Working Paper April 2015 Technical overview of Renewable Energy Technologies for Rural Electrification in Kenya
By Wycliffe Amakobe
African Centre for Technology Studies
Key issues Energy supply and demand gap Economic instruments for RETS
Demand for both commercial and non-commercial Private sector investment in renewable energy is energy exceeds supply especially during peak pragmatic if the goal of enhancing energy access periods. In 2010, only 18 per cent of households had to all is to be realized as spelled out in Energy access to electricity. As at June 2014, interconnected Act 2006 No. 12. of 2006. Potential investors systems had total installed capacity of 1,741 MW out view the feed-in tariff revised in 2012 as non- of which 812 MW was hydro, 646 MW thermal, attractive. 251.8 MW geothermal, 2MW solar PV, 5.1 MW Subsidy wind and 26MW from cogeneration. Heavy subsidies associated with fossil fuels Diversifying energy mix result into competitive advantage against Kenya’s overreliance on hydro as the main source of renewable energy technologies power places the country at high risk given the shifts Energy in equality and Indoor Air Pollution in weather and climate patterns. Focus is now turning to geothermal alone other than all renewable. Approximately 1.3 billion people (globally) and 33.4 million (in Kenya) are without access to Policy streamlining and enforcement modern energy. The unequal access triggers a A number of regulations lack congruence among sense of social inequality and marginalization. energy related ministries. Further, lack of World Health Organization estimates that over enforcement of existing energy regulations 2.3 million people die globally as a result of demonstrates lack of goodwill. indoor air pollution annually.
Paper under per review!
1. Introduction Rural off-grid electrification is increasingly becoming important as scarcity in oil resource base continues to be experienced. At least 1.3 billion people lack access to modern forms of energy globally. World energy outlook estimated in 2011 that only 30% of population in Africa had access to electricity during 2011 with 2.7 billion using traditional 3-stone stoves. In Kenya, the population of people without access to electricity was 33 million (IEA, 2011). This has thus resulted into inequity and wide spread energy poverty constraining development mainly in rural areas. Comparing this with electrification levels in Northern Africa countries such as Morocco (97%), Algeria (99%), Tunisia (100%), Egypt (100%) and Libya (100%), there is an urgent need for Kenya to step up her efforts towards narrowing energy access gap. Renewable energy and small-scale off-grid systems have the potential to contribute substantially to environmental conservation and increased access to electricity. Access to energy enables development of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) especially for people at the base of pyramid. This has the potential to unlock development in these areas and prompt structural changes for poverty alleviation. For instance, the lack of access to modern energy contributes to over 30% losses in agricultural production in Kenya. However, the realization of 100% electrification particularly in rural areas need testing of specific technologies through appropriate delivery models. For example, spurring rural electrification using pico-hydro in one area may be unsuitable for another area, where as the same technology may be very relevant in the other. Thus, this paper highlights available renewable energy resources and their potential of exploitation in Kenya. The paper presents a technical overview of available renewable energy technologies (RETs), prospection, challenges, and opportunities with an overview of energy policy in Kenya.
2. Status of energy demand and supply
The energy consumption and supply patterns in Kenya are mainly influenced by income, intended use, social setup, and awareness about a specific technology. In Kenya, energy resources comprise of commercial and non-commercial. Commercial energy mainly comprise of petroleum products and electricity, while non-commercial comprise of biomass, and to a lesser extent solar energy, wind power, and biogas. Demand for both commercial and non-commercial energy exceeds supply especially during peak periods. Electricity supply in particular becomes unpredictable during dry seasons when dam levels reduce prompting power outages. In 2010, only 18 per cent of households had access to electricity. The power supply consists of the national interconnected system and several mini-grids serving areas located far from the national grid. As at June 2013, interconnected system had total installed capacity of 1,741 MW out of which 812 MW was hydro, 646 MW thermal, 251.8 MW geothermal, 5.1 MW wind and 26MW
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from cogeneration(KIVA,2013). Access to electricity in rural households is estimated at about 4 per cent, while the commercial and industrial sectors together account for roughly 60 per cent of the electricity consumed in the country. The lack of an effective transmission system is a hurdle to access and reliability. Over 90% of households in rural areas use unsustainable biomass combusting cook stoves that are linked to myriads of illnesses because of indoor air pollution and uneconomical fuel consumption. In terms of lighting, kerosene tin lamps are the most commonly used source of lighting mainly in the evening for dinner and study for households with school-going children. With increasing advocacy about modern energy, things are expected to change.
