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On Fragile Soils. Place-Making and Unsustainable Tourism in Northern Peru

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On Fragile Soils. Place-Making and Unsustainable Tourism in Northern Peru Building a ‘Paradise’ on Fragile Soils. Place-making and Unsustainable Tourism in Northern Peru. by FERNANDO GONZÁLEZ-VELARDE School of Modern Languages Newcastle University A thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of Newcastle University for the award of the degree Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Latin American Studies. August, 2013 - Abstract Building a ‘Paradise’ on Fragile Soils. Place-making and Unsustainable Tourism in Northern Peru. This thesis critically examines the current characteristics of the tourism industry in Peru. By taking the case of the coastal district of Mancora, Northern Peru, this study explores processes of place-making occurring in a context of neoliberal reform, whereby territories highly vulnerable to the ‘El Niño’ phenomenon are developed into tourist attractions. The approach of this thesis is interdisciplinary, using multi-sited ethnography and Critical Discourse Analysis as key instruments. The interpretative framework relies on anthropological theory about the nature and society interface; studies about socio-economic development, sustainable tourism and neoliberalism; debates concerning the socio-cultural elaboration of space, place, and identity in post- colonial societies; as well as literature on natural disasters. By portraying tourism as an efficient tool for economic growth, businessmen and national elites are seeking to transform the identity of Northern Peru into an ‘attractive’ tourist destination. Whilst this is expected to develop rural populations and the nation, the overwhelming enthusiasm triggered by tourism revenues has widely neglected the socio-cultural and environmental impacts this industry generates and, more importantly, the cyclical exposure of this region to the ‘El Niño’ phenomenon. Recent occurrences of this natural event provoked millions of dollars worth of damage, severely hitting the economic development of the country. In a context of global warming, this thesis analyses how tourism and neoliberalism provoke changes in the concepts used to relate to the natural environment and place in post-colonial societies, thus increasing socio- cultural differences, raising conditions of vulnerability and threatening the identities of rural populations. In particular, this multi-sited ethnography explores the process of place-making that developed the former fishing village of Mancora into a tourist destination and the socio- environmental problems prompted within this environmentally fragile territory. This is complemented with a critical analysis of the discourses that support tourism growth and an exploration of the role of the Peruvian state in governing the tourism industry and the use of natural resources. Ultimately, this thesis questions the current role of the tourism industry in developing Peruvian society and reflects on whether the current model of tourism development is increasing conditions of vulnerability of rural populations. i Acknowledgments I would like to say thank you to all the persons and institutions that have supported me in the process of researching and writing my Ph.D. thesis. It would have not been possible to start and complete this project without the support given by Newcastle University and the School of Modern Languages. Particularly, I would like to thank Dr. Elizabeth Andersen, Head of the School, and Prof. Henrike Laehnemann. Having Dr. Patricia Oliart and Prof. Rosaleen Howard as supervisors has been a very challenging and nurturing experience but, above all, a great privilege. Without their expertise, experience and understanding of the region of Latin America, my project would have remained as a group of unexplored ideas without coherence. Patricia’s support throughout this process has been enormous. I would also like to thank all members of the Americas Research Group at Newcastle University and Dr. Constanza Ocampo-Raeder from Maine University, U.S. Hannah Francis’s help, patience and emotional support during the final years of my research allowed me to complete this project successfully; I am massively grateful to her. The support and company of my colleagues, Sarah Duggan, Sarah Bennison, Dr. Ximena Cordova, Dr. Jane Carnaffan, Andrea Wilkinson, Natalie Cresswell, Cécilia Gil, Gary Jenkings, María Manresa, Dr. Jo Lumley and many others, made this a shared process and therefore less difficult. Without my friends here in Newcastle, Arancha, Paco, Roberto, Katerina, Tom, Alice, Hilary, Mariley and Tom; my friends in Lima, Juan Pablo, Hernan, Paco, Tika, Pascual, Pablo, Sebas, Alvaro, Luis Felipe and Eliana; and my friends in Mancora, José and his family and Edward, I would have probably lost my sanity as I was doing my research. Thanks to all of them. Most importantly, I would like to thank my family. Despite the difficulties and challenges that life gave to us recently, we supported each other like a family and we kept close to each other all the time. Fernando, Guisella, Alonso, Fiorella and my ‘ahijado’ Julian, thank you for everything. Finally, I would like to thank all the people who were involved in my project, providing or facilitating me access to crucial information for my research. ii Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Tourism in Northern Peru in a Context of Neoliberal Reform ..................................... 1 1.2 The ‘El Niño’ Phenomenon in Northern Peru............................................................... 3 1.3 Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 7 1.4 The Thesis Structure ..................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 2 Tourism, Place-making and Vulnerability ................................................................. 13 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 13 2.2 Dominant Elites and the Tourism Industry ................................................................. 13 2.2.1 Colonialism ......................................................................................................... 13 2.2.2 Discourse of Development .................................................................................. 17 2.2.3 Neoliberalism ...................................................................................................... 23 2.3 Transforming Local Spaces into Tourist Destinations ................................................ 26 2.3.1 Understanding Processes of Place-Making ........................................................ 26 2.3.2 Transforming Places, Transforming Nature ....................................................... 31 2.4 Expanding the Tourism Industry within a Vulnerable Territory................................. 35 2.4.1 Sustainable Tourism and Tourism Commons ..................................................... 35 2.4.2 Increasing Vulnerability and Perceiving Risk .................................................... 42 Chapter 3 Methodology .............................................................................................................. 47 3.1 Research Motivations .................................................................................................. 47 3.2 The Research Process.................................................................................................. 51 3.2.1 Getting Ready for the ‘Field’ .............................................................................. 51 3.2.2 The Process of Fieldwork ................................................................................... 52 3.3 Research Methods ....................................................................................................... 59 3.3.1 Multi-sited Ethnography ..................................................................................... 59 3.3.2 Research Techniques: interviews, participant observation & archival research 61 3.4 Analysis....................................................................................................................... 64 3.4.1 Critical Discourse Analysis ................................................................................ 66 Chapter 4 Socio-Historical Process of Making Mancora a Tourist Destination ......................... 69 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 69 4.2 From ‘Hacienda Mancora’ to a ‘Fishing Village’ (1880 – 1970) ............................... 70 4.2.1 Haciendas in Piura and ‘Hacienda Mancora’ (1880 – 1940) ............................ 70 4.2.2 Caleta Máncora (1930 – 1970): Fishing Boom .................................................. 76 4.3 Beginnings of Tourism (1970 – 2000) ........................................................................ 83 4.3.1 First Contacts: the Pioneers and the Mancoreños (1970 – 1983) ...................... 85 iii 4.3.2 Visionaries and Las Pocitas (1983 – 1989) ........................................................ 88 4.3.3 Tourism Stakeholders (1990 – 2000) .................................................................. 93 4.4 Structural Changes on Land Possession: The Comunidad Campesina of Mancora... 95 4.4.1 The Social and Economic context during the 1960s ........................................... 96 4.4.2 Velasco’s Agrarian Reform and the
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