rainfall of for the period 2004 have been collected from the study area is 1240 mm and state Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage average annual rainfall is 1030 mm (Ram Board (TWAD) and Groundwater division of Mohan, 1984). PWD and annual water levels and fluctuation have been computed. DRAINAGE From this computation water level, contour The study area is dissected by very few maps have been prepared for both pre- drainages. Two major rivers viz., Thondiyar and post monsoon seasons (Figs. 3 & 4). & Sangarabarani Rivers flow towards Veedur Dam. Infiltration is moderate in the Fig. 3 Groundwater level During Pre study area. Monsoon Season (m) (bgl)

GROUND WATER LEVEL

The depth to the water level is closely related to topography, influence of surface water bodies extraction and rainfall. From the prevailing rainy seasons, September and January has been chosen for monitoring pre monsoon and post monsoon water levels respectively. Variation in the groundwater level reflects primarily the mass balance between recharge and

Table -1 Groundwater Level (m) bgl of Mailam Block, Tindivanam Taluk.

Location Location Pre Post Fluctuation No. Monsoon Monsoon (m) m,bgl m,bgl 1 ManamPoondi 6.29 5.41 0.88 2 Kollar 7.74 4.11 3.63 3 Asoor Colony 6.39 5.41 0.98 4 Kollar Mettu Street 7.83 4.13 3.70 5 Peramandur 4.35 7.94 -3.59 6 Rettanai 7.96 4.21 3.75 7 Avaiyar Kuppam 7.48 4.51 2.97 8 Alagrammam 7.57 4.34 3.23 9 Chinnanerkunam 6.66 3.94 2.72 10 Tindivanam 3.99 7.40 -3.41 11 Se.Kuthamangalam Colony 4.26 6.32 -2.06 12 Perani Colony 7.94 4.25 3.69 13 Kuralur New Colony 6.85 4.48 2.37 14 Padaripuliyur 6.03 4.25 1.78 15 Konamangalam Colony 6.03 4.56 1.47 112 ECO-CHRONICLE Fig. 4 Groundwater level During Post flow of the study area is from north to south. Monsoon Season (m) (bgl) Veedur dam and surrounded areas situated in the southern part of the study area holds major groundwater that has been recharged in the northern portion of the study area.

Locations like Tindivanam, Peramandur and Se Kothamangalam showed a drop in water levels during the post monsoon season. This drop in water level is due to the over exploitation of groundwater for agriculture and domestic purposes through bore wells and open wells, as soon as the monsoon rainfall occurred. In general the groundwater has been recharged by the monsoon rainfall to a considerable extent, The depth to the water level varies from 3.99 which has been reflected in the water level m to 7.96 m (bgl) during pre monsoon map and chart. The geological and period and 3.94 m to 7.94 m (bgl) in post geomorphological features of the surface monsoon (Table 1). The water level is and subsurface of the study area favour the deeper in topographically elevated regions rainwater recharge and flow towards the and shallower in plain surface terrain. From plain land surface. the water level maps, it is inferred that the groundwater flow direction is north - south. REFERENCES Davies, S.N. and De Wiest, R.J.M., 1966. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION Hydrogeology, John Wiley, 463 p.

Groundwater recharged in the Northern part IWS, Report No. 13 / 96, State Frame Work of the study area during the monsoon Water Resources Plan, Annexure – 11, season reaches the central and southern Institute for Water Studies, Tharamani, portion and raise the groundwater level Chennai - 113. nearer to the surface. Groundwater level chart has been prepared to compare the Karanth,K.R., 1987. Groundwater depth to the water table during different Assessment Development and seasons (Fig. 5). From this chart, it is Management, ISBN 0-07-451712-0, Tata inferred that the groundwater fluctuation McGraw-Hill Pub. Company Ltd., 610 p. between pre- and post monsoon ranges from 0.88 m to 3.69 m. The groundwater Lohman, S.W., 1979. Definition of selected groundwater terms - revision and Fig. 5. Mailam Block - Ground water level conceptual refinements, USGS water report, Fig. 5 Mailam Block - Groundwater level During Pre- and Post Monsoon Seasons during Pre and Post Monsoon seasons 21 p. Location Nos Location Nos. Ram Mohan.H.S., 1984. A climatological 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 assessment of the water resources of Tamilnadu. Jour. Power and river valley 1 Pre Monsoon m,bgl level., pp 58 – 63. 2 Post Monsoon m, bgl 3 Satyajit Biswas, 2003. Groundwater 4 direction and long - term trend of water level 5 of Nadia district, West Bengal; A statistical 6 analysis, J. Geol. Soc. India, v. 61, pp 22 - 36.

7 meters (belowground level) (belowground meters Todd, D.K., 1980. Groundwater Hydrology, 8 John Wiley and Sons, New York, 535 p. 9 ECO-CHRONICLE 113

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 2. June 2008, pp: 113 - 118.

FOREST FIRE MODELING AND MANAGEMENT USING REMOTE SENSING AND GIS: A CASE STUDY OF CHINNAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KERALA

Subin K. Jose, Santhosh Kumar, R., Vinod, T.R., Sabu, T. and Babu Ambat.

Centre for Environment and Development,Thozhuvancode, Vattiyoorkavu, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

ABSTRACT

Chinnar wildlife sanctuary is located in the rain shadow area of the Western Ghats under Devikulam Taluk of Idukki District, Kerala State. Declared as a wildlife sanctuary in 1984, it is spread over an area of 90,422 sq. km. This study has adopted a GIS based analysis methodology where the techniques of Remote Sensing and Global Positioning System (GPS) have been made use of for current data acquisition. The various thematic layers like sanctuary boundary, contour, drainage, settlements, roads, trek paths and waterbodies were extracted from the SOI toposheets. IRS–1D LISS III digital images were used for preparation of the current landuse/landcover of the area. For the analysis, ranks and weightages were assigned to each theme. The ranks and weightage assigned themes were then integrated in raster calculator to determine the fire prone area. The final output showed the forest fire risk area map of Chinnar Sanctuary in four categories such as very high risk, high risk, moderate risk and low risk. Based on this, various spatial analysis have been carried out like identification of suitable sites for construction of check dams to ensure water availability in combating fires and for locating fire watch towers.

INTRODUCTION fire can be classified in three main categories (1) Natural, (2) Intentional / Western Ghats, one of the mega biodiversity deliberate due to man, and (3) Unintentional hotspots is located in the southern part of / accidental due to man (Robinson, 1991). peninsular India. At present the entire area of Western Ghats is under severe threat due The prominent factors leading to fires are: to increasing human intervention and over 1. Vegetation type and density - dry and exploitation of natural resources. The dense vegetation is obviously more increasing biotic pressure has led to the susceptible to fire than the moist and sparse occurrence of frequent forest fires, which one; 2. Climatic factors - the climatic regime resulted in fragmentation and degradation determines the vegetation in a region and of the forests and many of these fragmented hence plays dominant role in ascertaining forest landscapes are in highly endangered the fire prone sites. Drier the climate, more status and provide alarming signals of prone would be the site (Flannigan and accelerated biodiversity loss. Statistics show Harrington, 1988). 3. Physiographic factors that during the last 12 years (between - viz., altitude, aspect and topography 1991and 2003), more than 25,000 ha of influence micro-climatic conditions and forests of Kerala have been destroyed by therefore, indirectly affect the vegetation. fires (KFD, 2002). A recent study by French Aspect which means the direction of slope Institute of Pondicherry shows that forest plays a vital role in spreading of the fire. fire is a direct threat in 97% of forest Southern and south-western slopes, divisions of Kerala. The causes of forest exposed to direct rays of sun are more 114 ECO-CHRONICLE vulnerable to catch fire rather than northern in the map were verified. Different reasons and north-eastern aspects. In the case of for the occurrence of fire in Chinnar Wildlife topography, fire travels most rapidly up- Sanctuary were collected by formal and slopes and least rapidly down slopes informal discussions with locals, tribal (Rothermel and Richard, 1972). 4. Distance people and forest officers. Details regarding from roads - human and vehicular trek path and fire lines inside the sanctuary movements and such activities on the road were collected during field visit. The various provide enough scope for accidental / man data collected were processed and put into made fire. Near the roads, more would be the ArcGIS software package. the chance of fire occurrence. 5. Vicinity to settlements - the area near to the habitats / Different factors that contribute to forest fire settlements is more prone to fire because were identified and evaluated on the basis the habits / cultural practices of the of historic data and ground study. For the inhabitants can also lead to incidental/ delineation of forest fire prone areas, accidental fire (Butler, et al., 1991). Internet thematic layers such as waterbody(Fig. 4), based forest fire management system is distance from roads / trek path, distance used for the forest fire monitoring and from settlements (Fig. 3 study area map), prevention (Burke .et al., 1997). drainage network (Fig. 4), vegetation/land cover (Fig. 6), slope (Fig. 7) and aspect (Fig. METERIALS AND METHODS 8) were integrated in GIS environment based on their weightage. For deriving the Since the study adopted a GIS based distance from road and distance from methodology, both spatial and attribute data settlements, buffers of settlements (0 – of various thematic layers, available in the 1500 m with 10 m equal intervals) and of form of maps and published report were trek paths (0 – 1000 m with 10 equal collected from various sources. Primary intervals) were generated. data were collected using various techniques such as field visit, discussion The ranks of the classes of each theme with locals to fill any data gaps. were assigned in a scale of 1-10 by reclassifying themes in the Spatial Analyst Spatial data were collected from Survey of module of ArcGIS software in such a way India (SOI) Topographic map sheets, 58 F/ that higher ranking is given to the class 3 and 58 F/7 of 1:50,000 scale. The SOI which has high positive relation with fire maps became the source for a number of proneness than the class which shows basic thematic layers like sanctuary lesser positive relation with it (Jo et al., boundary, contour, drainage, settlements, 2002). The areas closer to the settlement roads / trek paths and water body. IRS-1D or trek paths are high fire risk areas and LISS-III digital image acquired on 21 March therefore are given higher rankings. The 2004 was used to prepare the landcover rank decreased with the increase in map. Visual interpretation of the standard distance from the settlement or trek paths. False Colour Composite (FCC) with 4-3-2 Similarly slope and aspect of the terrain RGB combination as well as digital also have indirect influence on fire risk as classification of the image using ERDAS they control the vegetation density and 8.6 image processing software was used composition. Steeper slopes lead to less for the preparation of landcover map fuel moisture and less air humidity. The (Kennedy et al., 1994; Elvidge et al., 1997). vegetation in such slopes is mainly dry and Field level data collection and mapping was catches fire easily. Moreover, once the fire carried out using toposheet as the base starts, it is likely to spread faster up-slope map. The real world co-ordinates were than down-slope and along steeper slope collected using Magellan Spot Track Map than gentle ones. The slope from 70 - 90 GPS receiver. A hard copy of the vegetation degrees is high fire risk area when map prepared from the satellite image was compared to flatter terrains. Similarly, the taken to the field and the vegetation polygons west and southwest facing aspects get more ECO-CHRONICLE 115 Fig. 1. Methodology for data processing Fig. 2. Methodology for final analysis

INPUT DATASETS INTO ARC GIS SOI-TOPOSHEET FIELD DATA SATELLITE DATA

WATERBODY, DRAINAGE, FCC IMAGE DIGITAL DATA CONTOUR, SETTLEMENT, TREK DERIVE DATASETS PATH

SCANNING DATA IMPORT TO ERDAS 8.5 RECLASSIFY DATASETS VECTORIZATION STUDY AREA SUBSET

TRANSFORMATION GEO-REFERENCING WEIGHT AND AND PROJECTION COMBINE DATA IMAGE ENHANCEMENT

FIRE PRONE AREA / RISK ZONATION MAP CREATION OF SUPERVISED COVERAGE CLASSIFICATION

EDITING GROUND TRUTHING

DEM DEM, DRAINAGE CREATION OF ACCURACY SHAPEFILE ESTIMATION VISIBILITY ANALYSIS FLOW DIRECTION, FLOW TOPOLOGY CREATION CLASSIFIED ACCUMULATION VEGETATION MAP ANALYSIS DIFFERENT THEMATIC LAYERS SITES FOR WATCH SITES FOR CHECK TOWERS DAMS CONTOUR DRAINAGE, TREK SETTLEMENT VEGETATION MAP WATERBODY PATH

DERIVATIVE THEMES

DEM SLOPE ASPECT FIRE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM INPUT DATASETS IN TO ARC GIS 116 ECO-CHRONICLE sunshine than the eastern and northeastern RESULTS AND DISCUSSION aspects in summer and tend to make the vegetation drier, which increases the The fire prone / fire risk zonation map (Fig. 9) shows that the study area is divided into vulnerability to fire. In the vegetation type, four zones based on fire proneness, viz. very higher ranking is given to thorny scrub and high risk, high risk, moderate risk, low risk dry deciduous forest as the fuel content of areas / zones. Very high fire risk area extents these vegetation are higher and become 5 sq. km., 15 sq. km. belongs to high risk dry in summer and can catch fire easily. and 33 sq. km. to moderate risk zone while 37 sq. km comes under low fire prone area. Weightages and ranks were given to each The areas near to the settlements, such as theme depending upon its role in Palapattyu, Alampatty, Pudukudi are determining fire proneness (Table. 1). For delineated as very high fire risk zones as a assigning weightage, some parameters result of a combination of factors such as are considered as no risk parameters. the high human disturbance, favorable Drainage, water bodies and fire lines were vegetation types mostly thorny scrub, steep considered as no risk parameters and slopes and southwest and western aspects. hence not given any weightage. The In moderate risk zone, the human weightages were given in percentage disturbance is minimal and the vegetation type is semi evergreen and thorny scrub. totaling to 100. Vegetation map gets highest The slope varies from 15 – 30 degrees and weightage followed by settlement, aspect, the aspect is mainly east and southeast. trek path and slope. 50% of weightage is Area that are away from the settlements and assigned to vegetation since it provides the trek paths, where the vegetation is mainly medium for burning and affect spread of moist deciduous and semi evergreen, in forest fire. The integration of themes was the east and northeast aspects and with carried out in Raster Calculator of ArcGIS. gentle slopes come under low risk zone.

