sign in sign up
<<
Home , Champ (folklore), Green Mountains, Lakes to Locks Passage, Lake Champlain, Missisquoi Bay, Vermont Route 78

Champlain

For ships named after the lake, see USS Lake Cham- plain. For homonymy, see Champlain.

Lake Champlain (French: Lac Champlain) is a nat- ural freshwater lake in , located mainly within the borders of the (states of and ) but partially situated across the – United States border in the Canadian province of . The New York portion of the includes the eastern portions of Clinton County and Essex County. Most of this area is part of the . There are recreational opportunities in the park and along the relatively undeveloped coastline of . The cities of Plattsburgh, New York and Burlington, Vermont are on the west and east shores of the lake, respectively, and the of , New York is located in the southern part of the region. The Quebec portion is located in the regional county municipalities of Le Haut- Richelieu and Brome-Missisquoi.

1 Geology

The Champlain Valley is the northernmost unit of a land- form system known as the Great Appalachian Valley, which stretches from Quebec to . The Cham- plain Valley is a physiographic section of the larger Saint Lawrence Valley, which in turn is part of the larger Appalachian physiographic division.[1] It is one of numerous large located in an arc from through the northern United States and into the of Canada. Although it is smaller than each of the : Ontario, Erie, Huron, Superior, or Michigan, Lake Champlain is a large body of . Approximately 1,269 km2 (490 sq mi) in area, the lake is roughly 201 km (125 mi) long, and 23 km (14 mi) across at its widest point.[2][3] The maximum depth is approximately 400 feet (120 m). The lake varies seasonally from about 95 to 100 ft (29 to 30 m) above mean sea level.[4]

1.1 Hydrology Landsat photo Lake Champlain is situated in the Lake Champlain Val- ley between the of Vermont and the of New York, drained northward and downstream of . It also receives the wa- by the 106-mile (171 km)-long into the ters from the 32-mile (51 km)-long , so its St. Lawrence River at Sorel-Tracy, Quebec northeast basin collects waters from the northwestern slopes of the

1 2 2 HISTORY

Lake Champlain near Burlington during sunset. Museum - Green Mountains, Lake Champlain - Winck- worth Allan Gay - overall Green Mountains of Vermont and the northernmost east- ern peaks of the Adirondack Mountains of New York. and 19th centuries. The lake drains nearly half of Vermont. About 250,000 A variety of Native American names for the lake were people get their drinking water from the lake.[5] recorded by historians. Many historical works give Cani- The lake is fed by , the Winooski, Poultney, aderi Guarunte as the name for the lake (mean- Missisquoi, and Lamoille Rivers in Vermont, and the ing: mouth or door of the country); the lake was an im- [9] Ausable, Chazy, Boquet, Saranac and La Chute rivers in portant northern gateway to their lands. A number of New York. other sources give Petonbowk (meaning the lake in be- tween) as the name in their Algonquian language It is connected to the by the Champlain for the lake.[10] The St. Francis/Sokoki Abenaki Band, Canal. who make their home along the Masipskiwibi River (in Portions of the lake freeze each winter, and in some Missisquoi language, “Crooked River”) in northwestern winters the entire lake surface freezes, referred to as Vermont, call the lake Bitawbagok, which has the same “closing”.[6] The lake temperature reaches an average of meaning as Petonbowk.[11] Some early 21st-century ar- 70 °F (21 °C) in July and August.[7] ticles appeared during the Champlain Quadricentennial (2009) claiming Ondakina as the “local” native name for the lake, but none cites a verifiable source.[12][13] 1.2 Chazy Reef

The Chazy Reef is an extensive carbonate 2.1 Colonial America and the Revolution- rock formation which extends from to Quebec ary War and Newfoundland. It occurs in prominent outcropping at Goodsell Ridge, , the northernmost island in Lake Champlain. The oldest reefs are around “The Head” of the south end of the island; slightly younger reefs are found at the Fisk Quarry; and the youngest (the famous coral reefs) are lo- cated in fields to the north.[8] Together, these three sites provide a unique narrative of events which took place over 450 million years ago in the ocean in the Southern Hemisphere, long before the emergence of Lake Cham- Map of Lac Champlain, from Fort de Chambly up to Fort St- plain twenty thousand years ago. Fréderic in Nouvelle . Cadastral map showing conces- sions and seigneuries on the coasts of the lake according to 1739 surveying.

