Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 form of statehood within the federal system. Explanations for the creation the for Explanations system. federal the within statehood of form identity frames in electoral politics and demanded political autonomy in the DOI: 10.5509/201184167 © PacificAffairs: Volume 84, No. 1March 2011 KEYWORDS:India;statehood;movements;political parties;federalism T Political PartiesandtheCreation refractive lensofmultipleregionalpoliticalhistories. marginalized groups in India continue to experience the state through the 2004, in Alliance Progressive United Congress-led the of election the with India in regime political national in change the Despite effects. regional uneven have India in level national the at shifts policy pro-poor why into on the processes that led be up to statehood, the will conclusions offer some insights analysis the of focus the While communities. marginalized of part the on citizenship economic and political of forms substantive more to lead not may processes such of result a as states of creation the why looks at ultimately It states. new creating parties of idea political the about and alignment into movements social drawing question, into borders brought have which processes the to attention draws article This India. in representation and help to make the political state improve more can responsivestates smaller to more, diverse of needs creation the whether about questions triggered has creation Their basis. non-linguistic a on India in which came into being in 2000. These are the firstto have been created in India: Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Uttarakhand, states to have been created frame for social movement mobilization. It a focuses as used on been the have mostsystem federal recentthe statehood—within states autonomy—or territorially to self-governance federal concentrated of ethnic a groups. measures This article has analyzes and how demands for India recognition political offer that apparent devices democracy, administrative with well-equipped is multi-ethnic that constitution largest world’s the As politics and resistance. It examines how, why and with what what with and why how, examines It consequences some social resistance. movements and in India have drawn onpolitics regional popular of field complex ever the of part one on focuses article his of NewStatesinIndia Questioning Borders: Social Movements, Louise Tillin A bstrAct 67 Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 ujc t epotto b pwru etra interests.” external powerful by exploitation to likewise subject and resources natural in rich likewise Pradesh, Uttar of districts 68 140. was alsoofficiallychangedtoUttarakhand. state the of name the 2007, January in and movement regional the of term preferred the been had ______Uttaranchal, of state the was formed Also … Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand named Union the of states two of … creation the through of history the of acknowledgement “Official that: states he when opinion offered commonly a expresses instance, for Guha, been expressedbylong-runningregionalsocialmovements.Ramachandra had interests whose communities, hill-dwelling or tribal represent better of these new states can be summarized as the view that they were formed to country’s diversity. The the dominant shorthand narrative about the formation of recognition institutional provides that system a federal of multi-ethnic context the in movements, social by frames identity of mobilization often draw implicitly on the idea that state formation reflects the successful of India's newest states, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Uttarakhand in 2000, Macmillan, 2007),621. force of mobilization the Jharkhand state was finally formed in the year year the in 2000.” formed finally was state Jharkhand the mobilization of force the achievement of statehoodand mobilization when movement hesocial between suggestslink direct a that makes “facedOommen with the irresistible tribal population that today accounts for approximately 26 percent of the of percent 26approximately for accounts today that populationtribal was the first of its kind in India. These districtsforest. The Tata aresteel plant established alsoin 1908 in of homeJamshedpur in areas Jharkhand tolarge and aminerals onceof deposits majoritysubstantial contain districts These case study states, Jharkhand was formed from the southern districts of Bihar. became increasingly concerned with demands for statehood. The first of the social movement activity in the two new states of Jharkhand and Uttarakhand of theprocessingsocialmovementdemandsinlocal politics. course the in place took borders of questioning the Instead, communities. through a “politics of recognition” that acknowledged the suffering of local institutional an constitute population the in groups certain of marginalization the redress to attempt simply not did borders in they change which A in context operate. political broader the of result a as claims identity foreground to encouraged are movements some Instead, categories. based interest- or identity- into neatly fall movements social that case the not is it the existing literature on social movements in India. This article submits that and in some cases link this to statehood are, however, often quite opaque in 3 2 1 The discussion will be organized around a comparison of the reasons that identity foreground to come movements social which by processes The T.K. Oommen, Guha, Ramachandra “Uttaranchal” was the name given to the state at the time of its creation. However, Uttarakhand 3