Suitable sites for the construction of watch This fire prone area map can serve as the towers were located using the digital base information for developing a fire elevation model (DEM) generated from the management system for the sanctuary contours and spot heights of the area (Close, 1993). During fire occurring months, derived from SOI toposheet (Fig. 5). The more fire watchers are needed to be identification of suitable sites for new watch appointed in the fire prone areas to control towers was carried out using visibility the fire (Ani, 2002). In Chinnar, the visibility from existing watch towers was analysed analysis by giving points in such a way that (Fig. 11) and found to be insufficient to cover maximum terrain area is visible from each whole the sanctuary area so optimal sites point which is highly fire prone. for new five watch towers were identified based on the visibility analysis (Fig. 12). Suitable site for the construction of check Round-the-clock fire watching in very high dam that help to prevent forest fire is risk fire prone areas identified will help to identified with the help of hydrological reduce the risk of fire spread (Klaver et al., analysis tools in GIS. The flow accumulation 2004). Construction of check dam near to and flow direction was measured using fire prone area will help to prevent the spread spatial analyst and suitable site was of fire (Ciesla, 1993). The six new sites identified. The site for check dam is identified identified ( ) (Fig. 10) for the construction by locating the sites with high flow of check dams across the streams / rivers accumulation and sites close to the fire near the fire prone areas will not only store prone area. Methodology for data up water but also retain the moisture content processing and final analysis are shown in in the area and the impounded water can the fig.1 & 2 respectively. be used to put down fire. ECO-CHRONICLE 117 118 ECO-CHRONICLE CONCLUSION Missoula County (Montana) Project. Proceedings: symposium on fire in The result of the study shows that GIS could wilderness and park management. USDA be successfully employed in identification Forest service. pp. 180 - 186. of fire prone areas and their management in the Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary. GIS Elvidge, C.D. et al., 1997. Relation between analysis has taken into consideration a wide Satellite Observed Visible Near Infrared range of suitability parameters in identifying Emissions, Population, Economic Activity fire prone area, suitable sites for the and Electric Power Consumption. construction of check dams and International Journal of Remote Sensing, construction of fire watch towers. The fire Vol. 18, No. 6, pp. 1373 - 1379. prone area map and management plan can be used by the forest officials to develop Flannigan, M.D ., Harrington, J.B., 1988. A and improve the forest fire fighting study of the relation of meteorological strategies in the sanctuary. Implementation variables to monthly provincial area burned of GIS, GPS and remote sensing techniques by wild fire in Canada 1953 - 80. and well trained officers are needed for the Appl.meterol.27. pp. 441 - 452. efficient fire management. The GIS based methodological frame work developed as Jo, Myung-Hee. et al., 2002. The part of this study can be effectively used Development of Forest Fire Forecasting elsewhere in identification of fire prone System using Internet GIS and Satellite areas and their management. Remote Sensing. (www.gisdevelopment .net ). REFERENCES Kennedy, P.J. et al., 1994. An Improved Ani, J.R., 2002. How to check a forest fire. Approach to Fire Monitoring in West Africa Indian Forester vol.126 (7). pp. 766-771. Using AVHRR Data. International J. of Remote Sensing, Vol. 15, No. 11, pp. 2235- Burke, T.E. et al., 1997. An Internet – based 2255. forest fire information system.Unasylva. Vol.48 (2): 32 - 38. KFD., 2002. Neyyar Wild Life Sanctuary Management Plan 2002-2012, pp. 1-78. Butler., David, R. et al., 1991. GIS Applications to the indirect effects of forest Klaver, R.W. et al., 2004. Global Forest Fire fires in Mountainous Terrain. Fire and the Watch: Wildfire potential, Detection, environment: Ecological and cultural Monitoring and Assessment. (http:// perspectives, Proceedings of an www.rss.dola.wa.gov.au). International Symposium, pp. 212 - 223. Robinson, J.M., 1991. Fire from Space - Ciesla, W. M., 1993. Remote Sensing, GIS Global Fire Evaluation Using Infrared and Wild land Fire Management. A global Remote-Sensing, International Journal of Perspective Proceedings of the International Remote Sensing, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 3 - 24. Workshop on Satellite Technology and GIS for Mediterranean Forest Mapping and Fire Rothermel., Richard, C., 1972. A Management, Thessaloniki, pp. 21 - 35. Mathematical Model for Predicting Fire Spread in Wild land Fires. USDA Forest Close., Kelly, R., 1993. GIS Applications in Service Research, paper INT - 115, Ogden Wild land/ Urban interface Fire Planning: The Utah, USA. ECO-CHRONICLE 119

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 2. June 2008, pp: 119 - 126.

URBAN WETLAND CHANGE & VULNERABILITYANALYSIS USING GEOINFORMATICS

Kirti Avishek 1, Nathawat, M. S. 2

1 Environmental Science & Engineering Group, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi. 2 Department of Remote Sensing, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi.

ABSTRACT

Urban wetlands have been the lifeline of most of the cities in India. They were preserved and looked after by the people as their main source of water supply for drinking irrigation, and maintaining water table. Due to changing patterns of consumption and pollution, the status of these wetlands has changed drastically. The present study deals with mapping the urban wetlands of Ranchi Municipal area and assessing the vulnerability of the wetlands due to different causes in a multi- temporal framework. Satellite data and GIS softwares have been used in mapping and change analysis of these urban wetlands in a time gap of nine years. A total of 148 urban wetlands have been identified The identified wetlands were then ranked, scored, weighted and scaled to identify the vulnerable wetlands and there sources of degradation based on Trade of Analysis. It was found that 3 wetlands were highly vulnerable and 34 vulnerable. Agricultural runoff, waste discharge and urban development have been identified as the main causes of degradation of these urban wetlands.

Key Words: Wetlands, Geographical Information System, Trade off Analysis.

INTRODUCTION primarily focuses on sustainable development also lays stress on Urban wetlands have been considered as maintaining fragile ecosystems including the lifeline of most of the cities in India. They wetlands as they play a vital role in avoiding were preserved and looked after by the desertification. Limited knowledge on the people as their main source of water supply benefits of wetlands and their associated for drinking and irrigation. Wetlands of India, functions and values resulted into wetland estimated to be 58.2 million hectares reclamation in many countries, and the (Directory of Asian wetlands, 1989), are impact of their loss is being realized in important repositories of aquatic different forms (Musinguzi, et. al., 2006). biodiversity.These wetlands are found all The coverage of wetland in the ambit of over the country and are either natural or environment is something different. It is not built by people. Over the years, they have a water feature, but a place of environment gradually depleted, due to siltation, weed (Chopra et.al., 1997). Going by definition infestation, decomposition and waste under the text of Ramsar convention (Scott, dumping leading to a number of problems 1989), wetlands have been described as in urban areas such as flooding, water “areas of marsh, fern, peat, land or water scarcity, and water logging (Abbasi et.al, whether natural or artificial, permanent or 1988, Gupta, 1979, Gnanam, A., 1997, temporary, static or flowing, fresh or brackish Nathawat et.al.,1995, Avishek and including areas of marine water the depth Nathawat, 2004). Agenda 21 which of which at low tides does not exceed 6 mt.” 120 ECO-CHRONICLE According to the Directory of Asian Wetland latitude, 85°15" and 85°30" longitude. The (1989) wetlands occupy 18.4% of total area total area within the Ranchi Municipal by virtue of its extensive geographical extent, Corporation (RMC) is 175 sq. km. RMC varied terrain and climatic conditions, spreads over three blocks namely Ratu, supports a rich diversity of inland and Namkum, Kanke. (Figure 2). There are coastal wetland ecosystems (Chopra, et. reasons for identifying the wetlands of RMC. al., 1997). While a country like UK could The wetlands discussed in this region designate 161 Ramsar sites, obviously witness some migratory birds during the India being a mega diverse country will have winter season specially January and many more than the 20 sites presently February (Avishek and Nathawat, 2004). But identified by the national wetland due to excessive pollution caused by programme (Gaikwad and Prasad, 2006). dumping of wastes, there has been a Wetlands should be conserved by ensuring decline in the numbers of birds. The Study their wise use which refers to sustainable deals with assessing the wetlands of RMC utilization for the benefit of mankind in a way in terms of their vulnerability due to compatible with the maintenance of the anthropogenic sources. natural properties of the ecosystem (Roy, METHODOLOGY Thadani.1997). Remote Sensing data together with ground truthing is widely used The uncorrected image of RMC was by various scientists to collect information registered using the Ranchi map that was on qualitative and quantitative status of traced out from the Survey of India natural resources including wetlands in Toposheet (73E/7, 1:50000). Registration protected areas (Parihar, et. al., 1986, Dutt, was performed using Geomatica 8.3.The et. al., 1988, Naidun, et. al., 1988, Sharafat image was then visually interpreted and the Ali, et. al., 1991). The sustainable different water bodies where identified and management of wetlands requires located. Wetland layer using the toposheet information describing these ecosystems of 1987 and 1996 imagery was digitized. at multiple spatial and temporal scales The entire work of digitizing for thematic (Rebelo, et. al., 2006). Remote Sensing is layer generation was done in Arc View 3.1 defined as a practice of deriving information software. The layer was then overlaid for about the earths land & water surfaces finding out the quantitative changes in them. using images acquired from an over head Figure 3 shows the overlay of 1987 and perspective, using electromagnetic 1996 wetlands, while Figure 4 shows a radiations in one or more regions of magnified view of the portion of main electromagnetic spectrum, reflected or wetland of the study area. The work of error emitted from earth surfaces (Campbell, J., correction, removal of dangles and topology 1996). It is defined variedly but basically it generation was performed in Arc GIS 8.3 is “the art or science of telling something software. Trade off Analysis was performed about an object without touching it (Fischer, to assess the vulnerability of all the et. al., 1976). identified wetlands based on different STUDY AREA causes. The Methodological flow chart is shown in Figure 1. Ranchi is the capital of the newly formed state Jharkhand in India. Ranchi Municipal Trade off Analysis in Vulnerability corporation (RMC) has been selected as Assessment the study area for the present study and it is located between 23°15’ and 23°30’N To achieve a systematic approach on ECO-CHRONICLE 121

Figure 3.

Figure 4. 122 ECO-CHRONICLE deciding among alternatives, it is desirable based on the basis of their impact on the to use Trade off Analysis. It involves a wetlands. In this case ranking starts from 1 comparison of a set of alternatives. The for least importance and 4 to maximum following steps are followed. important factor. Based on the degree of degradation these factors are ranked as Qualitative Approach given in Table 2. Description of the different decision factors Table 1: Quantization Table used are presented. In this study four decision factors are used. These are the Degree of Effect Score main factors that degrade the quality and High 30 quantity of the wetland of the study area: Agriculture, Settlement, Hazardous Waste, Medium 20 Transport Network. Low 10 Quantitative Approach

Each alternative is scaled on the degree of Table 2: Ranking of Factors their density that affects the wetlands. The Decision Factor Rank scaling is based on the concentration of each decision factor and is categorized into Agriculture 1 high, medium & low concentration of each factor. Individual score is given to each Transport Network 2 concentration level as shown in Table 1. Settlement 3 Ranking of Decision Factors Hazardous Waste 4 Each decision factor used is now ranked

Figure 1: Methodological Flow Chart

Ranc hi Map Uncorrected Image

Geocoding/Registration Wetland Layer Generation

Registered Image Visual Interpretation

Wetland Layer Generation

Overlay of Vector layers

Wetland Change Assessment ECO-CHRONICLE 123 Weighting Approach Table 4. Wetland Classification Class Type Number of Based on the decision Factors a numerical wetland value is assigned to each wetland and identified multiplied by the rank to get the final index (1996 data) score. This score is then compared and the 1 Highly 3 Vulnerable further scaling of values is performed. 2 Vulnerable 3 3 Less Vulnerable 34 n Index j = ξ i=1 IWi Rij 4 Least Vulnerable 108 Total 148 Where, Indexj = composite index for j th alternative, Table 5. Location specification N = number of decision factors, IWj = importance weight for ith decision Wetland Class Index Location factors. ID Score Rij = Ranking of the jth alternative 27 1 210 Rajendra Scaling of the Index Value Medical college & The Index score of each wetland is then hospital categorized into level of vulnerability (Table 39 1 240 Veterinary 3), which helps in identifying the vulnerable Hospital wetlands that need immediate conservation 53 1 250 Ranchi Lake effects. Number of Wetlands in 1987 = 158 Table 3: Scaling of Index Number of wetlands in 1996 = 148 Scale Type Class Loss of Wetlands in a span of 9 years =10 There has been a decrease in the area of 201-250 Highly Vulnerable 1 151-200 Vulnerable 2 the wetlands of the study area. 101-150 Less Vulnerable 3 Total Area in 1987:96424626.3 mt 50-100 Least Vulnerable 4 Total Area in 1996: 64157001.5 mt Decrease in area of wetlands in a span of 9 RESULTS years: 32267624.8 mt