2 History allocated concessions all along lake Cham- plain to French settlers, and built forts to defend the wa- The lake was named after the French explorer Samuel terways. In colonial times, Lake Champlain was used de Champlain, who encountered it in 1609. While the as a water passage (or, in winter, ice) between the Saint ports of Burlington, Vermont; Port Henry, New York; Lawrence and the Hudson valleys. Travelers found it eas- and Plattsburgh, New York today are primarily used by ier to journey by boats and sledges on the lake rather small craft, ferries and lake cruise ships, they were of sub- than to go overland on the unpaved and frequently mud- stantial commercial and military importance in the 18th bound roads of the time. The northern tip of the lake at 2.3 Modern history 3

Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec (known as St. John in 2.3 Modern history colonial times under British rule) is a short distance from Montreal. The southern tip at Whitehall (Skenesborough in revolutionary times) is a short distance from Saratoga, Glens Falls, and Albany, New York. Forts were built at Ticonderoga and Crown Point (Fort St. Frederic) to control passage on the lake in colo- nial times. Important battles were fought at Ticonderoga in 1758 and 1775. During the Revolutionary War, the British and Americans conducted a frenetic shipbuilding race through the Spring and Summer of 1776 at opposite ends of the lake, fighting a significant naval engagement on October 11 at the Battle of . While it was a tactical defeat for the Americans and the small fleet led by was almost entirely destroyed, the Americans gained a strategic victory. The British inva- sion was delayed long enough so that the approach of A 1902 photograph of Fort Henry at Lake Champlain. winter prevented the fall of these forts until the follow- ing year. In this period, the gained In the early 19th century, the construction of the strength and was victorious at Saratoga. connected Lake Champlain to the Hudson River system, allowing north-south commerce by water from to Montreal and . In 1909, 65,000 people celebrated the 300th anniver- 2.2 sary of the French discovery of the lake. Attending dig- nitaries included President William Howard Taft, along with representatives from France, Canada and the United During the War of 1812, British and American forces Kingdom.[14][15] faced each other in the Battle of Lake Champlain, also known as the , fought on Septem- In 1929, then-New York Governor Franklin Roosevelt ber 11, 1814. This ended the final British invasion of the and Vermont Governor John Weeks, dedicated the first northern states during the War of 1812. It was fought bridge to span the lake, built from Crown Point to [16] just prior to the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, and the Chimney Point. This bridge lasted until December American victory denied the British any leverage to de- 2009. Severe deterioration was found, and the bridge mand exclusive control over the Great Lakes or territorial was demolished and replaced with the Lake Champlain gains against the states. Bridge, which opened in November 2011. Three US Naval ships have been named after this bat- On February 19, 1932, boats were able to sail on Lake tle, including the USS Lake Champlain (CV-39), the USS Champlain. It was the first time that the lake was known [17] Lake Champlain (CG-57), and a cargo ship used during to be free of ice during the winter at that time. . Lake Champlain briefly became the nation’s sixth Great Following the War of 1812, the US Army began construc- Lake on March 6, 1998, when President Clinton signed tion on "Fort Blunder", an unnamed fortification built Senate Bill 927. This bill, which reauthorized the at the northernmost end of Lake Champlain to protect National Sea Grant Program, contained a line declaring against attacks from British Canada. Its nickname came Lake Champlain to be a Great Lake. This status enabled from a surveying error: the initial phase of construction its neighboring states to apply for additional federal re- on the fort turned out to be taking place on a point .75 search and education funds allocated to these national re- miles (1.21 km) north of the Canadian border. Once this sources. Following a small uproar, the Great Lake sta- error was spotted, construction was abandoned. Locals tus was rescinded on March 24 (although New York and scavenged materials used in the abandoned fort for use in Vermont universities continue to receive funds to monitor [18] their own homes and public buildings. and study the lake). By the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842, the US- Canadian border was adjusted northward to include the 2.4 “”, Lake Champlain monster strategically important site of “Fort Blunder” on the US side. In 1844, work was begun to replace the remains of In 1609 wrote that he saw a lake the 1812-era fort with a massive new Third System ma- monster five feet (1.5 m) long, as thick as a man’s thigh, sonry fortification known as Fort Montgomery. Portions with silver-gray scales a dagger could not penetrate. The of this fort are still standing. alleged monster had 2.5 foot (0.76 m) jaws with sharp 4 2 HISTORY