Pacific Affairs: Pacific Affairs: Volume 84,No.1–March 2011 Nation, Civil Society and Social Movements (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2004), ni atr adi te itr o te ol’ lret democracy largest world’s the of history the Gandhi: after India suffering … came … suffering adivasi 2 lentvl, TK Alternatively, 1 from the hill the from (London: (London: Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 of the new types of social movement that emerged in India in the 1970s, the in India in emerged that movement social of types new the of of Uttar Pradesh. Uttar of state parent its and Jharkhand than poor less considerably is Uttarakhand of population The 1990s. the in castes lower mobilizing specifically parties of Uttar Pradesh which, along with Bihar, saw the rise of new plains the to typescontrast upper-castein predominantly population, are a to home of demand political statehood the of epicentre the were which districts hill The Uttar of districts plains forested. heavily also is Uttarakhand state. populous India’smost neighbouring Pradesh, two and districts hill former the the second-highest level of rural has poverty in Today,the Jharkhand country. region. Uttarakhand comprises the in autonomy political for demand state’s population (2001 census), but had been at the heart of a long-standing Cambridge University Press,1998). 2003). in between Elections and Social Movements,” area: see Doug McAdam and Sidney Tarrow “Ballots and Barricades: On the Reciprocal Relationship under-researchedTarrow,andan McAdam as 2003). thisPress, University however,see to continue University Press, 2001); Jack A. Goldstone, ed., 2007,497-508. February “Recent Trends in Poverty and Inequality: Some Preliminary Results,” Himanshu, See Uttarakhand. in those of percent 14.9 and Pradesh Uttar in people of percent 33.9 Biharis, of percent 42.2 to compared line poverty the below live Jharkhandis rural of percent 42.9 ______and the political sphere builds on the work of Sidney Tarrow, which which Tarrow, operate indeterminingtheirstrategyandabilitytoachieve theirgoals. Sidney movements which of in context work political the the of on importance the emphasizes builds sphere political the and implied. simply not are they parties: “challengers” political outside the with polity, as the intertwined traditional image closely of social movements often are of “normal politics.” The “actors, fates and organisations” argues, of social socialmovements in movementsmost of the world have become an essential part between social or movements, politics, electoral non-institutionalized politics and and the institutionalized state. between boundary saw sustainedsocialmovementactivityinthe1970s. and resources, natural in rich is too it although statehood, for movement popular strong a see not did Pradesh, Madhya from formed Chhattisgarh populations to land and livelihoods in the countryside. The third new state, the exploitation of natural resources, and sought to assert the rights of local the impact on local communities of new patterns of development involving “new social movements” formed in the 1970s, which raised questions about , ed. J.A. Goldstone (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: Goldstone J.A. ed. Movements, Social and Parties States, A focus on such relationships is a departure from earlier conceptualizations 7 6 5 4 This article builds on the increasing recognition of the porosity of the of porosity the of recognition increasing the on builds article This

iny Tarrow, Sidney Jack A. Goldstone, “Introduction: Bridging Institutionalised and Noninstitutionalised Politics,” al., et McAdam Doug see overview an For 2004-05, in poverty of measure ratio” “headcount India’s of Government the to According 6 Such an emphasis on the interconnections between movements between interconnections the on emphasis an Such 4 oe i Mvmn: oil oeet ad otniu Politics Contentious and Movements Social Movement: in Power Jharkhand and Uttarakhand were both home to iconic to home both were Uttarakhand and Jharkhand Questioning Borders inIndia Perspectives on Politics States, Parties and Social Movements Cmrde Cambridge (Cambridge: Contention of Dynamics 8, no. 2 (2010): 529-542. Economic and Political Weekly 5 (Cambridge: Cambridge As Jack Goldstone (Cambridge: (Cambridge: 7