Figure 1:Electricity grid coverage and mini grids
3. Rural electrification at a glance Rural electrification can be enhanced through several forms. This can be in form of individual household systems, grid extension, community mini-grids, multifunctional platforms, and village charging stations. The government of Kenya has been investing in rural electrification since 1973. This is demonstrated by establishment of Rural Electrification Authority (REA) in 2006 through the Energy Act 2006, No. 12 of 2006 that became operational in July 2007. The
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authority was tasked with accelerating rural electrification in the country. The government is committed to ensuring connectivity of 66% in 2022 through the vision 2030 blue print. REA is working towards this by grid extension, off-grid supply, and isolated diesel hybrid stations, installation of solar PV, wind, and biogas systems. With the devolved system of governance, the county governments are charged with the role of;
a) Preparation and update of the county and national rural electrification master plans b) Planning and implementation of county specific grid connected rural electrification projects c) Planning and implementation of cross-county grid extension projects d) Mobilization of financial resources for rural electrification in the counties e) Promotion and development of renewable energy in the counties f) Development of isolated power stations g) Capacity building and standardization of project implementation
Through the Rural Electrification Master Plan, REA purposes to use off-grid systems to electrify 330 public facilities and serve 66,000 connections in approximately 200 localities (IIED,2012). There is a huge gap to be filled in rural areas as the main form of electrification has been through on-grid access. Diversification of electrification technologies is necessary. Appropriate delivery models and customization of existing technologies is an impending challenge but a necessary factor to be offset if tangible outcomes are to be realized in terms of acceptance.
4. Technologies
5.1. Solar energy technologies
Kenya receives 4 – 6 KWh per square meter of insolation per day. This is equivalent to 250 Mtoe per day. Despite this potential, only a small portion is harnessed and converted into utilizable forms. Solar energy technologies prove to be the most convenient low carbon technologies that communities could strive for meeting their cooking and lighting requirements alongside a myriad of energy demands at farm and industrial levels. The energy is mainly harnessed through three key technologies that use semiconductors (solar cells) to convert solar irradiance directly into electricity. An interconnection of solar cells forms a PV module or concentrating solar power (CSP) systems that can range from 10watts to 200watts. In its isolated state, PV module cannot meet end user’s ultimate requirements. As such, modules are combined with a set of additional components such as batteries, inverters, and mounting systems. The three types of solar cells used in module fabrication include mono-crystalline cells which are the most efficient, polycrystalline cells with medium efficiency and thin-film cells that are rather cheap but least efficient. Systems can be very small, such as in calculators, up to utility‐scale power Page 4 of 22
generation facilities. The ability of PV modules to incept power from diffuse sources in addition to the direct insolation makes them preferable compared to CSP. However, CSPs have higher efficiencies than PV. Concentrating solar thermal power and solar fuel technologies produce electricity and possibly other energy carriers (“fuels”) by concentrating solar radiation to heat various materials to high temperatures. A concentrating solar power (CSP) comprises a field of solar collectors, receivers, and a power block, where the heat collected in the solar field is transformed into mechanical energy, then electricity. In between, the system must include one or several heat transfer or working fluids, possibly heat storage devices and/or back‐up/hybridization systems with some combustible fuel (IEA,2011). A CSP assembly may take four distinct versions parabolic trough, linear Fresnel, tower and parabolic dish systems. The parabolic trough version is the most common on Kenyan market.
5.1.1. Solar Photovoltaic in Kenya
By 2009, it is estimated that 220,000 solar PV units were already in use in Kenya (Byakola et al, 2009). In Kenya, PV systems range from LED lighting packages to solar home systems and larger systems in commercial enterprises. Solar PV are the most widely used in the country in off-grid electrification for provision of lighting among the available renewable energy technologies. To some extend the PV systems are also powering electronic equipments, telecommunications, water pumping, refrigeration, and electric fencing. The total output of installed solar PV systems is 2 MWp There are four grid-integrated solar PV systems under pilot .These are Changoi, Timau, SoS Children's village at the Coast and the United Nations Environment Programme’s headquarters in Nairobi. The annual market for solar PV panels in the country is estimated at 500 kW and projected to grow at 15% annually (Kasanga, 2014). Investors are getting more interested in setting up infrastructure necessary for local fabrication of solar equipments. This is reflected in the 50MWp grid-connected PV plant to be constructed by a Chinese contractor. The plant is being developed by the China Jiangxi Corporation for International Economic & Technical Company limited. The company has liaised with the Chinese PV manufacturing company JinkoSolar Holding Company to provide the necessary modules and technical support(Ulrich et al. 2014). UBBINK company in joint venture with Chloride Solar has also set up an assembly plant for solar panels in Naivasha; Nakuru County with estimated annual production of 100 kW peak.