and dangerous teeth. Native Americans claimed to have as a model that will produce positive results for Lake seen similar monsters 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m). This Champlain. mysterious creature is likely the original Lake Cham- [19]:20 In 2007, Vermont banned phosphates for dishwasher use plain monster. The monster has been memorialized starting in 2010. This will prevent an estimated 2–3 in sports teams names and mascots: the Vermont Lake short tons (1.8–2.7 t) from flowing into the lake. While Monsters and mascot (Champ) of the state’s minor league [20] this represents 0.6% of the phosphate pollution, it took baseball team. A Vermont Historical Society publi- US$1.9 million to remove the pollutant from treated cation recounts the story and offers possible explana- wastewater, an EPA requirement.[29] tions for accounts of the so-called monster: “floating logs, schools of large sturgeons diving in a row, or flocks of Despite concerns about pollution, Lake Champlain is safe black birds flying close to the water.”[21] for swimming, fishing, and boating. It is considered a world-class fishery for salmonid species ( and ) and bass. About 81 fish species live in 2.5 Ecology the Lake, and more than 300 bird species rely on it for habitat and as a resource during migrations.[30] A pollution prevention, control, and restoration plan for [22] By 2008 at least six institutions monitoring lake water Lake Champlain was first endorsed in October 1996 health: by the governors of New York and Vermont, and the re- gional administrators of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In April 2003, the plan was 1. in 2002 the Conservation Law Foundation ap- updated and Quebec signed onto it. The plan is being pointed a “lakekeeper,” who reviews the state’s pol- implemented by the Lake Champlain Basin Program and lution controls, its partners at the state, provincial, federal and local level. It is renowned as a model for interstate and international 2. Friends of was formed in 2003, cooperation. Its primary goals are to reduce phosphorus inputs to Lake Champlain; reduce toxic contamination; 3. the Lake Champlain Committee, minimize the risks to humans from water-related health hazards; and control the introduction, spread, and impact 4. Vermont Water Resources Board hired a water qual- of non-native nuisance species to preserve the integrity of ity expert in 2008 to write water quality standards the Lake Champlain ecosystem. and create wetland protection rules, Agricultural and urban runoff from the watershed or is the primary source of excess phospho- 5. in 2007 the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources rus, which exacerbates algae blooms in Lake Champlain. appoints a “lake czar” to oversee pollution control. The most problematic blooms have been cyanobacteria, Clean and Clear, an agency of the Vermont state commonly called blue-green algae, in the northeastern government established in 2004; and part of the Lake, primarily Missisquoi Bay.[23] 6. the Nature Conservancy, a non-profit group, focuses To reduce phosphorus runoff to this part of the lake, on biodiversity and ecosystem health.[31] Vermont and Quebec agreed to reduce their inputs by 60% and 40%, respectively, by an agreement signed in 2002.[24] While agricultural sources (manure and fertiliz- In 2001, scientists estimated that farming contributed ers) are the primary sources of phosphorus (about 70%) 38% of the phosphorus runoff. By 2010, results of en- in the Missisquoi basin, runoff from developed land and vironmentally conscious farming practices, enforced by suburbs is estimated to contribute about 46% of the phos- law, had made any positive contribution to lake cleanli- phorus runoff basin-wide to Lake Champlain, and agri- ness. A federally funded study was started to analyze this cultural lands contributed about 38%.[25] problem and to arrive at a solution.[32] In 2002, the cleanup plan noted that the lake had the Biologists have been trying to control lampreys in the lake capacity to absorb 110 metric tons (110 long tons; 120 since 1985 or earlier. Lampreys are native to the area, short tons) of phosphorus each year. In 2009, a judge but have expanded in population to such an extent that noted that 218 metric tons (215 long tons; 240 short they wounded nearly all lake trout in 2006 and 70-80% tons) were still flowing in annually, more than twice what of salmon. The use of pesticides against the has the lake could handle. Sixty municipal and industrial reduced their casualties of other fish to 35% of salmon sewage plants discharge processed waste from the Ver- and 31% of lake trout. The goal was 15% of salmon and mont side.[26] 25% of lake trout.[33] In 2008, the EPA expressed concerns to the State of Ver- The federal and state governments originally budgeted mont that the Lake’s cleanup was not progressing fast US$18 million for lake programs for 2010. This was later enough to meet the original cleanup goal of 2016.[27] The supplemented by an additional US$6.5 million from the State, however, cites its Clean and Clear Action Plan[28] federal government.[34] 5

remains, as does the fixed iron trestle that bridges the lesser of the two gaps. The swing bridge over the navigation channel was removed sometime in the early 1970s.

Now called Colchester Park, the main three-mile (5 km) has been adapted and preserved as a recreation area for cyclists, runners, and anglers. Two smaller mar- ble rock-landfill causeways were also erected as part of this line that connected Grand Isle to North Hero, Ver- mont and from North Hero to Alburgh.[19]:257[35]

• The Alburgh, Vermont - Rouses Point, New York rail trestle. From sometime in the late 19th century The causeway connecting Colchester and South Hero. until 1964, this wooden trestle carried two railroads (the and the Central Vermont Rail- road) over the lake just south of the US 2 vehicular 2.6 Railroad bridge. The iron swing bridge at the center (over the navigation channel) has been removed. Most of the Historically four significant railroad crossings were built wooden pilings remain and can easily be seen look- over the lake. As of 2011, only one remains. ing south from the US 2 bridge. Part of the trestle on the Rouses Point side has been converted for use • The “floating” rail trestle from Larabees Point, Ver- as an access pier associated with the local marina. mont to Ticonderoga, New York was operated by the Addison Branch of the Rutland Railroad. It was • The Swanton - Alburgh, Vermont rail trestle. Built abandoned in 1918 due to a number of accidents in the same manner as at Rouses Point, it crosses the which resulted in locomotives and rail cars falling lake just south of Missisquoi Bay and the Canadian into the lake.[19]:257 border, within yards south of the bridge. It is still in use by the New England Central Railroad.[36]