69 10 Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 negotiations with the state within the realm of what Partha Chatterjee, Chatterjee, Partha what of drawing on realm a Gramscian concept, the defines as “political within society.” state the with negotiations and demonstrations hoc ad the to voting, of levels higher from India, in growing is There recognition of communities. a wider range of marginalized political participation by on the part mobilization of the of poor modes of alignmentwithelectoralpolitics. of the 1970s. Gradually, many non-party movements have and/or region and taken up some of the issues raised by social movements moved into a degree parties, many of which have politicized new types of identity based on caste political new of emergence the and politics Indian of party dominant the development of movements, the transformation of the Congress Party from movement activity in India since the 1970s suggests a symbiosis between the co-option. of fear the of because politics party from autonomy retain to sought often enabling have themselves activists social and of system, party the outside change social mode alternative an as seen commonly also are movements political with labour parties of and social division movements analyzed in disciplinary separate bodies a of work. of But social something reflects this in India have tended to be analyzed separately from political parties. In part, because their birth is linked to a crisis in the party system, social movements in which grassroots issues became the subject of political activism. political of subject the became issues grassroots which in development, and democracy decentralized of vision participatory more a Kothari noted, the emergence of new movements wasmarginalized. the linkedaffecting issues represent toto left, a shift towards opposition including political parties, trade unions and intellectuals on the of organs established the of failure the represented they that argued have in different regions of India. Authors such as Gail Omvedtdevelopment of processes andprevailing of critiques Smitu raised movements” Kotharisocial (1985): 333-349. 70 York: ColumbiaUniversity Press,2004). of Redefinition the and Movements “Social Kothari, Democracy,” inIndiaBriefing,1993,ed.P. Oldenburg(Boulder:Westview Smitu Press,1993),139-140. 1993); Sharpe, M.E. NY: (Armonk, ______a moment of crisis in India’s established political system. commonly were described as “non-party These political formations,” reflecting their emergence at states. new became that regions the in including participation and engagement with the state. This has coincided with what with coincided has This state. the with engagement and participation for spaces altered has 1990s the from Pradesh, Uttar and Bihar especially of new forms of caste-based political party in some states of northern India, Furthermore, broader changes within electoral politics reflect different reflect politics electoral within changes broader Furthermore, Whatever the origins of social movements, however, the trajectory of social 11 10 9 8 Partha Chatterjee, Kothari, “TheNon-PartyPoliticalProcess,” 341. Omvedt, Gail Process,” Political Non-Party “The Kothari, Rajni example, for See, Pacific Affairs: Pacific Affairs: Volume 84,No.1–March 2011 Reinventing Revolution: New Social Movements and the Socialist Tradition in India in Tradition Socialist the and Movements Social New Revolution: Reinventing The politics of the governed: reflections on popular politics in most of the world (New 9 Furthermore, as Rajni as Furthermore, 8 Praxis International International Praxis Many of the “new 11 The success 10 Partly no. 3 no. Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 spaces of empowerment offered by democratic politics. and gender, for instance, and there is increasing recognitionbeen paid to some ofof the silences theof earlier movements alternativeabout issues of caste the has attention More movements. rights for framework anti-state an of utility question to begun have organizations political rights versus Human society model. “civil society” a towards activism, rights human of model Ajay Gudavarthy describes as a shift away from a “civil society versus the state” in TheSuccessofIndia’s Democracy,ed.A.Kohli(Oxford: OxfordUniversityPress,2001). (Cambridge, NY: Cambridge UniversityPress,2005). 