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Box1:
PV systems- Direct stand alone systems
Photo voltaic cells mainly thin film and polycrystalline modules dominate most households in the country. Majority of households use 5W to 10W Sunking type of solar lanterns for provision of light at night. A number of households own Sunking Pro 2 that provides light simultaneously offering services for phone charging. Another common type of PV lighting system in use is Focera. The market is quickly shifting towards value added systems that provide additional interconnections such as double lights, radio, and phone charging systems especially in rural areas where electricity has not been connected. This option is also favorable to households who are in the proximity of the grid but are not currently connected.
“I used to spend twenty shillings every day on paraffin but I now spend half as much and this has translated into savings which I now spend on buying food and cooking fuel. We thank Ecofinder Kenya for enabling us access these solar lanterns as my children now enjoy doing their homework” testimony by a woman at Dunga Beach in Kisumu”.
Entrepreneurs have devised distinctive models that have increased access to PV lighting systems including pay as you go, cash and rental models. The rental model in particular is gaining acceptance in areas where community village -energy -kiosks have been established. Under this model, villagers identify themselves to kiosk owner and are allowed two days to use a lantern after which its returned for charging. The vendor has several modules that are used to charge the lanterns on daily basis. The figure below illustrates typical model used in Eastern Kenya, in Endau location to advance solar lanterns on rental basis while households can too access phone charging services, access bureau services such as printing , photocopying and entertainment using power incepted form PV systems. The centre operates on a 6kW power supply.
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Figure 2:Energy centre model typical for Village Energy Kiosks
5.1.2. Solar home systems Solar home systems (SHSs) comprise a PV module, charge controller rechargeable battery, and direct current lighting bulb(s). When exposed to light, the PV module generates direct current (DC) electricity and charges the battery via the charge controller. Appliances such as television and bulbs that use direct current draw power directly from the battery. The battery is enclosed in a casing inside a charge controller, which regulates flow of current into and out of the battery. Electrical appliances that use alternating current are connected to an inverter. Non-critical components of an SHS such as radio, DVD players etc vary depending on PV and battery specifications as well as user preferences. Fig.. below illustrates SHS
Figure 3:Typical components of a SHS Page 7 of 22
Source http://www.solardirect.com/pv/systems/systems.html Figure 4 below represents a PV solar home system under pilot in Kenya where a charge controller unit is used to supply power to a fun fixed on a forced draft cook stoves. This stove burns any form of biomass with moisture content below 20% for cooking and lighting. The pilot project is being undertaken by African Centre for Technology Studies and The Energy Resources Institute of India in nine counties in Kenya. These are Nakuru, Kisumu, Nyeri, Laikipia, Kiambu, Nyandarua, Kakamega, Nairobi and Kajiado counties. The technology if adopted by local households will help reduce cases of indoor air pollution resulting from inefficient cooking devices and use of paraffin tin lamps as well as reduce fuel consumption by 80%.
2.5 DC Bulb
Integrated Charge Controller
15w Solar panel Stainless steel cook stove
Mobile phone
Figure 4:Household integrated domestic energy cook stove
4.1.3. Concentrating solar power This is a special technology for harnessing solar energy using solar thermal collectors where the main purpose is to generate energy for heating. The collectors or generators use a combination of mirrors or lenses to concentrate direct beam solar radiation to produce electricity. A concentrating solar power plant comprises of a field of solar collectors, receivers, and a power block, where the heat collected in the solar field is transformed into mechanical energy, then electricity. In between, the system must include one or several heat transfer or working fluids, possibly heat-storage devices and/or back‐up/hybridization systems with some combustible fuel (IEA, 2011).