3 Natural history

In 2010, the estimate of cormorant population, now clas- sified as a nuisance species because they take so much of the lake fish, ranged from 14,000 to 16,000. A Fish and Wildlife commissioner said that the ideal population would be 3,300 or about 3 per 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi). Cormorants had disappeared from the lake (and all northern lakes) due to the use of DDT in the 1940s and 1950s, which made their eggs more fragile and reduced breeding populations.[37] The Swanton-Alburgh trestle spans Lake Champlain between the Ring-billed gulls are also considered a nuisance. Mea- two Vermont towns, a distance of about .8 miles (1.3 km) sures have been taken to reduce their population. Author- ities are trying to encourage the return of black crowned night herons, cattle egrets, and great blue herons, which • The Island Line Causeway. This marble rock- disappeared during the time DDT was being widely landfill causeway stretched from Colchester, Ver- used.[37] mont (on the mainland) three miles (5 km) north and west to South Hero, Vermont. Two breaks in the causeway were spanned by a fixed iron trestle and a swing bridge that could be opened to allow boats to 4 Infrastructure pass. Rutland Railroad (later Rutland Railway) op- erated trains over this causeway from 1901–1961. 4.1 Lake crossings The Railway was officially abandoned in 1963, with tracks and trestles removed over the course of the The Alburgh Peninsula (also known as the Alburgh ten years that followed. The marble causeway still Tongue), extending south from the Quebec shore of the 6 4 INFRASTRUCTURE lake into Vermont, is accessible from the rest of the Since November 2011, the Lake Champlain Bridge state only via Canada. This is a distinction shared with has crossed the southern part of the lake, connecting Point Roberts, Washington, and the in Chimney Point in Vermont with Crown Point, New York. as well as Province Point (see below). Un- It replaced Champlain Bridge, which was closed in 2009 like the other three cases, this is no longer of practical because of severe structural problems found that could significance because highway bridges across the lake pro- have resulted in a collapse.[39] In 2009, the bridge had vide access to the peninsula from within the United States been used by 3,400 drivers per day,[40] and driving around (from three directions). the southern end of the lake added two hours to the trip. Ferry service was re-established to take some of the traf- fic burden. On December 28, 2009, the bridge was de- 4.1.1 Province Point, Vermont stroyed in a controlled demolition. A new bridge was rapidly constructed by a joint state commitment, open- A few kilometres to the northeast of the town of East ing on November 7, 2011.[41] Alburgh, Vermont, Province Point is the southernmost tip of a small promontory approximately 2 acres (1 To the north, US 2 runs from Rouses Point, New York ha) in size 45°00′48″N 73°11′36″W / 45.013351°N to Grand Isle County, Vermont in the town of Alburgh, 73.193257°W.[38] The promontory is cut through by the before continuing south along a chain of islands towards US-Canadian border; as such the area is a practical Burlington. To the east, Vermont Route 78 runs from an exclave of the United States contiguous with Canada. intersection with US 2 in Alburgh through East Alburgh to Swanton. The US 2-VT 78 route technically runs from the New York mainland to an extension of the mainland between two arms of the lake and then to the Vermont mainland, but it provides a direct route across the two main arms of the northern part of the lake.

4.1.3 Ferry

North of Ticonderoga, New York, the lake widens appre- ciably; ferry service is operated by the Lake Champlain Transportation Company at:

• Charlotte, Vermont to Essex, New York (may not The Champlain Bridge between New York and Vermont, demol- travel when the lake is frozen) ished in December of 2009. • Burlington, Vermont to Port Kent, New York (sea- sonal)

• Grand Isle, Vermont to Cumberland Head, part of Plattsburgh, New York (year-round icebreaking ser- vice)

While the old bridge was being demolished and the new one constructed, Lake Champlain Transportation Com- pany operated a free, 24-hour ferry from just south of the bridge to Chimney Point in Vermont at the expense of the states of New York and Vermont at a cost to the states of about $10 per car.[42][43] The most southerly crossing is the The LCTC ferry slip at Grand Isle, Vermont. Ferry, connecting Ticonderoga, New York with Shoreham, Vermont just north of the historic fort.