The 1996 Ranchi LISS III imagery helped in DISCUSSION identifying 148 wetlands and the 1987 toposheet showed 158 wetlands. Thus Class 1 category of wetlands is highly there has been a loss of 10 wetlands in a vulnerable due to inputs of hazardous span of 18years.Based on the above wastes. These wetlands are mainly located methodology of Trade off Analysis following near the hospitals. Ground survey showed results were obtained. Out of 148 wetlands that most liquid waste generated from these in 1996, 3 wetlands were categorized as hospitals is discharged directly into the highly vulnerable, 3 as vulnerable, 34 are wetlands untreated. Most of the hazardous less vulnerable and the remaining 108 as waste is discharged into the class 1 least vulnerable as shown in Table 4. We wetlands while other domestic, commercial take into consideration two classes of wastes are dumped into class 2 wetlands. vulnerability, as they require the most These wetlands are involved in the day today immediate conservation steps. activities like washing, cleaning, drinking 124 ECO-CHRONICLE and agriculture by local people. The due to the encroachment of building. The agricultural waste is again discharged into wetland has faced gradual filling due to the wetlands further degrading the quality construction activities. Kanke Lake is also of the wetlands. Steps should be taken for a site for migratory birds thus it needs proper proper disposal of the waste discharged treatment. Presently the lake is also facing from the hospital so that the further problems of eutrophication & algal bloom degradation of the wetlands in Class 1 is that needs immediate attention. terminated. CONCLUSION Highly Vulnerable (Class 1) Specifications. Ranchi Municipal Corporation has The class 1 wetlands need highest witnessed a loss of wetlands in a span of conservation steps as they have received nine years. These wetlands were earlier the highest score. As it can be seen from sources of drinking water and helped in the table 5 these wetlands receive the waste maintaining ground water table. It has been discharged from RMCH, Veterinary Hospital identified that wetlands that are close to and the wetland ID 53 (Ranchi Lake) human activities like agriculture and urban receives the waste discharged from Seva development centers are more prone to Sadan hospital. Most of the waste degradation compared to other wetlands. generated from the nearby settlement is As a result wetlands that are near to also dumped into it. roadways, settlement areas, hospitals and commercial complexes are classified under more vulnerable wetlands. It was also Table 6. Location specification observed that Weed infestation due to Water Wetland Class Index Location hyacinths, Siltation and pollution has been ID Score the main causes of wetland degradation in the study area. Based on this study it is 17 2 170 Kanke concluded that priority for conservation Reservoir should be focused on Class 1 wetlands. 41 2 160 Ratu Road 58 2 160 Lower The next phase of conservation should be Bazaar on Class 2 wetlands because with rapid population increase these will surely be affected. To study the changes in the Vulnerable (Class 2) specifications wetlands over a span of nine years would have been a tedious work in absence of Class 2 again needs efforts for satellite data. Hence Geoinformatics has maintenance as they have gained next proved to be a vital tool in wetland change highest-level of vulnerability. The major assessment. Further the pictorial depiction cause of there degradation is high waste of wetlands along with other environmental disposal from the adjoining urban & social information’s help in better settlement, recreation parks & transport understanding of the problems. Trade of network. Located in the high-density urban Analysis has proved vital for the qualitative areas they are deteorating due to day today analysis of the wetlands of the city. This improper use. Location of these water method can be adopted primarily for bodies are shown in Table 6. Kanke Lake assessing the vulnerability of the wetlands shows the highest decrease in area as it’s to degradation & depletion. ECO-CHRONICLE 125 REFERENCES Vol-III, Discovery publishing house, pp: 14, Capter 2, threats of aquatic weeds. Abbasi S.A., Nipaney, P.C. and Soni, R. 1988. Aquatic Weeds: Distribution, impact and Musinguzi Moses, Gerhard Bax, Sandy control, J. Science, Industrial Research, 47, Tickodri, 2006. Spatial Data Infrastructures: 650-661. The future of Wetland Rapid Assessment Models in Developing Countries, Avishek Kirti, Nathawat, M.S., 2004. Proceedings of Map Africa, 2006. Repercussions of Urbanization on the wetlands of Ranchi MNC using Geospatial Naidun, K.S.M. and Unni, N.V.M., 1988. The Technology. 7th International Conference of loss and accretion of Sunderbans. Proc. MAP INDIA-2004. Symp. Wildlfe Habitat assessment, Oct. 22- 23, 1986, Dehradun. Champbell, J., 1996. History & Scope of remote sensing, Introduction to Remote Nathawat G.S., Dhabariya, S.S., Nathawat, Sensing. 3rd ed., Taylor & Francis, pp: 3-24. M.S., 1995. Mapping of wetlands: Phichola & Sambhar lake areas using Remote Chopra Rajiv, Verma, V. K., Sharma, P. K., Sensing data, MoEF, (Unpublished report). 1997. Assessment of Natural Resources for Conservation of Harike Wetland (Punjab), Parihar, J.S., Kotwal, P.C., Panigrahi, S. and India through Remote Sensing Technology. Chaturvedi, N. 1986 (b). Study of wildlife Proceedings of ACRS. ACRS Canter Larry, habitat using high resolution space W., 1977. Environmental Impact photographs. A case study of Kanha Assessment, McGraw - Hill Inc. National Park. Special Publication, ISRO- SP-17-86, pp: 65-82. Dutt, C.B.S., Ranganath, B.K. and Manikyam, 1988. Identification and mapping Prasad, 2002. Wetland conservation: of coral reefs in middle Andaman. Proc. Issues and application. Proceedings of Map Symp. Ocean Resources. National Institute India, 2002. of Oceanography, Goa. Prasad S.N., Ramchandra, T.V., Ahalya, N., Fischer, W., Hemphill , W.R. and Kover, A. Sengupta, T., Alok Kumar, Tiwari, A.K., 1976. Progress in Remote Sensing. Vijayan, V.S. and Lalitha Vijayan, 2002. Photogrammetria.Vol.32, pp. 33-72. Conservation of Wetlands of India - a review. Tropical Ecology 43(1):173 -186. Gaikwad Santosh, Prasad, S.N., 2006. Wetland Information Network. TDWG Rebelo, L.M., Finlayson, M., Mc Cartey, M. Annual Meeting, 2006. Symposium, 2006. Geospatial data for wetland mapping Missouri Botanical Garden Saint Louis, and capacity building in southern Africa, Missouri, U.S.A. 15-22, October. Proceedings of Map Africa, 2006.

Gnanam, A., 1997, Foreword in Abbasi, S.A. Roy, D. and Thadani, R., 1997. India’s - Wetlands of India: Ecology & Threats, Vol Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral reefs, 1, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi. WWF-India, 1992. Report of the task force on islands, coral reefs, mangrove, wetlands Gupta, N., Abbassi, S.A. and Bhatia, K.K.S., in environment & forest. 1997. Wetlands of India-Ecology & Threat, www.planningcommssion.nic.in 126 ECO-CHRONICLE Sharafat Ali, Saha, N.C. and Suraj Bhan, For sustainable livelihood & resource 1991. Wetland resources mapping in West system, United Kingdoms. http:// Bengal using remotely sensed data. Nat. www.wetlandaction.org/index.htm Symp. Remote Sensing of Environment. The Hindu, Jan. 12, April 29, June 4, 2003 Dec. 10 -12, 1991, Madras, pp: 39. and Sept. 19, 2002.

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ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 2. June 2008, pp: 127 - 138.

CONCENTRATION OF CU, CO, PB, AND ZN IN THE SEDIMENTS OF SELECTED MANGROVE ENVIRONMENTS OF KERALA, SOUTHWEST COAST OF INDIA

Badarudeen, A.,1# Reji Srinivas,2 Sajan, K1.

1 Department of Marine Geology and Geophysics, School of Marine Sciences, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi, Kerala. 2 Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

# Present address: Rashid Geotechnical and Materials Engineers,P.O. Box. 15833, Riyad 11454, KSA.

ABSTRACT

Sequential extraction of sediments collected from three important mangrove environments of Kerala State such as those of Veli, Kochi and Kannur, along the southwest coast of India has been carried out with an aim to characterize the different species associations of Cu, Co, Pb and Zn. The information on the phase associations in relation to their bulk concentrations will be useful in environmental interpretations and pollution assessments of the area. The present study shows that, out of the five species associations – easily exchangeable, carbonate bound, Fe/Mn bound, organic bound and lattice bound analysed, nearly 80% of Co, Pb and Zn and about 65% of Cu are associated with residual fraction as lattice bound forms. In other words, a lion share of these metals is primarily immobile and least bioavailable under normal geo-environmental settings. In the case of the non-residual forms, Cu, Pb and Zn are linked more too organic phase than exchangeable and carbonate bound forms. This is an indication of the contribution of a significant proportion of these metals through organic pathway and litter fall from mangroves and mangrove associated plants of the study area. Key words: Heavy metal speciation, Geochemistry, Mangrove sediments, Southwest coast of India.

INTRODUCTION Mangrove ecosystems of Kerala are subjected to severe ecological impairments Mangroves are the gift of coastal zones of due to continued disposal of toxic tropical regions. These intertidal, contaminants from the industries, sewage halophilous wetland forest ecosystem acts channels and agricultural runoff (Segarra as sources and sinks of a multitude of et al, 2008). At present, Kerala mangroves geochemical signals and biologic and occur as isolated patches and are severely genetic materials. Mangroves often serve eroded by human interventions as biofilters and support in cleaning polluted (Badarudeen, 1997). An investigation waters. They build and develop the land, (Badarudeen et al, 1996) on the prevent floods, recharge groundwater, geochemical aspects of Kerala mangroves regulate water quality, turbidity and act as a has yielded some information about the storehouse of a plethora of plant and animal impact of organic (Sebastian and Chacko, species. The coastal lands of Kerala at 2006) and heavy metal pollution loads. many places are industrialized and urbanized, and as a result, these areas have Trace metal speciation receives prominent become repositories of anthropogenic role in the evaluation of toxic signals of inputs (Balachandran et al., 2003). aquatic environments. Metal speciation 128 ECO-CHRONICLE refers to the ability to define forms of a given present investigation (Fig.1). The Veli element or organometallic compound mangroves spread near the mouth of appear in a particular sample and at what Akkulam-Veli lake fed by a third order stream precise quantitative levels such chemical locally known as Kulathur thodu. A greater do occur (Krull, 1991). The relevance of part of the Veli mangroves is degraded and metal speciation in aquatic environments dominated by mangrove associated plants has been established by many workers like Acrostichum aureum. This mangrove (Chen et.al., 1976; Hong and Forstner, 1984; locates between north latitudes 80 30’ - 80 Das and Chakraborty, 1997; Parlak et al, 31’ 30’’ and east longitudes 760 52’ 30’’- 2006). Speciation studies are extensively 760 54’. At Kochi, mangroves occur as used in differentiating various chemical isolated patches and three such patches phases and determining the effects of (mangroves of Vypin, Malippuram and particular elements in the environments. Vallarpadam areas) of considerable areal Further, such investigations provide extent are chosen for the investigation. The information about the mobility, bio- mangroves of Kochi lie between north availability and factors controlling the latitudes 9 0 59’- 10 0 11’ 30’’ and east concentration of toxic metals in sediments longitudes 760 14’ - 760 16’. The Veli and as well as in water column (Calmano and Kochi mangroves receive contaminant Forstner, 1983; Sankaranarayanan et al. discharges from industrial, urban and 1986, Morgan and Stumm, 1995; Linnik and agricultural centres. The third mangrove Zaporozhets, 2003). The sequential environment, the Kannur mangroves lies extraction procedures also throw light onto the history of metal inputs, diagenetic transformations within the sediments and Figure 1. Major mangrove fields of Kerala in the reactivity of heavy metal species of both the Southwest coast of India after natural and anthropogenic origin Ramachandran and Mohan (1991), (Underwood, 1977; Nair et al, 1991). The showing areas selected for the present quantification of the chemical forms of study. metals in soils is essential for the environmental evaluations of soil pollution

(Gupta et al., 1996; Abollino et al 2002). Chiteri Scanning of literature reveals that, majority Kunjiamangalam of the work on metal speciation, has been 10 0 10 20 30km KANNUR Pappinisseri carried out in aquatic environments, Edakkad followed by biological materials and sediments (Das and Chakraborty, 1997; Nadakkavu Skvarla, 1998). Published accounts on the speciation aspects of mangrove sediments are very limited. The present paper LEGEND Major mangrove fields Chetwai highlights the status of some selected heavy Mangrove field selected for metals, viz., Cu, Co, Pb and Zn in the the present study mangrove sediments at Veli, Kochi and KOCHI Kannur regions of Kerala using speciation Kannamali studies. Kumarakom INDIA Study site characteristics