The various methods can be characterized as low, medium, or high temperature collectors. Low temperature collectors are flat plates generally used to heat swimming pools. Medium- Page 8 of 22
temperature collectors are also usually flat plates but are used for creating hot water for residential and commercial use while high temperature collectors concentrate sunlight using mirrors or lenses and are generally used for electric power production (UNEP, 2008). It is estimated that an area of 100,000 km2 is available for high heat collectors out of which about 20,000km2 are capable of powering commercial CSP power plants. Concentrating solar thermal power technology developments were stagnant for a long period following an initial period of growth in the 1980’s. Since 2005, CSP developments have recommenced and gained considerable momentum. Total installed capacity is an order of magnitude smaller than PV and the industry lags a decade or more behind in its level of development (Keith et. al,2012). The number of solar water heating units currently in use is estimated at over 140,000 and is projected to grow to more than 400,000 units by 2020.
The government of Kenya has devoted efforts in promoting exploitation of CSP for heating as evident by the move by Energy regulatory commission that requires all residential and commercial buildings to have solar water heating systems. The regulation spells out a fine of one million shillings, or imprisonment for a term of one year or both for anybody violating the rule. According to CIC Kenya (2014), the residential sector in Kenya uses up to 850 Gigawatt per hour of electricity annually to heat water causing a strain on the power infrastructure especially during peak times . The regulation is expected to transform Kenya’s approach towards demand side management by effectively using renewable energy for peak load demand given the huge electricity supply-demand gap. Challenges presented by solar energy Opportunities presented by solar energy .Installation of typical solar home .Clean energy technology hence reduces systems is expensive indoor air pollution during cooking and lighting .Micro-finance institutions are reluctant to offer financing for uptake
.Efficient for provision of off-grid of SPV household electricity needs
.It may not be viable to run a mini-grid .Does not use fossil fuels as the natural sun on solar PV alone. irradiance is sufficient to trigger energy transformations into electricity thus .Battery bank replacement considering reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. a cycle of 3-4years may not be convincing on commercial basis . Easy technology especially where plug and play systems are involved .Lack of awareness among end users on potential benefits of SPV for
.It’s a free source that can be tapped in cooking and lighting areas where thresholds are met
.Lack of clear standards and .Easily coupled in attempt to develop regulations allowing low quality hybrid systems devices on the market
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4.2. Wind energy Wind energy is one of the cleanest sources of power being adopted by several countries in the world. Kenya is putting its foot forward in meeting her energy demands using wind as a resource alongside major resource bases such as geothermal and hydro. Its non-polluting attribute makes it very relevant for replacing the expensive fossil fuels whose volumes dwindle day by day. The resource is abundant in the dry regions of Northern Kenya. Investors are increasingly developing interest in wind energy exploitation. Among the most recent is KenGen’s 5.1MW farm in Ngong comprising six 850kW turbines installed in August 2009, 610MW are by independent power producers comprising of 300MW by Lake Turkana Wind Power, 60MW Aeolus Kinangop wind, 100MW Aeolus Ngong’ wind, 60MW Osiwo Ngong wind, 60MW Aperture Green Ngong’ and 30MW Daewoo Ngong wind (Kipeto, 2012).
Depending on meteorological parameters that vary across Kenya, the best wind sites can be located in Meru North, Nyeri, Nyandarua, Marsabit, Samburu and Ngong Hills. On average the country has an area of close to 90,000 square kilometers with very excellent wind speeds of 6m/s(ibid). Kenya has a proven wind potential of as high as 346W/m2 . Prospection is pragmatic if any plans are to be executed towards installing wind turbine. One of the crucial information needed when evaluating the wind energy potential of any given area or site is a reliable wind resource data and surface wind speed and direction from a number of well distributed stations in the region. That is, spatial and temporal variations in the wind, turbulence and how the wind resource is affected by terrain. At micro level, some local firms are manufacturing and marketing wind turbines and mechanical wind pumps for water pumping (Oludhe, 2007).