4.1.2 Mainland 4.1.4 Railroad Two roadways cross over the lake, connecting Vermont and New York. The Swanton, VT, to East Alburg, Vermont, rail trestle. 5.3 Lighthouses 7

4.2 Waterways

Lake Champlain has been connected to the via the Champlain Canal since the canal’s official opening September 9, 1823, the same day as the opening of the Erie Canal from Rochester on to Albany. It connects to the St. Lawrence River via the Richelieu River, with the bypassing rapids on the river since 1843. Together with these waterways the lake is part of the . The Lake Cham- plain Seaway, a project to use the lake to bring ocean- going ships from New York City to Montreal, was pro- posed in the late 19th century and considered as late as the 1960s, but rejected for various reasons. The light house in Lake Champlain at dusk as seen from Burling- ton VT

5 Surroundings • Valcour Island, New York • Juniper Island (Lake Champlain) 5.1 Major cities • Three Sisters Burlington, Vermont (pop. 42,217, 2010 Census) is the • Four Brothers[44] largest city on the lake. The 2nd and 3rd most populated cities/towns are (Plattsburgh, New York, and Colchester, • Savage Island Vermont, respectively) combined. The fourth-largest community is the city of South Burlington. • Burton Island (State Park) • Cloak Island 5.2 Islands • Garden Island (Gunboat Island)

• Crab Island, New York

• Dameas Island

• Hen Island

• Butler’s Island

• Carleton’s Prize

• Young Island,[45]

• Providence Island[46]

• Stave Island[47]

• Sunset Island At sunset, looking west from Grand Isle to Plattsburgh and Crab Island

Lake Champlain contains roughly 80 islands, three of 5.3 Lighthouses which comprise four entire Vermont towns (most of Grand Isle County). The largest islands: • There is a historic stone lighthouse located on Cumberland Head, which is privately owned. • South Hero Island, the largest, containing the towns • of Grand Isle, Vermont and South Hero, Vermont The privately owned Isle La Motte lighthouse on the northern end of the island was originally red, but it • North Hero Island, containing the town of North faded to pink over time.[48] Hero, Vermont • The privately owned cast iron Juniper Island Light • Isle La Motte, containing the town of Isle La Motte, dates from 1846. In 1954 it was deactivated and re- Vermont placed by a steel tower. 8 8 REFERENCES

USCG, Burlington, Vermont - main installation. Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife boat docked near ECHO Aquarium.

• On Point Au Roche, part of Beekmantown, New York, there is a privately owned, historic lighthouse. area. Burlington’s Waterfront Park is a revitalized indus- trial area. • Valcour Island, near the New York shore is home to Bluff Point Lighthouse, built in 1871. It was manned by a full-time lightkeeper until 1930, making it one 6 Public safety of the last lighthouses to be manned on the Lake. The Cumberland Head Light operated until 1934. Coast Guard Station Burlington provides “Search and • Split Rock Lighthouse, south of Essex, New York, Rescue, Law Enforcement and Ice Rescue services 24 near a natural boundary of the territory between the hours a day, 365 days a year.”[50] Services are also pro- Mohawk and Algonquin tribes.[49] vided by local, and state, and federal governments bor- dering on the lake, including the US Border Patrol, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, ,[52] New 5.4 Aids to navigation York State Police Marine Detail,[53] and Vermont Fish and Wildlife wardens.[54] All active navigational aids on the American portion of the lake are maintained by USCG Burlington station, along with those on international 7 See also to the east.[50] Aids to navigation on the Canadian por- tion of the lake are maintained by the Canadian Coast • Guard.[51] , post-glacial predecessor to Lake Champlain

• Île aux Noix 5.5 Parks • List of New York rivers There are a number of parks in the Lake Champlain re- gion of both Vermont and New York. Two on the New York side of the lake include Point Au 8 References Roche State Park, which have hiking and cross country skiing trails. A public beach is located on park grounds, [1] “Physiographic divisions of the conterminous U. S.”. U.S. and the Ausable Point State Park. The Cumberland Bay Geological Survey. Retrieved December 6, 2007. State Park is located on Cumberland Head, with a camp- ground, city beach, and sports fields. [2] “Champlain, Lake”. The Canadian encyclopedia. Febru- There are various parks along the lake on the Vermont ary 12, 2011. side, including in Milton, featur- [3] Veyron, Michel (1989). Dictionnaire canadien des noms ing a 2,000 feet (610 m) natural sand beach, swim- propres (in French). Éditions Larousse. p. 142. ISBN ming,canoe and kayak rentals, food concession, picnic 2-920318-06-3. grounds and a play area. At 226 acres (91 ha), Grand Isle State Park contains camping facilities, a sand volley- [4] “Lake Champlain Lake Level - King St. Ferry Dock ball court, a nature walk trail, a horseshoe pit and a play (1977-2006)". 2012-05-03. 9