Quilon Three mangrove areas located at Veli, Kochi KERALA VELI and Kannur of Kerala State in the southwest Thiruvananthapuram coast of India have been chosen for the ECO-CHRONICLE 129 between north latitudes 120 3’ 30’’- 120 5’ predominates marginally over the LP (av; 30’’ and east longitudes 760 13’ - 760 14’ 42 ppm and SWP (av; 33 ppm); (Table 1). 30’’. The Kannur mangroves hardly receive The contents of Cu in various textural much pollutant from industrial and urban classes are of the order clayey sand (av; 56 centres as compared to the Veli and Kochi ppm) > sandy mud (av; 43 ppm) > muddy mangroves. These three mangrove sand (av; 40 ppm), silty sand (av; 37 ppm) > environments host a distinct set of sandy silt (av; 34 ppm) > sand (av; 33 ppm). mangrove vegetation. Sediments of Kochi exhibit Cu concentration of 12 ppm to 71 ppm (av; 41 METHODOLOGY ppm). Considering the various textural types at Kochi, the sandy silt and silty sand Sediment samples were collected from the accommodate higher contents of Cu (av; landward (LP), intermediate (IP) and 47 ppm) than sandy mud or muddy sand shallow water profiles (SWP) of Veli, Kochi (av; 36 ppm). Both Veli and Kochi sediments and Kannur mangroves. From the former show predominance of Cu in IP over LP and two profiles sediments were obtained by SWP. The enrichment of this metal in the penetrating a PVC pipe of 10cm diameter sediments of Kannur, in general, varies into the sediment blanket after removing the between 19 ppm and 77 ppm (av; 47 ppm). litter at the surface. A stainless steel van The sandy mud reveals an average Cu Veen grab was used to collect sediments content of 67 ppm whereas the muddy sand from the shallow water profiles. The top 5cm and silty sand accounts for 27 ppm of the thick sediment was carefully collected and metal. preserved in deep freezer in pre-labeled polyethylene bags till the time of analysis. In Veli mangroves Cu does not occur in An amount of 0.5g of the dried (at 55 ± 3o C) detectable levels in the carbonate forms both powdered sediment sample was digested in IP and SWP; but LP records about 0.82% using HClO4, HF and HNO3 acid mixture and of Cu (Table2, Fig. 2). The Cu concentration analysed for the metals Cu, Co, Pb and Zn. in lithogenous fraction is rather very high Aliquots of the samples (5g dry weight) were and this enhancement in concentration (av; subjected to sequential chemical extraction 79.69%) is accompanied by corresponding following Tessier et al (1979). The metal decrease in the other four species. The concentrations in various fractions such as estimated level of Cu associated with exchangeable, carbonate bound, organic lithogenous bound form of Kochi sediments matter bound, Fe-Mn oxide bound and reveals an average value of 62.99%. A residual were detected using Atomic gradual augmentation in mean Cu content Absorption Spectrometer (AAS Model PE is persistently observed from exchangeable 3110). The precision of the analytical to carbonate, reducible, organic and lattice procedure was checked using triplicate bounds. Exchangeable fraction analysis of reference rock standard G2. The demonstrates below detection values along standard deviations were ± 5% for Cu and LP and exhibits an average of 1.65% in the Pb and ± 12% for Co and Zn. other two profiles. However, the mean content of Cu in the carbonate, organic and RESULTS Fe/Mn phases are 7.95%, 13.55% and 14.42%, respectively. The residual fraction Copper of Kannur mangroves contains comparatively low Cu values (av; 54.45%). The metal Cu averages about 40 ppm (20 A distinct feature noted in the speciation of ppm to 81 ppm) in the bulk sediments of Kannur mangroves is that, this region Veli and shows that, the IP (av; 46 ppm) stands out for higher Cu accumulation in 130 ECO-CHRONICLE Fe/Mn (av; 16.12%), carbonate (av; 11.55%) stations, indicating the ability of this metal and exchangeable (av; 8.1%) bound forms to change itself under different compared to the same species of Kochi and environmental conditions. Veli environments. Table 3 shows a comparative evaluation of the heavy metal Cobalt estimations of the present study with that of other mangroves and estuarine The distribution of Co in the bulk sediments environments. The proportions of various of Veli mangroves varies from 11 ppm to 55 Cu species vary between the different ppm (av; 30 ppm) (Table 1). However,

Table 1. Averages and ranges of sand, silt, clay and heavy metals in the sediments of Veli, Kochi and Kannur mangroves

Sand Silt Clay Co Pb Cu Zn Locations (%) (ppm) Veli Mangroves 48 33 19 37 51 42 63 Landward profile 9-97 2-72 2-35 20-55 16-87 23-61 44-80 73 13 14 29 54 46 73 Intermediate profile 47-89 5-23 4-31 20-46 16-103 23-81 44-121 70 18 12 19 44 33 52 Shallow water profile 16-85 5-53 4-31 11-31 16-63 20-65 28-90 62 21 17 30 48 40 62 Overall 9-97 2-43 2-35 11-55 16-103 20-81 22-86 Kochi Mangroves 72 19 9 96 38 44 40 Landward profile 27-93 5-50 0.8-28 44-122 20-49 12-69 15-83 58 29 13 93 34 49 37 Intermediate profile 27-85 11-56 2-23 55-128 11-56 14-71 17-61 67 22 11 91 26 31 40 Shallow water profile 38-90 8-41 2-23 12-141 18-39 15-58 23-91 65 23 11 93 31 41 39 Overall 27-91 6-56 1-28 12-141 11-56 12-71 5-91 Kannur Mnagroves 54 27 19 48 28 52 67 Landward profile 30-80 12-38 8-32 30-70 22-39 19-77 58-75 50 32 18 50 30 47 65 Intermediate profile 24-74 20-47 5-31 20-70 22-39 25-73 48-78 56 28 16 58 26 41 67 Shallow water profile 26-79 13-50 8-25 35-70 17-31 24-77 48-87 53 29 18 52 28 47 66 Overall 24-80 12-50 5-32 20-70 17-39 19-77 48-87 ECO-CHRONICLE 131 Table 2. Average concentration of heavy metals in various chemical phases of Veli, Kochi and Kannur mangroves (values are expressed in percentage)

Locations Metals Easily Carbo Fe/Mn Organic Lattice analysed Exchan -nate bound bound bound gable bound Veli mangroves Co 0.32 0.49 11.54 1.42 86.3 Landward Pb 7.15 6.7 5.23 0.62 80.29 profile Cu 12.18 0.82 6.9 3.03 76.96 Zn 1.66 4.64 16.64 9.43 67.61 Co BDL 1.82 5.71 8.19 82.88 Intermediate Pb 9.76 5.8 7.91 2.27 74.26 profile Cu 5.96 BDL 12.2 12.47 69.37 Zn 1.59 3.64 16.31 8.33 70.13 Co BDL 19.77 5.91 13.37 60.95 Shallow water Pb 3.75 13.53 7.03 2.81 72.88 profile Cu 1.97 BDL 4.38 0.91 92.74 Zn 1.57 3.53 15.29 7.99 69.13 Kochi mangroves Co 0.53 12.25 6.4 8.9 71.95 Landward Pb 2.84 2.34 7.21 0.31 87.3 profile Cu BDL 7.62 10 7.53 74.85 Zn 0.11 1.17 1.98 2.9 93.84 Co 2.87 2.05 5.58 8.41 81.09 Intermediate Pb 9.64 9.24 5.42 1.97 73.7 profile Cu 1.15 6.31 21.7 8.1 62.74 Zn 0.11 2.39 1.7 1.55 94.25 Co 1.18 4.01 5.39 7.67 81.75 Shallow water Pb BDL 10.5 3.82 6.03 80.27 profile Cu 2.14 9.93 11.55 25.01 51.38 Zn 0.4 6.35 4.53 28.22 60.5 Kannur mangroves Co BDL 3.21 3.98 5.58 87.23 Landward Pb 4.68 5.04 14.13 11.97 64.18 profile Cu 6.62 11.65 9.03 12.44 60.27 Zn 3.99 13.07 9.17 4.72 69.05 Co 3.14 3.14 5.94 2.69 85.09 Intermediate Pb 0.59 4.55 4.45 0.66 89.75 profile Cu 17.7 17.7 15.14 9.63 39.83 Zn BDL BDL 16.25 9.79 73.95 Co BDL BDL 13.05 14.19 72.76 Shallow water Pb 2.68 6.55 6.88 5.24 78.65 profile Cu BDL 5.33 24.19 7.23 63.25 Zn BDL 0.26 9.44 5.82 84.48 BDL - Below Detectable Limit 132 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 3. Comparative evaluation of the heavy metal estimations of the present study with that of other mangrove and estuarine environments.

Cu Co Pb Zn Sample Reference (ppm) Veli mangroves Present study 40 30 48 62 Kochi mangroves Present study 41 93 31 39 Kannur mangroves Present study 47 52 28 66 Badarudeen etal, Kumarakam mangroves (1996) 48 118 236 Cauvery mangroves Seralathan (1979) 72 16 81 92 Cooleroon mangroves Seralathan (1979) 95 14 62 119 Central Vembanadu Estuary Padmalal (1992) 31 20 14 90 Vellar estuary Mohan (1990) 49 48 196 Near shore sediments Wedephol (1978) 48 95 Deep sea Clays Turekian (1972) 45 19 95 Average crustal concentration Baker (1990) 55 25 13 70

Figure 2. Proportion of the geochemical forms of heavy metal (Cu, Co, Pb and Zn) in the sediments of different mangrove environments.

100 100

80 80

60 60 Lat tice bound Lat ticebo und 40 Organic bound 40 Or ganic bound Fe/Mn bound Fe/Mn bound Cu, ppm Cu, 20 Carbonate bound Co, ppm Co, 20 Carbonat eboun d Easily exchang eable Easilyexchangeable 0 0

100 100

80 80

60 60 Lat tice bound Lattice bound 40 Organ ic bound 40 Organic bou nd Fe/Mn bound Fe/ Mn bound ppm Zn, 20 Carbonate bound 20 Car bonate bound

Pb, ppm Pb, Easilyexchangeab le Easily exchangeable 0 0

sediments in Kochi mangroves register detectable levels either in intermediate or wide range of Co values 12 - 141 ppm (av; shallow water profiles. Apart from residual 93 ppm). This metal shows a minimum of form Cobalt occurs in shallow water 20 ppm to a maximum of 70 ppm (av; sediments in intermediate levels in the 52ppm) in Kannur mangroves. The carbonate (19.77%) and organic carbon landward profile of Veli mangroves shows (OC) (13.37%) bound forms. Cobalt in the 0.32% of Co in the easily exchangeable Fe/Mn phase of sediments of LP is rather phase. However, it does not occur in high (11.54%) compared to the IP (5.71%) ECO-CHRONICLE 133 and SWP (5.91%); (Table.2, Fig. 2). The Speciation studies reveal that on an average, reported levels of Co associated with the exchangeable, carbonate and Fe/Mn exchangeable fractions along LP, IP and phases of Pb are comparable, in which the SWP of Kochi mangroves are 0.53%, 2.87% former expresses an average content of and 1.18%, respectively. The content of Co 6.89%, while the latter two manifest an in the carbonate bound form (12.25%) average of 8.67% and 6.72%, respectively shows approximately 3 and 6 fold increase (Table 2). The lithogenous fraction than SWP and IP. The organically linked dominates several folds higher than other phase of Co tends to show no significant fractions and accounts for an average of variation along profiles. The dominant part 75.81% (Fig 2). In Kochi mangroves, the of this metal is linked with lattice bound form content of carbonate bound Pb in LP and IP (LP=71.96%, IP=81.09% and SWP = are almost equal to that of exchangeable 81.75%). The LP and SWP of Kannur phases. The residual fraction (av; 80.42%) sediments contain Co well below detection predominates over all other species and level in the exchangeable fraction and the reducible bound form exhibits an exhibits 3.14% in the IP. The carbonate average value of 5.48%. Speciation results bound form of Co in the LP and IP contains of Kannur mangroves, shows a gradual 3.21% and 3.14% of Co, respectively and decrease from residual phase to no part of this metal occurs in the SWP. The exchangeable phase, but shows organically bound metal fraction along SWP abundance in lattice bound phase (av; shows 2 fold and 5 fold higher values 77.52%). compared to its concentration along LP and IP. Similar to Veli and Kochi, the lithogenous Zinc bound fractions of Kannur mangroves show higher values. The concentration of Zn in Veli mangroves exhibits variation from 22 ppm to 86 ppm Lead (av; 62 ppm) and their distribution in IP (av; 73 ppm) is higher than LP (av; 63 ppm) and The sediments of Veli generally register SWP (av; 62 ppm); (Table 1). Kochi wide range of Pb from 16ppm to 103ppm sediments show wide variation of Zn from (av; 48ppm) and hardly show much change 15 ppm to 91 ppm (av; 39 ppm) which is along the three profiles (LP=51ppm; about 1.5 times less than that of Veli IP=54ppm; SWP=45ppm) (Table 1). The sediments. Sediments of Kannur yield Zn northeastern segment in the Veli mangrove concentration of 48 ppm to 87 ppm (av; 66 records low Pb concentrations in the three ppm). Highest amount of Zn is detected in profiles which might be attributed to the sandy mud (av; 67ppm) followed by muddy predominance of sand in the sediments. At sand (av; 60ppm) and silty sand (av; 27 Kochi mangroves, Pb varies from 11ppm to ppm). A comparative evaluation of Zn in the 56ppm (av; 31ppm); and exhibits the order three mangroves subjected to the present of abundance LP (av; 38ppm) >IP (av; study reveals that its average concentration 34ppm) >SWP (av; 26ppm). Of the various is almost equal in Veli and Kannur textural facies, Pb predominates in sandy mangroves and exhibits nearly 2 fold mud (av; 39ppm) followed by silty sand (av; increases in Kochi mangroves. 36ppm), muddy sand (av; 30ppm) and sandy silt (av; 21ppm). The sediments of Exchangeable Zn shows below detection Kannur mangroves exhibit average Pb level along the IP of Veli and IP and SWP of content of 28ppm (17ppm to 39ppm) and Kannur. Its content at Kochi is meagre and shows 1.5 times decrease compared to Veli 5 to 7 times lower than Veli and Kannur sediments. The LP and SWP show almost mangroves. However, the Zn in the equal amounts of Pb. 134 ECO-CHRONICLE carbonate bound of Veli and Kochi of Kochi mangroves, though available in environments are almost similar and substantially low amounts. The sand shows an average of 3.14% and 3.3% dominant textural facies appears to be the respectively, (Table 2; Fig.2). Though wide predominant contributing factor in ranges (1.55% to 28.22%) of organically controlling the speciation of Co. bound Zn are found along the profiles of the three mangrove regions, they generally, Zinc bears strong positive affinity with exhibit an average Zn value of 6.77-10.89%. organic carbon and Fe. Shimp et al. (1970, Among the three stations, Kochi mangroves 1971) have stated that OC has a prominent reveal low amount of reducible bound Zn role in concentrating Zn through biological (av; 2.73 %) whereas the other two stations processes. Among the three mangroves record appreciably higher values. studied, the highest Zn concentration is found either with silt or clay dominated DISCUSSION textural facies, a feature also observed elsewhere Padmalal (1992). The The ability to accumulate heavy metals in abundance of Zn in mud dominant various chemical phases of sediments sediments is attributed to the increased greatly depends on particle/grain size surface area of fine particulates (Williams composition of the sediment and the et. al, 1978). physico chemical conditions like turbulence, temperature, pH and Cobalt exhibits a strong linear relationship concentration of organic and inorganic with OC and Fe in Veli and Kannur complexing agents (Calmano and Forstner, mangroves which might be due to partial 1983; Abollino et al., 2002). Particles of enrichment of Co by the decaying of detrital and anthropogenic origin coated with mangrove detritus (Szalay, 1964). The hydrous Fe/Mn oxides affect the interaction positive correlation of Fe and Co could be processes (Forstner 1976; Jones and due to the desorption of Co by hydrated