Operational overview of a wind energy facility 4.2.1. Capacity factor This is the measure of productivity a given turbine would yield at a site at a particular time. It is the ratio of actual energy produced in a given period, to the hypothetical maximum possible, i.e. running full time at rated power. Since no wind plant runs full time, it is impossible to have 100% productivity. However, capacity factor should not be mistaken for efficiency. Efficiency is the ratio of the useful output to the effort input – in this case, the input and the output are energy. The types of efficiency relevant to wind energy production are thermal, mechanical, and electrical efficiencies (University of Machutte).1 If well prospected a wind turbine may provide on average a third of the maximum power of the generator representing a maximum capacity factor of 33%. The geographical location of a wind farm greatly affects its capacity factor. According to Boccard (2008), the design of the turbine too affects CF. For a private investor, the
1http://www.umass.edu/windenergy/publications/published/communityWindFactSheets/RERL_Fact_Sheet_2a_C apacity_Factor.pdf
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net present return of a wind turbine is proportional to its average CF over the 20 years lifetime of the equipment.
4.2.2. Functionality When wind blows over the blades, air is unequally spread over due to the design of the blades. That is, air flows faster over one side of the blade than the other. As such, the rotor starts rotating. Wind turbines operate when the wind speed is within certain limits. Typical limits are 3-4m/s and 25m/s .Beyond the cut-in limit, the rotor stops hence protecting the facility. In endeavor to control functionality of the turbines to operate within safe range, they are either designed in fixed operational mode or allowed to vary within certain ranges depending on the capacity of the system. Stall and pitch regulation are the two common approaches to regulating the power output during high winds. With stall regulation, an increase in wind speed beyond the rated speed causes progressive stalling of the airflow over the rotor. Tip brakes are used to brake the wind turbine when the wind gets excessively strong. In the case of pitch-regulated machines, each turbine blade can rotate about its own axis. The "pitch angle" of the turbine blade varies with wind speed. This alters the aerodynamic performance of the rotor. When the wind gets too strong, the leading edge of the blade actually faces the wind so that the wind turbine brakes. The shaft is connected to a gearbox that increases rotation speed of the generator converting rotational energy into electrical energy. The resulting electrical energy is transmitted to a transformer at the base of the tower which converts the electricity to appropriate voltage for distribution, say to the national grid. Figure 5 below shows parts of a wind turbine.
Figure 5:Parts of a typical wind turbine. Source: Renewable UK2.
2 http://www.renewableuk.com/en/renewable-energy/wind-energy/how-it-works.cfm#sthash.ZrhXYQSr.dpuf
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The maximum power of a wind facility depends on cross sectional area and cube of wind velocity at any particular time. The following equation holds; 1 3 Power = Cp /2 ρAV
Where ; ρ is air density at the site A is the cross sectional area swept by the blades V is the velocity of wind at the site
Cp = Power co-efficient of turbine, (ranges from 0.25 to 0.45) (theoretical maximum = 0.59)
4.2.3. The Rotor Blades These are fiberglass-reinforced polyester blades (commonly 3) mounted to a central hub to extract kinetic energy from wind. The number of blades is determined by various factors including aerodynamic efficiency, complexity, cost, noise, and aesthetics. The hub contains the electro-hydraulic motors used to change the pitch of the blades altering blade rotation. The shape of the blades enhances the wind to create a pocket of pressure as it passes behind it. The pressure causes turbine rotation. Usually the blades rotate between 10 and 20 revolutions per minute in wind speeds of 5 to 15 m/s.
4.2.4. The Gearbox This is essential for increasing the speed of rotation of the blades. Alternatively, the turbine can also have a direct drive system which uses variable blade pitch. The second option results into a quiet operating environment.
4.2.5. Power Generator It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Induction process using a magnetic field enhances the transformation. The output of the generator is dependent on the equation above.
4.2.6. The Nacelle Nacelle harbors significant components necessary for efficient operation of the turbine including the generator and gearbox. It is fitted to the tower and maintains the blades facing the wind by an electric/hydraulic yaw unit at its connection to the tower. The spinning blades are attached to the generator through a series of gears. Gears are essential in increasing the rotational speed of the blades to the generator speed of over 1,500 rpm. The spinning action of the generator results into production of electricity. An anemometer and wind vane are mounted on the nacelle tail feeding in wind data(speed and direction and strength) through an electronic controller which adjusts the blade pitch and yaw accordingly.
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4.2.7. The Tower This is a tubular structure constructed from rolled steel plates welded together with flanges .It maintains the turbines erected in order to intercept wind. It supports the nacelle and designed to allow for maintenance at its top. It can range from 20m to 110meters depending on intended power output and use. For instance, towers on turbines meant for water pumping are normally lower than those designed to specifically supply electricity to the grid.