[5] Curran, John (August 11, 2010). “State seeks dismissal [25] Troy A., Wang D. and Capen D. (2007 http://www.lcbp. of phosphorus lawsuit”. Burlington, Vermont: Burlington org/publication_detail.aspx?id=211). Updating the Lake Free Press. pp. 1B. Champlain Basin Land Use Data to Improve Prediction of Phosphorus Loading. Lake Champlain Basin Program. [6] Sutkoski, Matt. “Lack of ice cover might be affecting the Check date values in: |date= (help) ecology of Lake Champlain”. [26] Page, Candace (July 9, 2009). "Sewage:Judge sides with [7] “NWS Burlington Lake Champlain Forecast Page”. CLF, throws out Montpelier permit”. Burlington, Ver- mont: Burlington Free Press. pp. 4A. [8] Professor of Geology, Charlotte Mehrtens [27] Page, Candace (June 3, 2008). EPA scolds state on efforts to clean up Lake Champlain. The Burlington Free Press. [9] Hyde, Bruce (1976). A topographical description of the [28] “Vermont Clean and Clear Action Plan”. dominions of the United States of America. Ayer Publish- ing. A topographical description of the dominions of the [29] Baird, Joel Banner (June 26, 2010). “Detergents must United States of America by Thomas Pownall soon be phosphate free”. Burlington, Vermont: Burling- ton Free Press. pp. 1A. [10] Hyde, Bruce & Huden, John Charles (1962). Indian place names of New England. Museum of the American Indian, [30] ""Lake Champlain Basin Atlas: Plants and Animals”, Heye Foundation. Indian place names of New England by 2004”. Lcbp.org. Retrieved March 2, 2011. John Charles Huden [31] Page, Candace (December 14, 2008). Lake Champlain [11] “Abenaki”. Abenakination.org. Retrieved March 2, gets another watchdog. Burlington Free Press. 2011. [32] Page, Candace (July 6, 2010). “Lake Champlain cleanup effort focuses on Rock Rive6”. Burlington Free Press [12] “Indian Summer | Seven Days”. 7dvt.com. Retrieved (Burlington, Vermont). pp. 1B. March 2, 2011. [33] Page, Candace (January 22, 2009). Lamprey wounds de- [13] “Champlain’s journal: Entering 'The Lake Between'". crease. Burlington Free Press. Pqasb.pqarchiver.com. July 14, 2009. Retrieved March 2, 2011. [34] Page, Candace (July 24, 2010). “Lake scores $6.5 mil- lion”. Burlington, Vermont: Burlington Free Press. pp. [14] Hyde, Bruce (January 3, 2008). My Turn:Get ready to 1A. celebrate the 400th. The Burlington Free Press. [35] Lake Champlain New York – Vermont: Cumberland Head [15] “1909 Champlain Tercentenary Celebration of the Dis- to Four Brothers Island (Map) (23rd ed.). 1:40,000. covery of Lake Champlain”. Hrmm.org. Retrieved Washington DC: National Ocean and Atmospheric Ad- March 2, 2011. ministration. 1992.

[16] “Vermont History Timeline”. historicvermont.org. Au- [36] “State Rail & Policy Plan, 2006” (PDF). Vermont Agency gust 26, 2010. of Transportation. 2006. p. 20. [37] Page, Candace (July 11, 2010). “Cutting the cormorant [17] Barton Chronicle, retrieved August 21, 2009 population”. Burlington, Vermont: Burlington Free Press. [18] Lake Champlain, The Sixth Great Lake? - Geography pp. 1C, 8C. - 03/02/98. Geography.about.com (1998-03-06). Re- [38] wikimapia.org trieved on 2013-07-12. [39] McKinstry, Lohr (October 17, 2009). “Vital bridge at [19] Hill, Ralph Nading (1976). Lake Champlain: Key to Lib- Crown Point closed”. The Press Republican. Retrieved erty. Woodstock, Vermont: Countryman Press. October 31, 2009.

[20] “ Home Page”. The Official Site [40] NYT article of December 12, 2009 (page A12) of Minor League Baseball. 2011. Retrieved October 11, [41] “Controlled explosions bring down Lake Champlain 2011. Bridge, unsafe NY-VT span was closed in Oct.”. LA [21] “Vermont’s Very Own Monster” (PDF). Vermont Histor- Times. Associated Press. December 28, 2009. Retrieved ical Society. Retrieved October 11, 2011. January 4, 2010. [42] Bridge is costly, but ferry is more by Nick Reisman, Post- [22] “Lake Champlain Management Plan”. star.com, May 18, 2010.