Browser, 1978; Shajan 2001; Balachandran Fe 2O 3 (Krauskopf, 1956). Co is less et al., 2005; Isacs et al., 2005). Estuarine efficiently desorbed from oxides of Fe and reactivity is such that exchangeable species Mn than it is from clay minerals. The Co are subject to severe changes (De la content in the mangrove sediments is Guardia, 1995). The metal Pb generally controlled by ionic partitioning in clay shows considerable affinity in the mineral lattice and also by the sorption/ exchangeable form and occurs in all desorption mechanisms. A similar stations except the SWP of Kochi observation was also found earlier by mangroves. Exchangeable Cu is present in Kalesha (1980) for the Kakinada – all stations except the IP and SWP of Kochi Pentakota shelf sediments. and Kannur mangroves. The distribution of Copper in Veli mangrove sediments shows different metal species appears to be marginal co-existence with Fe and Kochi regulated by the presence of other strongly mangroves impart no such specific binding phases (Harrison and relationship. Sediments of Kannur Rapsomanikis, 1989). Copper is mangroves exhibit strong linear association distinguished by its biological regulation in between Cu, Fe and OC. Seralathan (1979) sediments (Louma and Jenne, 1977), obtained similar type of dissimilar sustains continued bio-removal in behaviour of Cu with Fe and OC in the mangrove environments as well as in mangrove sediments of Cauvery river estuaries. The form of Co is below detection basin. Cu in the carbonate stage is present level in certain profiles of Veli and Kannur in the three profiles of the mangroves mangroves, whereas it occurs in all profiles studied, but the amounts are slightly ECO-CHRONICLE 135 elevated than the exchangeable bounds. SWP or they may be desorbed from The metal species reflect the status of sediments when it comes in contact with sedimentary processes that influence saline waters. metal behaviour and reveal the natural levels as well as those superimposed by external The metal accumulation in Fe/Mn phase is stresses (Tsunoda and Fuwa, 1987). In the comparatively high and in general, occupies light of the speciation studies, it is observed second position, next to lattice bound forms. that, the Cu linked with OC phase is found Although no definite conclusions can be distributed in the sediments of three drawn as to why uniform metal levels are environments, at an elevated level maintained within this phase, the role of compared to exchangeable and carbonate adsorption of Fe/Mn flocs determines metal bound forms. behaviour under oxidizing conditions. It can also be noted that, anthropogenic effects Lead gives strong linear relation with OC are not readily reflected in the reducible and Fe. Pb may be carried in acidic solutions phase alone. Under oxidizing environments, and in alkaline environments. The Pb ion the relative variations in the fraction of become hydrolised and co-precipitated as metals in sediments exhibit only minor hydroxides of more abundant elements or changes. It can also be inferred that, neither absorbed onto clays. Pb is adsorbed more changing environments nor changing grain strongly and more consistently by hydrated size from sand to mud has any influence on ferric oxides. Appreciable amounts of Pb the level of this metal fraction. The present enter into aquatic environments through investigation reveals that, exceptionally high weathering of rocks (Paul and Pillai, 1983). association of Co, Pb, Cu and Zn is found The above conclusion can very well be in the lithogenous phase compared to the ascertained from speciation studies that, other chemical phases. This is in more than 60-90% of Pb in the mangroves agreement with the earlier findings of Paul of the three environments is bound with and Pillai, 1983 in the trace metal studies lithogenous fractions. The selective build of some tropical rivers of Kerala. While up of Pb is observed in all fractions of the considering the three mangrove three mangroves. Pb and Zn also show environments together, the lattice bound enhanced amounts in the organic phase metal fraction varies between 40% and and Zn is known for its affinity for detrital, 90%. Detailed examination of the relation bio-matter on sediment beds, especially in of various metals bound with lithogenous the mud dominated types. The organic phase of the mangrove sediments reveals bound Pb exemplifies progressive that approximately 80% of Co, Pb and Zn enhanced concentrations from LP to SWP and 65 % Cu are found associated with of Veli and Kochi mangrove sediments, residual fraction. whereas Kannur mangroves are totally devoid of such distribution pattern. The ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS peculiar behaviour of Pb and Zn compared with Cu and Co illustrate its high tendency The authors thank the Director, School of for incorporation within the facies of existing Marine Sciences, Cochin University of sediment types. The metals Cu, Co and Pb Science and Technology for facilities. The exhibit slightly elevated concentrations first author is grateful to the Director, Centre along IP than SWP owing to either particle for Earth Science Studies (CESS), control or chemical removal mechanism. Thiruvananthapuram for facilities and The winnowing activity of tidal waves encouragements. Thanks are also due to removes the above trace metals scavenged Dr. D. Padmalal, Scientist, Environmental by the finer particles from the LP towards Science Division, CESS for critically reading 136 ECO-CHRONICLE the manuscript and putting valuable Contract Rep, U.S. Army Engineers Water suggestions. ways Experimental station Vicksburg, 221p.

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ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 2. June 2008, pp: 139 - 146.

MONITORING THE REDUCTION OF POLLUTANTS IN THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT PLANT (STP) AND EFFECTS OF RAW SEWAGE AND TREATED EFFLUENTS ON THE WATER QUALITY OF THE BUCKINGHAM CANAL AT KALPAKKAM (INDIA)

Yudhistra Kumar, A. and Vikram Reddy, M.

Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, Kalapet, U.T. of Pondicherry.

ABSTRACT Conventional extended aeration activated sludge process at Kalpakkam, located on the east coast of Tamil Nadu in India, generates 0.6 million gallons of sewage per day. These water quality parameters were monitored monthly during pre-monsoon – 2005 to post-monsoon – 2006. Secondary treatment of sewage is known to reduce pollutants considerably. The present study reports on the reduction in major pollutants - It was concluded that the Electical Conductivity (EC) of Raw Sewage (RS) reduced with Reduction Efficiency (RE) of 13 % in Aeration Tank (AT) and to 26 % in Secondary Clarifier (SC). The average Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Bio Chemical

Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Nitrates (NO3), Phosphates (PO4), Sulphate -) (SO4), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Hardness, Sodium (Na), potassium (K), Chloride (Cl and - Bicarbonates (HCO3 ) in influent RS were also reduced considerably at the each phase of the treatment, at AT being reduced with RE of 27, 18, 62, 36, 31, 32, 13, 13, 19, 24, 13, 18, 18 and 21 % and of 35, 80, 92, 65, 57, 69, 37, 32, 39, 38, 46, 53, 52 and 47 % at SC, whereas pH, Dissolved 2- - Oxygen (DO), Carbonate (CO3 ) and Alkalinity in influent RS increased by 7, 81, 40 and 22 % in AT and to 12, 87, 63 and 44 % respectively, in SC. These parameters showed considerable spatial variation across different seasons. The metal concentrations of Zinc (Zn), Lead (Pb), Copper (Cu), Nickel (Ni) and Chromium (Cr) in the influent RS were reduced considerably at the each phase of the treatment, at AT with the RE being 17, 13, 14, 33 and 31 %, respectively, and in SC, it being 67, 73, 72, 87 and 47 %, respectively, showing the importance of the STP in the removal of heavy metals.The DO was higher in the upstream of the TE and RS outfall points in the canal, but all the other chemical parameters and heavy metals increased in the downstream compared to that of the upstream of the outfall points of the RS and TE outfall points in the Buckingham canal at padhupattinam. All these parameters showed spatio-temporal variation.

Key Words: STP, Raw Sewage, Reduction of Pollutants, Treated Effluents, Pyscio chemical parameters, Heavy Metals.

INTRODUCTION are very vital for the wellbeing of human society. About one third of the potable water Environmental degradation caused by requirement of the world is obtained from uncontrolled urbanization due to population surface water sources like canals, rivers, explosion, resulting from migration to urban lakes and reservoirs. The volume of areas especially metropolitan cities, municipal wastewater generation is higher manifested in worsening the water quality in the urban areas, for example 2228 ml/d of both surface as well as ground water that in Mumbai followed by 1383 ml/d in Kolkota 140 ECO-CHRONICLE and 1270 ml/d in Delhi. About 6351 million replenishment of DO. The wastewater cubic meter of wastewater is being treatment in STP removes the BOD and generated every year from 212 class I and COD and minimizes the adverse impact on 242 class II towns in India, of which only the receiving water bodies (Ahsan et al., 36% in class I cities and 14% in class II 2001). Studies on water quality in relation to towns are collected, due to limited treatment nutrient and BOD and COD parameters of facilities (Thawale et al., 2006). The Indian rivers receiving municipal sewage indiscriminate and unscientific disposal of and effluents have been carried out by both municipal raw sewage and treated earlier investigators - River Ganga (Sinha effluents, the point source pollution, into the et al., 1991), Gomati (Asthana and Singh, lotic and lentic aquatic systems affects the 1993) and Yamuna (Saxena and Chauhan, water quality causing immense problems 1993). related to the health of people and aquatic ecosystems(Girija et al., 2007). The The occurrence of heavy metals in the municipal sewage, either raw or treated, municipal raw sewage and treated effluents have higher concentrations of nutrients such is of concern because their discharge into as NO3, PO4, SO4, and BOD, COD, and receiving water bodies are hazardous as cations and anions and other pollutants - they have severe effects on aquatic heavy metals such as zinc, nickel, cupper, environment and public health (Oliver and chromium and lead, which when released Cosgrave, 1974). These can be removed can contribute to the pollution loading of the from the raw sewage during the primary receiving water bodies and deteriorate the sedimentation and activated sludge water quality of surface waters, particularly treatment process of the sewage. Their at downstream (Marti et al., 2004), and result Removal Efficiency (RE) at the primary in their eutrophication causing a variety of sedimentation stage is dependent upon adverse ecological effects, such as their presence in an insoluble form or in a reducing species diversity and richness. form that permits it to bind to the settle able However, the effects of municipal sewage solids. Those heavy metals present in and effluents on the quality of these water soluble form are little affected by primary bodies have received inadequate attention sedimentation, which may be removed by (Srivastava, 1992). the secondary clarifier or biological treatment of sewage. Information on the RE When the sewage is released into water of heavy metals from the municipal raw bodies, the active degradation (oxidation) sewage through treatment process is too process of organic matter in the water little (Kulbat et al., 2003) and also on consumes the DO, leading to its rapid temporal variation of these metals in the depletion, resulting in Biochemical Oxygen receiving water bodies in tropical countries Demand (BOD). The BOD refers to the particularly in Asia including India. Mitra and amount of DO needed by water to Gupta (2000) assessed the heavy metals completely oxidize its organic pollution load. such as Zn, Pb and Cr in the raw and treated The dissolved organic matter in a given sewage effluents from some selected volume of water is also oxidized chemically treatment plants with in the Calcutta to CO2 and H2O by strong chemical oxidation metropolitan area. Gueguen et al. (2000) using DO, brings about the Chemical reported the effects of effluents from STP Oxygen Demand (COD). The suspended on the metal contents of Vistula River in substances, nutrients and organic load Poland, while Fernandez et al. (2003) contribute to COD polluting the canals, reported the spatio-temporal variation of rivers, lakes and other water bodies. It is heavy metal contents of Llobregat River in also used as a measure of general Spain. The main objectives of the present pollution. Wastewater with a high BOD and study is to monitor the reduction of COD when released in to the natural pollutants in the sewage treatment plant and receiving water bodies damages these the spatio-temporal effects of the municipal systems, unless there is a means for rapid sewage both raw and treated effluent on ECO-CHRONICLE 141 the water quality parameters on the surface aforementioned water quality parameters water of the receiving water body, the during the present study. Sampling point - 1 Buckingham canal at Kalpakkam on the is of the influent municipal raw sewage (RS) east coast of Tamil Nadu (India). entering the STP; sampling points - 2 and 3 (Figure. 1) were chosen at the aeration tank Description of the study area and sampling (AT) and the later point at the secondary sites clarifier (SC) of the STP. Design parameters of the STP in terms of capacity, design flow The study was conducted at Kalpakkam and detention capacity is shown in the (12º 30" N and 80º 10" E), a small town Table. 1. Another three sampling points - 4, situated 65 km south of Chennai, the capital 5 and 6 were chosen in the Buckingham of Tamil Nadu (India), is the residence to canal, the 4th one being the outfall point of more than seventy five thousand people. treated effluent (TE-OP), 5 th one is its The Buckingham canal is a salt water downstream point (TE-DS) and the 6th one navigation canal, running parallel to the is its upstream point (TE-US). Three more Coromandal Coast (Figure - 1), its first sampling points were chosen in the segment was constructed from Chennai Pudhupattinam region - 7, 8 and 9 were also north to Ennore long back, and chosen in the canal, the 7th one being the subsequently extended down south up to outfall point of raw sewage (RS-OP), the 8th Villupuram, passing through the Kalpakkam one being the downstream of the raw Township. This town produces 0.6 million sewage (RS-DS) and the 9th one was the gallons of sewage per day, which is treated upstream of the raw sewage (RS-US) in the with an extended aeration activated sludge canal; each of the points were about half a treatment process. The treated effluents and kilometer away from the respective outfall the raw sewage and storm water from points (Figure. 2). Pudhupattinam town are released into the canal. The outfall points of the treated MATERIALS AND METHODS effluents and raw sewage in Buckingham canal and their up and down stream points Sampling collection and its analysis in the canal were monitored seasonally for Samples of influent RS and of the AT and Figure 1. Extended Aeration Activated Sludge Treatment Plant (STP) of Kalpakkam Township 142 ECO-CHRONICLE Figure 2. Map showing the various transported to the laboratory and were sampling points - at influent raw sewage analyzed for pH, EC, TDS, TSS, BOD, COD,