Opportunities presented by wind energy Challenges presented by wind energy
.Supports development of low-carbon .Site dependent economies .High initial cost can be prohibitive to .Efficient for provision of off-grid lower income households household electricity needs including powering agro-industry .Back up may be required for continuous power .Does not require refueling after initial facility establishment .Have a risk of noise pollution especially in the case where they are .At the household level, a wind home installed on the roofs system does not require large piece of land compared to other resources such as hydro. .There is little awareness about the technology hindering commercial .Wind systems attract minimal viability maintenance costs .Components are prone to reliability .It’s a free resource that can be tapped in concerns due to lack of local areas where thresholds are met standardization criteria
.Prone to ornithological conflicts .Easily coupled in attempt to develop hybrid systems
5. Bioenergy Biomass is the most exploited form of renewable energy in Kenya mainly for cooking and occasional lighting needs. Bioenergy has traditionally been one of the most dominant source of energy worldwide, accounting for 14% of the world primary energy supplies and about 80% of the global renewable energy supply. Currently we witness increased interest in modern bioenergy both by governments and industry in developed and developing countries due to its potential to reduce carbon dioxide emissions ensure energy security and help further rural development. Biomass presents many opportunities if sustainably harnessed and utilized. Besides usage as a domestic energy resource, firms are recognizing the embedded potential. For example, Mumias Sugar Company (a private entity), generates 35 MW of electricity through
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cogeneration out of which 26 MW is dispatched to the grid. However, production, conversion, transportation, and use of bioenergy also bear environmental, social, and economic risks. Meanwhile figure 6 below gives an overview of use of selected fuels for cooking in Kenya between 2008 and 2011.
Figure 6: National fuel consumption between 2008 and 2011 Adopted from NCCAP, 2013
Approximately 70% of Kenyans use biomass as fuel, with 90% in rural areas exclusively using the resource as main cooking fuel. Occasionally, this is combusted using traditional jikos, which use more wood. Inefficient cook stoves, not only emit large amounts of particulate matter and carbon monoxide but also contribute to deforestation increasing chances of climate variability and eventually change. In Kenyan market, most improved biomass cook stoves are fall within the natural draft category with only three models categorized as forced draft. Forced draft cook stoves are superior to natural draft due to their ability to minimize indoor air pollution and consume less fuel compared to improved natural draft. Below are some of the models of improved cook stoves present on the market in Kenya;
5.1. Natural draft
Environfit Ecojet StoveTec
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Traditional metal charcoal stove Three stone jiko Ecozoom stove
Zasawa Charcoal Stove Maasai Stove Fixed Ceramic Stove
KCJ/Jiko bora Portable Ceramic Stove1 Portable Ceramic Stove2
5.2. Forced draft biomass stoves
Phillips forced draft stove IDE cook stove
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These stoves apply the gasification feature during combustion hence called micro-gasifies. However, development of biomass gasification appliances/plants has not yet penetrated Kenyan market on a considerable scale.
Bioethanol cook stoves
Dometic AB Motor Baraka
The bioethanol cook stoves above were piloted by African Centre for Technology studies and Practical Action East africa under the support from United Nations Development Programme in informal setting so Kiumu(Nyalenda). Motor baraka on the left is the local prototype stove. During the project implementaion period(2011-2013), it was noted that lack of supportive policy framework for biofules utilization was the major constrain towards acqusition and use of the fuel as a household energy source.