[23] Watzin, M.C. (2007). Monitoring and Evaluation of [43] “Ferry At Champlain Bridge Set To Start Running”. Cyanobacteria in Lake Champlain: Summer 2006. Lake WPTZ. January 31, 2010. Champlain Basin Program. Abstract online [44] Meyers, Jeff (August 10, 2008). “Four Brothers Islands [24] “Missisquoi Bay Phosphorus Reduction Agreement, Au- a haven for a variety of birds » Local News”. Press- gust 2002” (PDF). Republican. Retrieved March 2, 2011. 10 9 EXTERNAL LINKS

[45] “Cormorants on Lake Champlain”. Nasw.org. July 3, 1996. Retrieved March 2, 2011.

[46]

[47] “A Tour of the Historic Lake Champlain Islands by Jim Millard”. Historiclakes.org. December 5, 2010. Re- trieved March 2, 2011.

[48] “Isle La Motte, VT”. Lighthousefriends.com. Retrieved May 25, 2011.

[49] “Watchtowers on the Water - NYS Dept. of Environmen- tal Conservation”. Dec.ny.gov. March 19, 2003. Re- trieved March 2, 2011.

[50] United States Coast Guard (March 5, 2009). “USCG: Sta- tion Burlington, Vermont”.

[51] (December 9, 2009). “Canadian Coast Guard - Marinfo”.

[52] Vermont State Police (November 12, 2009). “Recreation Unit and Education Unit”.

[53] New York State, Division of State Police. “Marine De- tail”. Retrieved December 11, 2009.

[54] “Vermont Fish and Wildlife”. Retrieved January 4, 2010.

9 External links

• Bloom: the Plight of Lake Champlain (PBS film se- ries)

• ECHO Lake Aquarium and Science Center - Leahy Center for Lake Champlain • Lake Champlain Community Sailing Center

• Lake Champlain Basin Atlas • Lake Champlain Basin Program

• Lake Champlain Maritime Museum • Lake Champlain Quadricentennial

• International flood study • Champlain: The Lake Between Documentary pro- duced by Vermont Public Television • Friends of Northern Lake Champlain 11

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text

• Lake Champlain Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Champlain?oldid=673868129 Contributors: Mav, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Eclecticology, Eob, Dachshund, Danny, SimonP, Flups, Nonenmac, Montrealais, Olivier, Modster, Paddu, Bjpremore~enwiki, Docu, Salsa Shark, Zoicon5, Zeiden, Indefatigable, Hajor, Robbot, PBP, Decumanus, Elf, Everyking, Bkonrad, P.T. Aufrette, R. fiend, Latitude0116, Balcer, Sam Hocevar, Neutrality, Izzycat, Oknazevad, Trevor MacInnis, Mike Rosoft, D6, Archer3, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Vsmith, Kbh3rd, Kaisershatner, Mwanner, Laurascudder, Sole Soul, Bobo192, Circeus, Sortior, Smalljim, Mareino, HasharBot~enwiki, Alan- sohn, Atlant, Keenan Pepper, Zippanova, Cdc, H2g2bob, Pauli133, Ghirlandajo, RPIRED, Woohookitty, WadeSimMiser, Schzmo, Jug- ger90, Mitomac, BD2412, Mothperson, Melesse, Loudergood, Rjwilmsi, Mfwills, Notorious4life, NoSeptember, Jonathan Taylor, Shauni, DVdm, Gplefka, YurikBot, Wavelength, RussBot, Fabartus, Zhatt, Kyorosuke, 42moxies, Bachrach44, RUL3R, Scs, William Graham, Zwobot, Kmusser, Petri Krohn, Attilios, SmackBot, Herostratus, CSZero, DCDuring, Zyxw, Gjs238, Steam5, Hmains, Betacommand, Durova, Dlohcierekim’s sock, D-Rock, Scwlong, MJBurrage, Azumanga1, Underorbit, Backspace, MrRadioGuy, Gump Stump, The PIPE, TenPoundHammer, SirIsaacBrock, JKBrooks85, Mircea, Loodog, Ckatz, Qyd, Peter Horn, Vter4life, Ofsevit, Raj Fra, Joey80, CmdrObot, Nautilator, KyraVixen, Akageorge, Skyskraper, ShelfSkewed, Mrsmaple, Ken Gallager, Whereizben, Cydebot, Tawkerbot4, SummonerMarc, Thijs!bot, Peckmeister, Dzubint, Jscarreiro, Mdotley, Yellowdesk, Aiken1986, Jimj wpg, JAnDbot, Gavrant, Albany NY, Denimadept, Pedro, VoABot II, GearedBull, Jllm06, CTF83!, Boffob, Chkap, Theletterm1973, MartinBot, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, Tgeairn, Apotheosis247, Numbo3, Gopats92, MTLskyline, Janus Shadowsong, Jackofallknowledge, Student7, Patriot4444, Thepenguin- boxer, Natl1, Idioma-bot, Pleasantville, WOSlinker, Philip Trueman, Ryan shell, Don4of4, Aaron danielg, Suriel1981, SieBot, M.thoriyan, Oysterguitarist, Fratrep, Slan-cheh, Hamiltondaniel, Maralia, Nicoleball, DeYoung9, VanishedUser 23asdsalkaka, Tanvir Ahmmed, Clue- Bot, Allycallas, PottedPork, Guillaume Hébert-Jodoin, Jayson55, Gargolla, Billyfutile, Parkwells, Star Mississippi, Bde1982, 7&6=thir- teen, Thehelpfulone, Stepheng3, Elasmosaurus, SoxBot III, NERIC-Security, Ebombard, Kwjbot, Jbeans, Good Olfactory, GoldenDaze, Addbot, Fancy-cats-are-happy-cats, Crypto-Researcher, AbruCH, Groundsquirrel13, Newslikeariver, Download, Doniago, MasloskiO, Rolf.Anderson, Bigstrat, Lightbot, Pietrow, Luckas-bot, Yobot, SmedleyButler, Rks13, AnomieBOT, Galoubet, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Cureden, Dunott, Ahodges7, Moxy, Hushpuckena, FrescoBot, Pepper, Hai3, Jc3s5h, I dream of horses, Btilm, Admiral capn, Ochawkeye, TobeBot, Bento00, Pierre5018, Burmiester, WildBot, EmausBot, Diiscool, Racerx11, GoingBatty, Jk0802, Tommy2010, ZéroBot, John Cline, H3llBot, SporkBot, Donner60, SamuelFreli, Xanchester, ClueBot NG, Nagaraju.ramanna, AvocatoBot, Compfreak7, Popasquash, KEVIN224, Guanaco55, ChrisGualtieri, APerson, Platopete, Makecat-bot, Veillg1, Bergherb, Cdogg187, Epicgenius, Truesca, NJRobbie, Hellrazer2500, ArtTraditions, Proj243, Jjh1956, Grammarian79, Soloism, IsaColeman, Thesourceofcourse, Colten619gillam, KasparBot and Anonymous: 218