(RS) and at Aeration Tank (AT) and DO, NO3, PO4, SO4, Ca, Mg, Hardness, Na, - Secondary Clarifier (SC) in STP, and outfall K, Cl , HCO3, CO3, Alkalinity, and heavy point of RS on Pudhupattinam side and that metals - Zn, Pb, Cu, Ni and Cr (APHA, 1998). of Treated Effluent (TE) on Kalpakkam side and their respective upstreams (US) and Statistical analyses down streams (DS) in the Buckingham canal. The data on spatio-temporal variations of wastewater quality parameters of influent RS and TE and that of outfall points and at the down and up stream points were statistically computed for Average, ANOVA and Bray-curtis Cluster Analysis was computed to find out the similarities between the various sampling points of RS and TE in the canal.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Monitoring the Activated Sludge treatment plant showed changes in wastewater quality parameters during treatment process

During the study the average EC, TDS and TSS decreased during the treatment process. The pH in influent RS was 6.5, which increased by 7 and 12 % respectively, in AT and SC, whereas EC in influent RS was 1320 μs/cm that decreased with a removal efficiency (RE) of 10 % in AT and to 26 % in SC and the TDS and TSS in influent RS were decreased by RE of 27 and 18 % and by 35 and 80 % respectively, in AT and SC of the STP, and at the outfall points and SC. The pH and EC showed significant that of the upstream and downstream of the spatial variation across different sampling canal at both Kalpakkam and points in influent RS and STP (ANOVA: P < Pudhupattinam areas i.e., the treated 0.05; F = 6.896748, df = 2 and P < 0.05; F = effluents and raw sewage areas were 10.90071, df = 2, respectively), whereas EC collected each month during the study and TSS showed significant temporal period (July 2005 to December 2006), variation across the seasons in influent RS

Table 1. Design parameters of the Activiatated Sludge Treatment Plant in terms of capacity, design flow and detention capacity at Kalpakkam

Sl. No. Design parameters Capacity Design Flow Detention Time 1 Inlet chamber 4.92 m3 1.25 m3/hour 20 seconds 2 Screen chamber 3 m3 1 m3/hour 15 seconds 3 Grit Chamber 21.8 m3 1300 m3/day 60 seconds 4 Aeration Tank 2548 m3 - 20 hours 5 Secondary Clarifier 635 m3 - 4 hours ECO-CHRONICLE 143 and STP (ANOVA: P < 0.05; F = 2.313585, df = 17 and P < 0.05; F = 4.270149, df = 17, = 17 and P < 0.05, F = 3.301963, df = 17, respectively). respectively). The treatment of sewage reduced the - - The RE of pollutants such as BOD and COD Anions - Cl and HCO3 and increased the 2- caused increase in DO in the treated RS. It CO3 and Alkalinity considerably. The - - 2- was found that the BOD and COD in the average cations such as Cl , HCO3 , CO3 influent RS were 279 and 399 mg/l and Alkalinity were 297, 178, 1.3 and 127 - respectively, which reduced considerably at mg/l in influent RS. The Cl and HCO3 were the each phase of the treatment, at AT being reduced during the treatment by RE of 18 reduced by RE of 62 and 36 % and at SC by and 21 % % respectively, at the AT and by 52 92 and 65 %, respectively. The DO in influent and 47 % respectively, in the SC, whereas 2- RS was only 0.6.mg/l that increased at AT CO3 and alkalinity increased by 40 and 22 and SC by 81 and 87 %, respectively. The % in AT and by 63 and 44 respectively, in reduction in these pollutants at AT and SC SC. The chlorides showed significant showed considerable temporal variation temporal variation across different seasons across different seasons. The BOD and in influent RS and STP (P < 0.05; F = COD showed significant temporal variation 2.741023, df = 17). across the seasons in influent RS and STP - (ANOVA: P < 0.05; F = 2.343428, df = 17 The Heavy metals - Zn, Pb, Cu, Ni and Cr: and P < 0.05, F = 2.41197, df = 17, The concentrations of Zn, Pb, Cu, Ni and Cr respectively). were 0.12, 0.063, 0.57, 0.63 and 0.019 ppm, respectively in the influent RS, which were

The nutrient pollutants - NO3, PO4 and SO4 reduced considerably at the each phase of in influent RS were 42, 1.6 and 45 mg/l. the treatment, at AT being reduced by RE of respectively, which were reduced 17, 13, 14, 33 and 31 %, respectively, and in considerably at the each phase of the SC by a RE of 67, 73, 72, 87 and 47 %, treatment, at AT being reduced by RE of 31, respectively. The Pb, Ni and total Cr 32 and 13 % and at SC by 57, 69 and 37 %, concentrations showed significant spatial respectively. These nutrient pollutants at AT variation across different stations in influent and SC showed considerable temporal RS and STP (ANOVA: P < 0.05; F = 14.0373, variation across different seasons. The df = 2; P < 0.05; F = 18.23113, df = 2 and P <

NO 3, PO 4 and SO 4 showed significant 0.05; F = 14.20143, df = 2, respectively). seasonal variation in RS and at AT and SC of STP (ANOVA: P < 0.05; F = 3.600933, df = Seasonal Effects of Municipal RS and TE 17; P < 0.05; F = 3.256859, df = 17 and P < on the Water Quality of the Canal 0.05; F = 2.738866, df = 17, respectively).

The Cations - Ca, Mg, Na, K and Hardness The pH, Electrical conductivity, TDS and TSS were 31, 31, 193, 134 and 38 mg/l in influent were found higher in the downstream than RS and reduced by RE of 13, 19, 24, 13 and that of the upstream of the out-fall points of 18 % respectively, at the AT and by 32, 39, both raw sewage as well as treated effluents 38, 46 and 53 % respectively, in the SC The in the canal. These parameters were higher cations showed temporal variation across in the summer and lower in the monsoon different seasons at AT and SC in STP. Ca across all the sampling points in the canal concentration showed significant spatial water. The pH showed significant temporal variation across different sampling points variation across different seasons in RS in influent RS and STP (ANOVA: P < 0.05; F outfall zone of the canal (ANOVA: P < 0.05, F = 7.743201, df = 2), Mg and monovalent K = 4.467305, df = 17); EC showed spatial concentration showed significant temporal variation across different points of RS and variation across different seasons in RS TE (ANOVA: P < 0.05, F = 3.691053, df = 2 and STP (ANOVA: P < 0.05; F = 3.873451, df and P < 0.05, F = 7.095087, df = 2, respectively). The EC and TDS showed 144 ECO-CHRONICLE temporal variation across different seasons downstream in the canal (ANOVA: P < 0.05, in TE outfall zone of the canal (ANOVA: P < F = 3.986933, df = 17). 0.05, F = 3.639576, df = 17 and P < 0.05, F = 4.266942, df = 17, respectively). TSS Based on Bray-curtis Cluster Analysis (CA) showed spatial variation across different of BOD, COD, DO and Nutrients - NO3, PO4 points in TE outfall zone of the canal (ANOVA: and SO 4, the clustering procedure P < 0.05, F = 8.288868, df = 2). generated two groups of sites in a very convincing way, as the sites in these groups The BOD and COD contents were found have similar characteristic features and higher in the downstream than that of the natural background source types. Cluster 1 upstream of the outfall points of raw sewage comprised of sites of RS-OP, RS-US and as well as treated effluents, of the canal; RS-DS and Cluster 2 included sites of TE- the DO showed the inverse trend. The OP, TE-US and TE-DS corresponding to a concentrations of BOD and COD were lower pollution compared to the previous higher during summer season, which cluster. decreased during monsoon season, causing increased DO that decreased The concentrations of Cations - Ca, Mg, during the summer in the canal water. BOD Hardness, Na and K were higher in the values showed significant temporal downstream than that of the upstream of variation across different seasons in TE- the outfall points of RS as well as TE of the OP, and upstream and downstream in the canal. These cations were higher during canal (ANOVA: P < 0.05, F = 2.343428, df = summer, except the monovalent K being 17) and also spatial variation across higher during winter, and were lower during different stations in RS outfall zone (ANOVA: monsoon in the canal water. The Ca P < 0.05, F = 2.850045, df = 2). The COD concentrations showed significant temporal showed significant spatial variation across and spatial variations across different different points of TE outfall zone of the canal seasons and sampling points in TE outfall (ANOVA: P < 0.05, F = 2.13162, df = 2); the zone (ANOVA: P < 0.05, F = 3.519485, df = DO showed significant temporal variation 17 and P < 0.05, F = 10.46524, df = 2, across different seasons in TE outfall zone respectively), and across different seasons of the canal (ANOVA: P < 0.05, F = 2.801762, in RS and its upstream and downstream of df = 17); and spatial variation across the canal (P < 0.05, F = 2.810108, df = 17); different stations in RS outfall zone of the the Mg showed significant temporal canal (ANOVA: P < 0.05, F = 5.795328, df = variations across different seasons in TE- 2). OP (P < 0.05, F = 3.724344, df = 17) and spatial variation across different stations in

The Nutrients - NO3, PO4 and SO4 contents RS-OP zone in the canal (P < 0.05, F = were higher in the downstream than that of 11.4672, df = 2). The Na showed significant the upstream of the outfall points of raw spatial variation across different stations in sewage as well as treated effluent point of RS-OP and its upstream and downstream the canal. The NO3 and PO4 contents were in the canal (P < 0.05, F = 8.534281, df = 2) higher during summer than that of and the K showed significant temporal monsoon; however, the SO4 was higher variation across different seasons in TE- during winter and lower during summer in OP zone of the canal (P < 0.05, F = 3.820922, the canal water. Nitrate showed significant df = 17). difference across different points in RS - - outfall zone (P < 0.05, F = 5.898646, df = 2). The concentrations of the Anions - Cl , HCO3 2- The PO4 showed significant (ANOVA: P < , CO3 and Alkalinity were higher across the 0.05) differences across different points in RS-OP zone than that of the TE-OP zone, TE (F = 9.821486, df = 2) and RS outfall and at the downstream than that of the zone (F = 6.205921, df = 2) and the SO4 upstream of the outfall points of both RS as showed significant variation across different well as TE outfall zones of the canal. The 2- seasons in TE-OP and its upstream and concentrations of Cl-, HCO3-and CO3 were ECO-CHRONICLE 145 higher during summer, but the alkalinity was 15.79215, df = 5, respectively) while Ni also higher during winter, and these were lower showed significant variation in RS outfall during monsoon in the canal water. The Cl- zone (P < 0.05, F = 14.81622, df = 5) of the and HCO3 showed significant temporal canal. variations across different seasons in TE Based on the Bray-curtis cluster analysis of (P < 0.05, F = 2.725086, df = 2 and P < 0.05, Zn, Pb, Cu, Ni and Cr, two clusters were F = 6.624817, df = 2, respectively) as well formed; the Cluster 1 comprised of sites of as in RS input zones of the canal (P < 0.05, RS-US, RS-DS and TE-DS while Cluster 2 F = 2.172768, df = 2 and P < 0.05, F = included sites of TE-OP, TE-US and RS-OP, 2- 11.78365, df = 2, respectively). The CO3 the former Cluster indicating higher showed significant temporal variation pollution and the later one indicating across different seasons in TE (P < 0.05, F relatively lower pollution in the canal region. = 3.899268, df = 17) and in RS-OP zone of the canal (P < 0.05, F = 3.540748, df = 17), SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION and significant spatial variation across different points in RS outfall zone of the canal (P < 0.05, F = 2.641188, df = 2), while It was concluded that the EC of RS reduced the Alkalinity showed significant temporal with RE of 13 % in AT and to 26 % in SC. variation across different seasons in TE The average TDS, TSS, BOD, COD, NO3, - outfall zone (P < 0.05, F = 2.332869, df = PO4, SO4, Ca, Mg, Hardness, Na, K, Cl and - 17), and spatial variation across different HCO3 in influent RS were also reduced stations in TE (P < 0.05, F = 5.358109, df = considerably at the each phase of the 2) as well as in RS outfall zone of the canal treatment, at AT being reduced with RE of (P < 0.05, F = 9.339015, df = 2). 27, 18, 62, 36, 31, 32, 13, 13, 19, 24, 13, 18, 18 and 21 % and of 35, 80, 92, 65, 57, 69, 37, 32, 39, 38, 46, 53, 52 and 47 % at SC, Based on Bray-curtis cluster analysis (CA) 2- - whereas pH, DO, CO3 and Alkalinity in of cations and anions, two clusters were influent RS increased by 7, 81, 40 and 22 % formed, the Cluster 1 comprised of sites of in AT and to 12, 87, 63 and 44 % respectively, RS-OP, RS-DS and TE-DS while Cluster 2 in SC. These parameters showed included sites of TE-OP, TE-US and RS-US, considerable spatial variation across the former Cluster indicating higher different seasons. The DO was higher in pollution and the later cluster indicating the upstream of the TE and RS outfall points lower pollution levels in the canal. in the canal, but all the other chemical parameters increased in the downstream The Heavy metals - Zn, Pb, Cu, Ni and Cr compared to that of the upstream of the have increased in the downstream outfall points of the RS and TE outfall points. compared to that of upstream of the canal The pH, EC, TDS, TSS, NO3, PO4, BOD, COD, - - 2- in both RS as well as TE outfall zones. The Ca, Mg, Hardness, Na, Cl , HCO3 and CO3 concentrations of these heavy metals were were higher during summer; the SO4, K and higher during pre-monsoon and monsoon Alkalinity were higher during winter, and all season followed by that of summer and these physcio-chemical parameters were winter in the canal water. Zn showed lower during monsoon season except SO4, significant temporal variation across which was lower during summer. DO different seasons in TE (P < 0.05, F = concentration was higher during monsoon 7.201117, df = 5) as well as in RS outfall and lower during summer in the canal. The zones (P < 0.05, F =5.589905, df = 5) of the metal concentrations of Zn, Pb, Cu, Ni and canal, and significant spatial variation Cr in the influent RS were reduced across different points in RS outfall zone of considerably at the each phase of the the canal (P < 0.05, F = 24.62145, df = 2). treatment, at AT with the RE being 17, 13, The Cu and Ni showed significant temporal 14, 33 and 31 %, respectively, and in SC, it variation across different seasons in TE (P being 67, 73, 72, 87 and 47 %, respectively, < 0.05, F = 4.1234, df = 5 and P < 0.05, F = showing the importance of the STP in the 146 ECO-CHRONICLE removal of heavy metals. The efficiency in stream receiving inputs from concentrations of the heavy metals were wastewater treatment plants. Journal of found higher in the monsoon and lower in Environmental Quality, 33, 285-293. the winter in the TE and RS outfall point of the canal. The heavy metals increased in Mitra A. and Gupta K. 2000. Assessment of the downstream compared to that of the the quality of raw and treated sewage upstream of the outfall points of the RS and effluents from some selected treatment TE in the canal. plants within the Calcutta metropolitan area and potential health risks from their REFERENCES recycling. Poll. Res., 19(4), 677-683. Asthana A.K. and Singh K.N. 1993. Physico chemical characteristics of Gomati water. Oliver B.G. and Cosgrove E.G. 1974. The Oriental J. Chem., 9 (2), 155-157. efficiency of heavy metal removal by a conventional activated activated sludge Fernandez G. and Moro P. 1991. Annual treatment plant. Water Res., 8, 869-874. performance of a full scale activated-sludge plant, biotic components and new criteria Saxena K.K. and Chauhan R.S. 1993. for process assessment. Bioresource Physico-chemical aspects of pollution in Technology, 38, 7-14. river Yamuan at Agra. Poll. Res., 12(2), 101- 104. Girija T.R., Mahanta C. and Chandramouli V. 2007. Water quality assessment of an Sinha A.K., Pande D.P., Srivastava K.N., untreated effluent imparted urban stream: Kumar A. and Tripathi A. 1991. Impact at The Bharalu Tributary of the Brahmaputra mass River, India. Environment Monitoring and bathing on the water quality at the Ganga Assessment, 130, 221-236. river at Houdeshwarnath (Pratapgarth) India: A case study. Science of Total Guéguen C., Dominik J., Pardos M., Environment, 101(3), 275-280. Benninghoff C. and Thomas R.L. 2000. Partition of metals in the Vistula River and Srivastava C.P. 1992. Pollutants and nutrient in effluents from sewage treatment plants status in raw sewage. Indian J. Envl. Prot., in the region of Cracow (Poland), Lakes and 18(2), 109–111. Reservoirs: Research & Management, 5(2), 59. Thawale P.R., Juwarkar A.A. and Singh, S.S. 2006. Resource conservation through land Marti, E., Aumatell, J., Gode, L., Poch, M., treatment of municipal wastewater. Current and Sabater, F. 2004. Nutrient retention Science. 90, 704-71. ECO-CHRONICLE 147