5.3. Biogas Biogas is a combustible gas, produced through fermentation process when organic materials such as animal waste, urine and kitchen wastes are anaerobically digested by Archaea, a micro- organisms that is present naturally in the environment. Hydrolysis of wastes leads to formation of acetate and hydrogen that are later converted into fatty acids before eventual conversion into methane and other gases. The product is a combination of several gases namely, methane (CH4), carbon (iv) oxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H4S) and ammonia (CH3).Methane component is the most important part of the product that is necessary for the biogas to meet the functions for which its intended. The system works efficiently if methane component is above 60%. Biogas technology has been in existence since 1957 in Kenya. It has occasionally received promotion from non-governmental and government actors. However, earlier evaluations showed that, unfortunately, a high proportion of digesters appear to operate below capacity, are dormant or in disuse after construction because of management, technical, socio-cultural and economic problems. Much of the installations were done in 1980s’ and 1990s’ (Gitonga, 1997). With
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increased advocacy during the period 2010 to date, several digesters have been established both for commercial and domestic purposes. Since 2011, Biogas International has installed 200 Flexi Biogas systems. Other organizations such as , Pioneer technologies limited, SNV and Sustainable Community Development Organization have been involved in capacity building especially among farmer community for adoption of biogas systems to provide cooking and lighting solutions as well as power small farm engines. They have too installed a number of systems besides Biogas International. There are three main technologies used in biogas installation in Kenya. These include floating drum, fixed dome, and tubular reactors. Mainly, a biogas system is composed of substrate inlet (the wastes and water), digester, slurry outlet, gas reservoir, and gas burner.
Table 1: A comparison of different biogas technologies in Kenya
Type of biogas digester /Issue Floating drum -16m3 Fixed Dome - 16m3 Plastic Tubular 9 m3
Average cost of installation (€) 1188-1403 712-1426 399 Ease of use/operation Easy Very easy Easy Perception A bit dirty, but good Very good On trial Efficiency Needs time Needs time Works faster Ease of installation Simple to Complex Very complex Simple Durability At least 30 years At least 30 years 15 years (est) Contractors needed to install 2-3 4-6 1
Technical problems reported Some Very few Quite a few
Extension/technical support Limited Some A little
Minimum cattle/TLU needed 3-4 2-4 2
Maintenance Every 3-4 years Minimal Unknown Numbers installed >1000 (by 2007) 300-800 (by 2007) 150 – 200 (by 2007)
Source: Shell Foundation, (2007)
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Opportunities presented by Biogas Challenges facing Biogas adoption
. It’s a cleaner form of energy . Lack of awareness about the technology
. Technologies such as floating drum are by many potential users
relatively cheap to install. . The high costs of installation . Once installed, biogas saves on cost of fuel . Need for land tenure acquisition . Installation and maintenance requires . Time that would otherwise be used in skilled technicians not readily available sourcing for firewood is used for other in the local set up constructive chores . Many users consider recharge as a dirty . Creates good atmosphere for studies in the evening for school-going children activity . Ensures energy security as long as one . Difficulty in getting some parts observes proper maintenance necessary for installation on local . No risk of indoor air pollution and market associated ailments . Varying climate and weather patterns . Readily available slurry supplements . Lack of standards to enhance
agricultural production quality(KEBS is in the process of . By utilizing methane, biogas reduces green finalizing regulations for biogas) house gas concentrations in the atmosphere . User training is required . It is easy to monitor and regulate the system . Social-cultural considerations . Use of wastes means no competition with . System failure food crops
6. Regulatory environment
6.1. Feed-in-Tariff (FiT) A feed-in-tariff is an economic instrument designed to encourage investment in and production of renewable energy sources. This works like a scheme that pays people for creating their own electricity from sources regarded as low-carbon emitting. Kenya feed-in-tariff policy was revised in 2012 and seeks to promote electricity production by independent power producers from wind, biomass, small hydro, geothermal, biogas and solar. In its entirety, the 2012 Fit policy sought to; a) Facilitate resource mobilization by providing investment security and market stability for investors in electricity generation from renewable energy sources; b) Reduce transaction and administrative costs and delays associated with the conventional procurement processes; c) Encourage private investors to operate their power plants prudently and efficiently so as to maximize returns.