10.2 Images

• File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Green_Mountains,_Lake_Champlain_-_Winckworth_Allan_Gay_-_overall.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Brooklyn_Museum_-_Green_Mountains%2C_Lake_Champlain_-_ Winckworth_Allan_Gay_-_overall.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Online Collection of Brooklyn Museum; Photo: Brooklyn Museum, 75.137_bw.jpg Original artist: Winckworth Allan Gay • File:Cgsburlington.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9c/Cgsburlington.JPG License: PD Contributors: I(Fancy-cats-are-happy-cats (talk)) created this work entirely by myself. Original artist: Fancy-cats-are-happy-cats (talk) • File:Champlain1902.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Champlain1902.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Champlain_bridge.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Champlain_bridge.JPG License: CC-BY- SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Saucemaster • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_New_York.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_New_York.svg License: Public domain Contributors: xrmap flag collection 2.7 Original artist: State of New York • File:Flag_of_Vermont.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Vermont.svg License: Public do- main Contributors: Own work: from the xrmap flag collection 2.7 Original artist: User:Denelson83 • File:LCTC_ferries_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/LCTC_ferries_2.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Lac_Champlain_(Nouvelle-France)_1739.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Lac_Champlain_ %28Nouvelle-France%29_1739.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://bd.archivescanadafrance.org/acf-pleade-3-images/ img-viewer/FRCAOM/FRCAOM_F3290_59/viewer.html Original artist: Atlas Moreau de Saint-Méry • File:Lake_Champlain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Lake_Champlain.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nagaraju.ramanna • File:Lake_Champlain_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Lake_Champlain_1.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Lake_Champlain_Landsat.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Lake_Champlain_Landsat.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Malletsbaycauseway.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Malletsbaycauseway.JPG License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Own work (Original text: I(Fancy-cats-are-happy-cats (talk)) created this work entirely by myself.) Original artist: Fancy-cats-are-happy-cats (talk) 12 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:Swanton-Alburgh_VT_Trestle.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Swanton-Alburgh_VT_ Trestle.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mfwills • File:The_light_house_in_lake_Champlain_in_the_dusk_as_seen_from_Burlington_VT..jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/5/5e/The_light_house_in_lake_Champlain_in_the_dusk_as_seen_from_Burlington_VT..jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nagaraju.ramanna • File:Vtdfgboat.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/26/Vtdfgboat.JPG License: PD Contributors: I(Fancy-cats-are-happy-cats (talk)) created this work entirely by myself. Original artist: Fancy-cats-are-happy-cats (talk)

10.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0