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 2. June 2008, pp: 147 - 150

LAND USE CHANGE IN THE UPPER CATCHMENT OF PAMPA RIVER BASIN – A GIS BASED APPROACH

Aji, A.T.1, Baijulal, B.1, Judy Immanuel1, Pratheesh, P.2 and Sobha, V.1

1 Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Kerala, Kariavattom, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. 2 Department of Geology, University of Kerala, Kariavattom, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

ABSTRACT

Sabarimala forest in the upper catchment of Pampa River Basin is a rich repository of biological diversity comprising one of the best natural ecosystems of the state assumes great significance from the point view of environmental conservation, since the forest shrine is located deep inside the forest and it is visited over by nearly one crore devotees every year. Over the years large area of forest land was converted into non forestry purposes. This paper dealt with the land use change took place in the upper catchment area of Pampa River basin from 1977 to 2003 following standard methodology. The analysis of thematic maps obviously indicates that most degradation had taken place in the surrounding areas of Sabarimala temple (Sannidhanam). The study reveals an overall reduction of 53.46 km2 of pristine forest while an increase of other land use categories like plantations 22.05 km2, grasslands 15.99 km2 scrubland 16.18 km2 (%), and settlements 0.26 km2. The annual forest loss in this area is estimated to 0.32 percent.

INTRODUCTION estimated the rate of forest loss to 0.28 Man has been constantly exploiting forest percent. resources without having scientifically In order to use the land optimally and to oriented and systematically planned action provide an input data in modeling studies, programmes (Balakrishnan, 1993). As a it is not only necessary to have information consequence the extent of natural forests on existing land use/land cover but also the dwindled, leaving remnants in places far capacity to monitor the dynamics of land use away from habitation. As per the statistics resulting out of changing demands. A better of Kerala Forest Department, the state has knowledge of habitats and ecosystems 2 9400 km of natural forests representing 24 implies information about their potential, percent of total land area. By the year 1800, extension, composition and evolution forest area was reduced to 75 percent and including notably their rate of transformation due to various reasons and continued (Roy, 1996). The Remote Sensing and GIS onslaught, the forest area further shrink to can help in establishing and monitoring half of the land area by the year 1900 system to update the data base required (Karunakaran, 1987). By 1940, the forest for biodiversity conservation on continuous area further went down to 33 percent. With basis. In the present work an attempt has the introduction of scientific forestry and been made to analyse the change in land implementation of rigorous forest laws, the use in the upper catchment of pampa River pace of forest destruction had come down basin over a period of 26 years from 1977 considerably in recent times. In Kerala, a to 2003. substantial decline in evergreen and semi evergreen forests, but an increase in the Study Area area covered by deciduous forests was noted by Prasad et al., (1998). They The upper catchment of Pampa river basin 148 ECO-CHRONICLE consist of an area of 632 km 2 and lies sufficient inputs for determining the mapping between the latitudes 9° 12’ – 9° 28’ N and accuracy. longitudes 76° 51’ – 77° 17’ E. The location map of the area is depicted in Fig.1. The RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Pampa River is the third longest river in Kerala, flows through one of the most Land use 1977 densely populated regions of the state. The Till mid 1970’s the premises of Sabarimala Pampa river basin is bounded by the temple was densely packed with evergreen Manimala basin in the north and the forests. Land use data of 1977 showed that 516.34 km2 area was occupied by dense Achankovil basin in the south. forests. There were two major settlements; Fig. 1. Location map of the study area one at Pampa Thiveni and the other at Sabarimala Sannidhanam, together constitute 0.19 km2. Even though the area occupied by the settlement is lesser in extent its presence itself is important, since it is located deep in the midst of dense evergreen forests. Other land use classes include plantation, grasslands, and scrubland. The plantations comprise rubber, teak, eucalyptus and cardamom that together constitute 72.17 km2. The rubber plantations were noticed mainly towards the southern region of the catchment especially in the downward area of Kanamala. Eucalyptus plantations were limited to the Ponnambalamedu region and cardamom plantations were dominated in the Pachakkanam-Gavi area. The grass lands were observed near Pampa and Kakki reservoir and extend in an area of 5.37 km2. Scrubland was spread in five isolated patches over an area of 3.16 km2. The land use map from 1977 to 2003 is depicted in Fig. 2-5 and the comparative analysis is METHODOLOGY presented in Fig. 6-9.

Base maps of the study area were prepared Land use 1989 in the scale 1:50000 using the Survey of The comparative analysis of land uses of India (SOI) toposheets (Nos. 58 G3, G4, G7, 1977 and 1989 showed a severe depletion C15 of 1977). Deforestation and land use of forests but a significant increase in the changes were examined by comparing the area occupied by other land uses such as satellite images with base maps prepared. plantation, scrubland and grassland. Over For this purpose, IRS images viz. IRS-1A this twelve year span the forest area plunged LISS.II Geocoded FCC of 1989, IRS-1C to 485.31 km2 with a net reduction of 31.03 LISS.III Geocoded FCC of 1997, IRS 10 STD km 2. The plantation area showed an GEO B 234 G: 3 of 2003 were interpreted for increase of 14.98 km2 that takes it total to generation of different thematic maps. 87.15 km2. During this period the grassland Thematic maps were prepared and increased to 14.35 km 2 and scrubland analysed using remote sensing and GIS increased to 10.11 km2 with an increase of software’s (ArcGIS 9, ERDAS IMAGINE 8.5 8.97 and 6.95 km 2 respectively. The and ENVI 4.1). Ground truth surveys were settlements that occupied in just 0.18 km2 conducted in the study area to provide during 1977 was increased to 0.32 km2 with ECO-CHRONICLE 149

an addition of 0.14 km2. The land cover was Land use 1997 altered significantly for enhancing amenities to pilgrims during the annual festival Between the periods of 1989-1997 season, which commence in mid noticeable changes in land use had November and ends in mid January. occurred mainly due to clearing of forest land 150 ECO-CHRONICLE to developing the facilities to pilgrims and brought out the extent of land use change their over dependents on the forests. During and subsequent land degradation in one of this period the forest area further plunged the most sensitive zones of Western Ghats to 475.64 km2 with a reduction of 9.67 km2 in Kerala. Major reason for land use change from 1989. The area occupied by grassland is the indiscriminate utilization of the forest showed only marginal increase of 1.10 km2 area for enhancing the facilities to pilgrims. during this period. While the area occupied In the present investigation, land under by the plantations and scrublands plantation, scrubland and grassland increased significantly. The plantation area increased significantly at the cost of forest was 87.15 km2 during 1987 had increased land. The annual forest loss is to 91.26 km2 and the scrubland of 10.11 km2 compounded to 0.32 %. Even though the had increased to 14.66 km 2. W hen pilgrimage at Sabarimala is seasonal, its compared to 1989 land use map, the impacts on the forest and wildlife are settlements showed an increase of 0.06 deleterious. In addition to the habitat loss, km2 that takes its total to 0.38 km2. the forage of wild animals and natural regeneration of tree sapling is completely Land use 2003 disturbed during the festival season.

The land use map of 2003 showed further Pilgrimage is a reality, but the conservation depletion of forest area. The reduction in of forests is a must. The unplanned or forest area can be attributed to increase in unmanaged pilgrimage may lead to the plantations, grassland, scrubland and degradation of the environment in general settlements. The extent of forest area and forests in particular beyond redemption. shrunk to 462.88 km2 while that was 475.64 The study highlights towards the necessity km2 in 1997 with a loss of 12.76 km2. In the of evolving a suitable land use planning to history of forest loss at Sabarimala worst arrest further land use changes and land episodes were happened during this degradation. An integrated plan taking into period. In this span plantations increased account the increasing number of pilgrims, to 93.22 km2 and scrubland increased to status and value of forests around 19.34 km2 and grassland increased to 21.36 Sabarimala, availability of land area outside km 2. The area under settlement also the forests for providing basic facilities to increased to 0.44 km2 with an increase of the pilgrims etc. should be prepared before 0.16 km2. implementing any developmental activity in Sabarimala. An overall comparative analysis of land use of the upper-catchment of Pampa River REFERENCES basin for the last 26 years showed Balakrishnan, M. 1993. Environmental significant change in land use over this problems and prospects in India. Oxford period. Severe changes in land use were and IBH Pub. Co. New Delhi. p. 430. observed around Sabarimala and its close proximity. The decrease in forest area can Karunakaran, C.K. 1987. Keralathile be attributed to an increase in plantations, Vanangal – Noottandukaliloode open scrubs, grass lands and settlements. (Malayalam), State Institute of Languages, The invasion of grass lands and spreading Kerala, Trivandrum. of scrubs inside this pristine forest area clearly indicate rampant degradation. Prasad, S.N., Vijayan, L., Balachandran, S., Ramachandran, V. and Varghese, C.P., CONCLUSION 1998. Deforestation and land use change in Western Ghats, India. Current Science, The land use system is highly dynamic, 75: pp. 211-219. which undergoes significant changes according to the changing socio-economic Roy, P.S. 1996. Remote sensing for forest and natural environment. The change in any ecosystem. Analysis and Management. In: form of land use is largely related either with Environmental Problems and Prospects in the external forces and the pressure India. Balakrishna. M (Ed) Oxford and IBH buildup within the system. The present study Pub. New Delhi. pp. 332 – 342. ECO-CHRONICLE 151

ECO-CHRONICLE, Vol.3., No. 2. June 2008, pp: 151 - 156.

GLOBALIZATION AND ITS SOCIAL ASYMMETRIES

Manoj Pillai

Department of Commerce, Mahatma Gandhi Government Arts College, Mahe, Union Territory of Puducherry.

ABSTRACT

Globalization has emerged as an assertive and powerful force shaping the world into a single frame. It represents a new interpretation of international relations for redefining the rules of the economy, polity and culture of all the countries, particularly the developing ones. For all theoretical and practical purposes, it is thus a force of epochal significance. It has succeeded in putting forward numerous innovative opportunities and benefits in the past and continues to do so today. Prolific volumes of literature have been written on globalization but the thrust and emphasis of these literatures has been on the positive ramifications of globalization and not much consideration and deliberation has been made on the negative socio-cultural implications of globalization. This paper is an attempt to highlight and emphasize the point that globalization has some serious and profound implications for the socio- cultural systems of the world especially for the developing countries.