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In the case of wind energy resource, the government through the ministry of energy and petroleum has mapped out potential areas prospective of the resource. Thus, interested investors must be located not less than a radius of fifty kilometers from sites where the Ministry installed wind energy data collection devices for resource mapping and sites already approved for development (MoEP, 2012). For both wind and solar resources, the tariff is as outlined in table 2 below. The Fit apply for 20 years from the date of first commissioning of the power plant or energy facility. Table 2: Fit Application schedule and procedures
Milestone Responsibility Timeline
Project applicant identifies and undertakes a feasibility assessment Applicant of proposed project
Submission of Expression of Interest(EoI) Project Application Applicant Start Form to Ministry of Energy and Petroleum (MoEP)
Review of EoI: may be approved for 3 yr. exclusivity period or FiT Committee 3 months rejected; applicant may be required to provide further information in support of EoI before acceptance or rejection
Project full Feasibility Study Applicant 2years
Review of feasibility study FiT Committee 3 months
Conclusion of non-negotiable Power Purchase Agreement Applicant/off-taker 4 months
Approval of Power Purchase Agreement by national Regulator Regulator 3 months
Project development, construction and commissioning Applicant 1-3years
Table 3: Feed-in-Tarrif for minimum capacities Technology Installed Standard FiT Min. Capacity Max. Capacity Capacity (MW) (USD/kWh) (MW) (MW) Solar (Grid) 0.5 - 10 0.12 0.5 10 Solar (off-grid) 0.5 - 10 0.20 0.5 1 Wind 0.5 - 10 0.11 0.5 10
Table 4: Feed-in-Tariff for maximum capacities
Technology Installed Standard FiT Min. Capacity Max. Capacity Max. Cum. Capacity (MW) (USD/kWh) (MW) (MW) Capacity (MW) Solar (Grid) 10.1 - 40 0.12 10.1 40 100 Wind 10.1 - 50 0.11 10.1 50 500
26 feasibility studies have been undertaken throughout the country. There is significant debate about the feed- in tariffs; whether they are viable or attractive enough for investment and how the government can find a balance between attracting investment in renewable energy without
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significantly increasing the cost of electricity or resorting to subsidies. This presents a challenge and opportunity for advocacy interventions (KEREA, 2012).
6.2. Policy overview The government of Kenya has undertaken a number of policy review initiatives geared towards promoting adoption of renewable energy technologies in the country despite existence of gaps in the sector. The most resent policy reforms can be traced from the Energy Act of 2006 (No. 12) which articulates the need to promote renewable energy resources. The Sessional Paper No.4 of 2004 had set green light towards an environment that would increase access to energy. It spelled out Kenya’s national energy approach with specific strategies and their implementation modalities. Currently, there is draft energy bill of 2012 that is expected for tabling in parliament. The draft has been introduce-d in a number of forums for stakeholder deliberations and feedback.
Prior to Sessional paper No.4 of 2004 and energy policy of 2006; a number of reviews had been undertaken since independence. Starting with Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965, this based on Electric Power Act (CAP 314) that had been used to regulate the sector. Sessional Paper No. 1 of 1986, another landmark policy blueprint but did not focus much on the power sector. Instead, it called for the establishment of the Department of Price and Monopoly Control to monitor acts of restraint of trade and to enforce pricing in the energy sector. In 1997, Electric Power Act was legislated to replace CAP 314 and take on board new developments, and to facilitate private sector participation in the provision of electricity. Still, this did not provide necessary instruments to attract private sector investment.
The Electric Power Act of 1997 led to the establishment of Energy Regulatory Board in 1998. The board had a sole objective of regulating the generation, transmission, and distribution of electric power in Kenya. The same saw the establishment of Kenya Electricity Generating Company to handle generation aspects initially performed by Kenya Power and Lighting Company. The Electric Power Act 1997 also provided for rural electrification on a limited scale using renewable energy technologies. One thing that has not been adequately addressed and hopes to be considered before the draft energy bill is signed into law is the inconsistency of various regulations from related ministries.
7. Conclusion
Energy poverty in the country is very high and this quests for a strategic approach incorporating all stakeholders in the sector. Lack of access to modern forms of energy has constrained development especially in the rural areas. There is need to develop and adopt policies that address harmful economic, social and environmental impacts. Such policies may include
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targeted income subsidies to the poor or marginalized, and micro-enterprises (SMEs), and differential taxation to encourage or discourage the use of certain fuels (UNEP, 2006).
A number of options including but not limited to the following are necessary to change conditions for energy access ; strong government commitment; readiness to attract and absorb RET financing; adequate capacities to plan, adapt, implement, maintain and monitor renewable energy technologies. Putting in place adequate incentives and clear implementing mechanisms, such as economic instruments, obligations, regulations, and standards that ensure quality and consistency in interventions.
Though government’s efforts can be recognized in her willingness to support exploitation of renewable especially the policy reviews discussed above, there is still a pressing need for coherent and consistent strategies, regulations, and incentives for private sector attraction into national and county energy investment. Whenever tradeoffs arise, it is proper if these are tackled in the light of increasing access to clean energy services by pro-poor population than anything else.
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