1 (2008):29-57. ______activism. judicial or bureaucratic to confined more women’sbeen have movements, concerned with wider social or economic change, such as environmental or more successfully with engaged electoral identity-based have politics.identities) that religious By or contrast, argue regional they caste, suggest,(around Mehta movements movements Uday and Kothari Smitu Katzenstein, offers greater opportunities to certain types of movement than others. Mary important because they challenge the idea that these states were the simple are party.developments national These a as expansion its in phase critical parties, in particular the Hindu nationalist (BJP) at a for demands statehood. foreground Furthermore to the began idea of movements statehood the was seized within on by actors other politicalradical more movements, social original the of elements accommodate to sought (in both coercive and accommodating guises) in thefrom interactions between social movements, political parties and the state 1980s. As the government second section will argue The that a focus period. on statehood in this both regions resulted in accurate fairly is system party the outside challengers with demands for statehood, and that a view of social movements as primarily Jharkhand and Uttarakhand in formed were in that movements the social the early that show will 1970s section first wereThe not primarily preoccupied as part of wider research into the politics of federal reorganization in India. foreground claimsbasedonregionalidentityatparticularpointsintime. to chosen have movements, such of parts or movements, social some why between identity- and interest-based movements. Rather, it seeks to examine engagement withthestateinthisspace. for grounds changing the about optimism some also is there but brokers, of thickets transactional political shorter-term, society without the the in luxury of engage autonomy to from but politicians and choice political little 14 13 12 Nevertheless, it seems likely that the changing nature of political space political of nature changing the that likely seems it Nevertheless, The discussion draws on archival research and field interviews conducted Mary Katzenstein et al., “Social Movement Politics in India: institutions, interests, and identities,” See for instance, Stuart Corbridge et al., Ajay Gudavarthy, “Human rights movements in India,” 14 In slight contrast, this article resists positing too sharp a distinction Questioning Borders inIndia Seeing the state: governance and governmentality in India 13

Contributions to Indian Sociology 42, no. 12 The poor may have 71 Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 72 Movement inIndia,ed.K.S.Singh(New Delhi:Manohar, 1983). ______Bengal. West and state Orissa Pradesh, Jharkhand” “Greater The demanded by independence. Jaipal Singh after contained tribal-majority Party districts of Bihar,Jharkhand Madhya Adivasi Mahasabha, led by Jaipal Singh since 1938. This was reformed as the demand for a tribal-dominated Jharkhand state had been articulated by the Jharkhand has a two-century-old history of resistance in tribal areas, and the inJharkhandthe1970s Land andForest Struggles form thefocusofthisarticle. for strong popular in mobilization. was For this This reason, Jharkhand statehood. and Uttarakhand contrast demanding to Chhattisgarh, on however, focused where statehood more did not become became a subject gradually or motivating idea. In Jharkhand and Uttarakhand, social movement activists device organizational primary a it was them of none for but them to useful was it where statehood of idea the on drew 1970s early the of movements and the rights of local communities to substantive economic inclusion. The resources natural of management the in state the of role the to primarily natural of related movements social concentration by raised issues the and cases, three all In resources. ecology distinctive their by states parent their of remainder the from distinguished Morcha all were regions Mukti These (JMM). Jharkhand the by led Jharkhand in movement peasantry worker- the and Sangh; Shramik Mines Chhattisgarh the miners, movement among union trade the hills; Uttarakhand the in movement forestry distinctive types of social movement of in the emergence early the 1970s: Chipko, saw the 2000 people’s in states became that regions the of three All Social MovementsandtheIdeaofStatehoodin1970s to shape the space for a “politics of the marginalized” to the present. political parties and the state in the process of state formationlook beyondhave 2000 continuedto ask whether the interactions between social movements, product of resistance by marginalized groups. An epilogue to the paper will trade unionist AK Roy, Santal tribal leader and a Kurmi-Mahato Mukti Morcha (JMM) which was formed in late 1972 by the Bengali Marxist for statehoodwaslesscentraltotheactivitiesofthese new groups. arm’sat developed that demand The parties. political existing from length in 1963. In the 1960s and 1970s, a new, more radical phase of activism began and especially after the party accepted an invitation to merge with Congress opposition to Congress in Bihar in the 1950s, but declined in the late 1950s 15 The most prominent of the new social movements was the Jharkhand the was movements social new the of prominent most The For an overview see K.S Singh, “Tribal Autonomy Movements in Chotanagpur,” in in Chotanagpur,” in Movements Autonomy “Tribal Singh, K.S see overview an For Pacific Affairs: Pacific Affairs: Volume 84,No.1–March 2011 15 The party became the main elected elected main the became party