INTRODUCTION cultural systems of the world especially for the developing countries. Globalization has emerged as an assertive and powerful force shaping the world into a This paper seeks to put forward a three fold single frame. It represents a new argument: interpretation of international relations for I. Globalization is the hegemonic redefining the rules of the economy, polity transformation in accordance with the and culture of all the countries, particularly designs of the triad of U.S, Europe and the developing ones. For all theoretical and Japan. practical purposes, it is thus a force of II. Globalization has resulted in serious epochal significance. The structural social discontents in most part of the adjustments and sweeping changes in the world. economy initiated by almost all the III. Sound policies and saftynets have to be developing nations of the world which evolved to tackle and manage the socio includes communist China, and theocratic – cultural fallouts of globalization. nations like Iran and Saudi Arabia justifies the point the globalization has become a The paper is organized into three parts. great fact of the present era .No wonder that Part I will present the conceptual recent years has witnessed prolific volumes perspectives of globalization and unveil its of literature on it. The thrust and emphasis various aspects. of these literatures has been on the positive Part II focuses on the Social discontents. ramifications of globalization but not much Part III highlights policy recommendations consideration and deliberation has been to counter the unfavorable repercussions of made on the negative socio-cultural globalization. implications of globalization. This paper is an attempt to highlight and emphasize the CONCEPTUAL PERSPECTIVES point that globalization has some serious and profound implications for the socio- Numerous interpretations of varying sorts 152 ECO-CHRONICLE perspective. The cultural economy socio-cultural and political ideas it includes perspective views globalization as a human rights aspects, global environmental process of historic progression of the world responsibilities, cosmopolitanism all of towards acquiring a global socio – cultural which companies together to present a configuration cutting across national single sense of humanity. It can be described boundaries aided by advances in as the ‘Organic connection’ between information and communication technology. economy and culture (Appadurai, Arjun 2004) The political economy perspective looks at it which implies appreciation of the role of as a transformative project of unifying the economic processes in influencing global world in accordance with the logic of global dynamics. In brief, the cultural economy capitalism. perspective gives importance to culture over economy in defining globalisation while GLOBALIZATION AS A CULTURAL admitting intrinsic importance of the later. ECONOMY PERSPECTIVE GLOBALIZATION AS A POLITICAL Several experts of globalization have defined ECONOMY PERSPECTIVE Globalization in the terms and of cultural economy perspective. Some of the important The political economy perspective defines facts which have given impetus for the growth globalisation as the growing integration of of cultural globalization are as follows. national economics through trade and investment flows and the multinational firms’ a) Greater international cultural strategies of global sourcing and net working exchanges. of various phases and aspects of business. b) Spread of multiculturalism and better International Monetary Fund defines individual access to cultural diversity. globalisation as the growing economic c) Greater international travel and interdependence of countries world wide tourism. through increasing volume and variety of d) Greater immigration including illegal cross border transactions in goods and immigration. services and international capital flows, and e) Development of Global also through the more rapid and wide telecommunication infrastructure. spread and diffusion of technology (Mitchell, Charles 2004). Globalisation is “ a political Of these the impact and influence of the / economic phenomenon which has radically communication system has been altered the power structures of the world over astounding. Majority of the countries have the past few decades, draining power developed telecommunications increasingly away from the nation states and infrastructure which has helped the homes making multinational corporations and and offices of these countries to have financial markets increasingly more multiple links to the outside world through powerful” (Starrs, Roy 2002). Globalisation telephones (land lines and mobiles), is viewed as the “freedom of capital in any faxmachines, cable- televisions, electronic from to enter everywhere and also to exit any mail and internet. These forms and time (Kurian, C.T. 2001).Thus it involves technology facilitate ‘compression’ of time ‘denationalization’ of economics and and space (Giddins, Anthony 2002). Two promots trans national investments, trade individuals located on opposite sides of the and finance (Ohmae, Kenichi 1995)Harvey, planet-not only can hold conversation in ‘real as early as in 1970, analyzed the rise global time’ but also can send documents and financial markets, including global debt, images to one another with the help of currency and interest rate. In his words this satellite technology. It is the compression of “accelerated geographical mobility of funds the world and the intensification of meant for the first time, the formation of a consciousness of the world as a whole single world market for money and credit (Robertson, Ronald 2002). Along with the replay (David, Harvey 2002). From the political economy perspective another way ECO-CHRONICLE 153 to look at globalisation is that it is the Globalization. These four primary forces are hegemonic transformation in accordance as follows: with the designs of the traid of U.S, Europe and Japan. The emergence of the United i. Rationalism States as a global economic power after the Second World War has been a prime cause It is a general configuration of knowledge for the growth of globalisation which was very that has greatly promoted the spread of often called “Coca-cola-ization”. Along with global thinking and through it, the broader this, the growth of Europe and Japan during trend of globalization. 1950s and 1960’s lead to the formation of a “triad” which started to dominate the world ii. Capitalism economic and political scenario. During this period there were rapid increase in the It is a structure of production where the wages in the triad nations which led large emphasis is on the accumulation of surplus. national corporations to go global and The surpluses are further invested in the establish branches in many third world production with the aim of acquiring countries- and the rest is history (Starrs, Roy additional surplus which is then re-invested 2002).Thus Globalisation can be viewed as instill more production. The contexts of a compression of the world by flows of accumulation includes a plethora of varied interaction that are broarding as well as activities like agriculture, mining, deepening around the world. These flows manufacturing, transport, finance, education, have brought about a greater degree of housing, social insurance, health and even interdependence and economic genetic engineering. homogenization; a more powerful burgeoning global markets, financial iii. Technological Innovation institutions and computer technologies have overwhelmed traditional economic Extensive innovations in transport, practices. The trajectories of several national, communication and information technology regional and local economies have become have provided necessary infrastructure for even more enmeshed with in a net work of globalisation. the global financial flows and transactions. This is a new geography of centrality cutting iv. Regulations across national boundaries and across the old north-south divides (Grant, Richard et.al Regulation has helped in the growth of 2002). Besides these two broad domains of globalization. Regional integrations in the globalisation; Modernistion is also closely form of free trade agreements, common linked with globalisation. Globalisation is markets, and customs union and the seen as an enlargement of modernity from establishment of W.T.O January 1995 have city to the world (Giddens, Anthony 2005). been driving force for the spread Keeping in mind the co-relation between globalization. Technical and procedure modernization and Globalisation it can be standardization, liberalization of cross rumored that colonization was the first border movements money, investment, attempt of the capitalist west to culture the goods and services, and legalization of world which was followed by modernization global organisation and activities have all though hegemonic rationalization. contributed to the growth of globalisation. Globalisation is the latest device of the (Nayyar, Deepak (2002) has intrepretted that capitalist regime to reinforce its superiority globalisation is not a new phenomenon. The and dominance over the rest of the world. first phase began in 1870 AD and gathered CAUSAL DYNAMICS OF GLOBALIZATION momentum till 1940 when it came to an end. This first phase has striking similarity with Scholte (2000) has pointed out four major the present phase of globalisation like the elements which resulted in the genesis of integration of world economy through 154 ECO-CHRONICLE and matured over the past few centuries. conditions of the workers especially the less skilled ones. The insecurity at the work SOCIAL ASSYEMETRIES OF place has resulted in increased stress in GLOBALIZATION the life of individuals which further causes domestic familial strifes, rash driving, Sen, Amartya and Dreze, Jean (2002) are of alchohol addiction and other forms of the opinion that in many developing violence. Another area of social discontents countries the structural adjustment resulted due of globalization is class programmes and related economic reforms stratifications. The gap between the rich and have resulted in serious set backs for the poor has increased alarmingly. The main social development. Fiscal austerity is one reason for this is because the benefits of of the key ingredients of the structural globalization has been reaped by a few adjustment and social expenditure are often individuals especially by the propertied ‘soft - targets’ for the financial axe. Roderrick, circles, professionals and skilled workers Dani(1997) believe that Globalisation have and remaining chunk of the population stand made it exceedingly difficult for government no where hear them (Scholte 2000). Along to provide social insurance - one of their with this the decline of the redistributive and central functions and one that have helped welfare state has resulted in the reduction maintain social cohesion in the society . state allocation on education, health, Globalisation has had a negative effect in pension, and unemployment insurance, the social integration in local communities. which has aggravated the situation further. Scholte (2000) believes that supraterritorial relations have often weakened intimacy and Social justice is another area, which has mutual support within neighborhood. People been adversely affected by globalization. who are glued to television and computer The reduced role of governments is screens may have virtual bonds across the employment creation in many developing planet but little or no acquintance with the countries has had serious implications on person living next door.All this have resulted the economically and socially weaker into a general decline in the social sections of the society. For example in India responsibility in the society. According to the socially and economically backward Aggarwala Naresh et al (2005) social population has been given reservations in security to most of the people is closely jobs and admissions in government connected with security of work. Corporate organizations. With the shrinking of the restructuring has been associated with government sector and the emergence of increasing outsourcing of work, private sector including the multinational contractulization and casualization of jobs. corporations, these people will definitely find These categories of the workers are not it difficult to get job and access to education, covered by the social security. The job loses which will result in social tension in the have also occurred in the developed society. countries due to out sourcing and shifting of To sum up it can be said that globalization the manufacturing plants to low cost and low has raised serious social discontents and wage sites in the developing countries. The if it continues to move forward in the same new situation have been distinguished by fashion and shape there will definitely be the term ‘flexiblization’ .The worker are serious and question marks on social expected to be ‘flexible’ in respect of hours harmony, social security and social equity. ,wages, benefits, health and safety standards,etc. The emerging trend of POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS AND AGENDA contract labor practiced and favored by the FOR ACTION multinational companies has weakened the trade union movement. The workers involved The above analysis does not impair or lack collective bargaining arrangements and weaken the basic foundations of other union protection .All these have led to globalization nor does it overlook the positive a significant worsening of the working ramifications of it. Globalization has now ECO-CHRONICLE 155 become an unstoppable historical fact. 4. COLLECTIVE ACTION FOR Abandoning globalization is neither feasible ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION nor desirable. The problem is not globalization but the way in which it is There is a general and broad consensus managed and handled. Globalization can be among scientists and researchers that restructured and redesigned in such a collective and corrective action has to be manner that it will be worth while and taken against the green house gases and beneficial for the entire world.The following global warming phenomenon. This is one policy recommendations merit careful critical area where there is a lack of global consideration. cooperation at present and there are minimal national and international efforts. 1. LOCALIZATION The implementation of Trade Related Investment Measures (TRIMS) and General Agreement On Trade And Services ( GATS) The globalization policies must include and has resulted in high growth of trade and allow nations, local governments and investment as well as cross border communities to reclaim control over their movements of individuals for employment economies in order to rebuild stability into as well as for tourism has seen as potent community life. According to Colin Homes reason for the spread of diseases such as the policies bring about localizations are HIV/ AIDS, SARS, Avian flu etc. Collective one’s which increase control of the economy efforts should be taken by the developing by communities and nation sates. It will and develop nations to counter these deadly result in increase in community cohesion, a deseases. reduction in poverty and in equality and an improvement in livelihoods social 5. EMPHASIS ON MORAL AND CULTURAL infrastructure, environmental protection and EDUCATION sense of security (Homes, Colin 2000) It has been noticed and felt that some facets 2. NON INTERFEARENCE IN LABOUR of globalization has had an adverse impact STANDARDS on the moral and cultural fabric of the society. Consumerism, Materialism, and the blind Imposing trade sanctions on the countries race for Success have delpeted the moral that do not meet first world’s standards for value systems of individuals, particurlaly in labour and environmental conditions can the metropolitan cities. Similarly the have deeply damaging effects on the living telecommunication boom through satellite standards of poor people and for that reason channels, internet and mobile phones has is unconstructive. The third world countries transformed youths, particularly belonging should be set free to take different to developing countries, into “complexed institutional appraoches to environmental confused personalities”. They have standards, social protections, cultural developed some sort of an idenity crisis and preservations and other issues. they are drifting away from traditions and cultural bondings. An effective measure to 3. SOCIAL PROTECTION TO THE LABOUR counter this scenario is through redesigning school and college curriculam and There is great need to provide social syllabuses. Moral and cultural education protection to the labour market in a open must find specific place in the school amd economy. Social security will help individual college syllabus. worker who will lose in the short run from opening up of the economy as well as to 6. EVEN SHARING THE DIVIDENTS OF create a solid social foundations on which GLOBALIZATION households’ especially poor ones feels comfortable taking risks and showing The global disparities are on the rise as is entrepreneurship. the rural urban divide. Intranational and 156 ECO-CHRONICLE international inequalities are on the rise due Harvey, David, The condition of post to globalization. Those who could access modernity, Polity. the jobs and opportunities have benefited immensely but the irony is a huge proportion Homes, Colin, 2000, Localisation: A global of population is left out of the race. manifesto, Earth Scan, London P. 4, 28. Developing economies must create new Kurian C.T Global capitalism and Indian opportunities for the poor through additional economy, Orient Longman, Bombay. investment in the education with specific emphasis on girls’ education. Heavy sectoral allocation is required to be made in Mitchell Charles, International Business the development of rural infrastructure. cultural, world trade press, California, P. 37.

To conclude it can be said that globalization Nayyar, Deepak (2002) Governing is a historical process which has put forward Globalisation, Issues and Institution. numerous innovative opportunities and benefits in the past and it continues to do so Ohmae, K. 1995.The ends oftion state and today. The question is not just whether the the se of global economies, Free press poor, too, gain something from globalization, NewYork. but whether they get a far share and fair opportunity. Robertson Roland, Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture, Sage Amarthya Sen (2002) has rightly commented Publications London, Page 8. “globalization deserves a reasoned defense but it also needs reforms. The reforms will Roderick Dani, 1997. Has Globalisation certainly give globalization a human face and gone too far? Washington DC: Institute of a more humane process of globalization will International Economics. bring a positive transformation in the developing economies of the world, with the vast majority of those living in developing Scholte, Jan Art, 2000. Globalisation a critical countries benefiting from it and welcoming it. Introduction, Macmillan, London, P. 228.

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