The Tribal Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 Mahatos organized as part of BB Mahato’s Shivaji Samaj and forcibly forcibly and Samaj Shivaji Mahato’s BB harvested paddy of and reclaimed tribal part land. as organized Mahatos Santal of groups which in movement) a organized Soren Shibu region. the state. As a correspondent for for correspondent a As state. in Jharkhand in the 1970s was not driven primarily by the urge for a separate provided a useful frame to unite local agitations, but social movement activity of land to industry and flouting of land alienation laws, transfer sector,increasing agrarian the the across stagnation in was Dhanbad agitation the to background The Party. Jharkhand pro-statehood old, around hinterland rural the Dhanbad. in Dhanbad and surrounding areas occurring had not been strongholds of peasantry the the of movements with Dhanbad, in Tribesector Scheduled and Caste colliery the in workers leader Binod Bihari Mahato. The JMM sought to unite protests of Scheduled The JMM, and Shibu Soren in particular, developed a reputation for for outsiders,” ordikusastheywereknowninlocallanguages. reputation a developed particular, delivering in summary Soren justice against Shibu landlords, and moneylenders and JMM, “exploitative The 1974-1975. of harvests the in climax their reached movements reclamation for IndigenousAffairs, 2003). Struggle for Autonomy in India (Delhi: AuthorsGuildPublications, 1982). and K.G. Iyer, “Agrarian Movement in Dhanbad,” in Maharaj R.N. See act. this despite tribals from moneylenders by acquired been had land much but ______interests.outside by exploited the Jharkhandi “nation” was suffering from as “workers”a in both ruralsituation and urban areas. The Marxist AK Royof argued that “internal colonialism,” existing to protest movements. leadership They provide also appealed to to sought a common JMM identity the of Jharkhandis Instead, mobilization. shooting bypolicebetween1978and1980. in deaths of series a in culminating forcefully, repressed were forests, the River multipurpose project. Some parts of these movements, particularly in to be entailed by the construction of the Koel neighbouringKaro damWest and Bengal.the ThereSubarnarekha were also protests against the Samitis of displacementthe far-left CPI (ML), sympathetic to the Naxalbari movement in protest regional other Kisan the of activities the included These period. this in began movements of number a JMM, the with associated agitations teak plantations in the forests of Singhbum in Chotanagpur. Alongside the incarnations was its use of direct action more than its commitment to to commitment its than more action achieving aconcretestate: direct of earlier use its its from was 1970s the incarnations of movement “Jharkhand” the distinguished 18 17 16 of tool primary a not was this but statehood, demanded also JMM The Later in the 1970s, the JMM again took a leadership role in protests against A.K. Roy, “Jharkhand: Internal Colonialism,” in Colonialism,” Internal “Jharkhand: Roy, A.K. Maharaj andIyer, “AgrarianMovementinDhanbad,”180. illegal, non-tribals to lands tribal of sale the made had Tenancy1908 Chotanagpur Act The , eds. R. Munda and S.B. Mullick (Copenhagen: International Work Group Questioning Borders inIndia 18 Thus, the idea of a Jharkhandi nationalityJharkhandi a of idea the Thus, Economic and Political Weekly Weekly Political and Economic (“cut down paddy” down (“cut andolan katti dhan Fourth Fourth World Dynamics: Jharkhand as well as non-tribal Kurmi- non-tribal as well as adivasis 17 The Jharkhand Movement: Indigenous Peoples’ Indigenous Movement: Jharkhand The The dhan katti andolan 16 plus migration into

, ed. N. Sengupta wrote, what what wrote, and land 73 Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 74 Weekly 14,no.14(1979):648-650. ______and water.” forest land, to right a have here People Lenin. of language the understand Bhikhari [leaders of eighteenth- and the nineteenth-century understand revolts]. They Jharkhand don’t in people language the of Birsa that Munda, ... Tilka Manjhi, Roy) Sidhu (AK and Roy-ji Kanhu Murmu tell and to Shekh used “I people: local the of reference of sphere the and JMM the of ideals the between mechanism bridging a translation, of act an of something was a new state.” He went on to suggest that a link to the Jharkhand movement the And people. Jharkhand the unite to something do to have JMM the enough—we wasn’testablishing that others the told I an beginning during the said “At Soren Shibu interview: As on. draw to basis ethnic or cultural a on next section, the JMM did have a strong repertoire of demands for statehood long time many social activists were outwardly hostile to the idea, seeing it seeing idea, the to hostile outwardly were activists social many time long a For onwards. 1970s the from different quite was statehood for demand In Uttarakhand, the attitude of social movements in the region towards the Length The ChipkoMovement:KeepingStatehoodatArm’s focus ofsocialmovementactivityinthe1970s. long- the runningof culmination agitations the in as the seen region. be Statehood should was 2000 not in the states necessary,new the or primaryof creation the that suggests that teleology a from break to helps observation This activities. their draw,for did force and driving could the JMM not but activities in the early 1970s. It was part of a broader repertoire on which the 20 19 statehood, of idea the this Despite But in contrast to Chipko in Uttarakhand, which will be discussed in the never tobelostsightof(emphasisadded). is aim this though Jharkhand, territorial a for not and Jharkhand, political mass agitation. Singh’s Jaipal by meanwhile, from differs radically doing movement current when…the are is That struggles. organisations the government, the as do would they what postponed; be should ‘liberation’ the attained, is Jharkhand until that not is …It life.” fraternal and quiet respectable, a lead people the help and blood-suckers the away chase to is concern not come into being in my lifetime, why should I be bothered? Our first of , has a similar view: “Even if Jharkhand secretary does general the Soren, Shibu struggles. mass in themselves train the oppressed help is to Jharkhand Party], of the [then leader Horo to according movement, the of revival the for reason The state. separate a greatget in to is haste party, Jharkhand the even not organisations, the of None Interview withShibu Soren,20October2007,Morabadi, Ranchi. Interview “From our Correspondents, Bihar: Containing the Jharkhand Movement,” andolan 20 Pacific Affairs: Pacific Affairs: Volume 84,No.1–March 2011 is very old so we should support it and we should demand To sum up, the current movement is basically for a for basically is movement current the up, Tosum , was not central to the JMM’s the to central not was se, per 19 Economic and Political Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 and Uttar Pradesh from 1977 to 1980, Janata Party MP TrepanMP Negi Party Singh Janata 1980, to 1977 from Pradesh Uttar and Delhi both in governments formed Party Janata the After independence. after soon statehood for case a made Joshi, PC India, of Party the Communist of leader The parties. political national by made primarily been had of goal the statehood. promote to useful it found proclivities, ideological different been disturbed by the advent of commercial Uttarakhand forestry. had which regions in communities peasant of economy the political moral the of region other the Kumaon, Himalayas. in 1974 from and Garhwal of parts other in followed agitations local similar of series A to”). the and felled being movement them became known as Chipko (the Hindi prevent verb to trees the hugging of began Members Bhatt. cooperative Prasad Chand by employment local generate to Company, having previously refused to allocate trees to a cooperative set up in early 1973 after the Forest Department allocated 300 ash trees to Symonds Mukti Morcha (JMM). The movement started in Chamoli district Jharkhand the in after Garhwalmonths of matter a began Uttarakhand in movement appropriate response to the issues raised by social movements. The Chipko an not and outside from parties political by pushed been had that one as expanded edition(Oxford:Oxford University Press,1999). ______which was more Marxist in orientation. socialism, and a third by the Uttarakhand Sangarsh Vahini by influenced more was who Bhatt, Prasad Chandi by (USV)second Garhwal,the in Kumaon, Chipko: as known Development, SocialMovements,eds.R.PeetandM.Watts (LondonandNewYork: Routledge,2004). environment of protest and development in the Indian Himalaya,” in Studies Peasant plains. people of activities including village-based agroforestry, concerns and paid work in the by economic hills and similar on livelihoods their for motivated relied who hills was the throughout movement the in participation that differently, somewhat argued, have Rangan Haripriya and Mawdsley the ecologicalbaseuponwhichlocalpeopledepended.” degrading was it that further and area, marginalised economically already management of the forests offered few dividends for the local people in this concerns which Mawdsley summarizes as the growing sense “that the state’s Unlike Jharkhand, the demand for an Uttarakhand state before the 1970s Chipko has been read as a series of local “peasant protests” that reflected 24 23 22 21 There were three major streams within the broader movement that became Guha, TheUnquietWoods, 180-84. Mawdsley, “AfterChipko:FromEnvironmenttoRegioninUttaranchal,” 40. Uttaranchal,” in Region to Environment From Chipko: “After Mawdsley, Emma Ramachandra Guha, 22 Different groups, in more or less remote regions, had common had regions, remote less or more in groups, Different 25, no. 4 (1998): 36-54; Haripriya Rangan, “From Chipko to Uttaranchal: The The Uttaranchal: to Chipko “From Rangan, Haripriya 36-54; (1998): 4 no. 25,

one led by the “Gandhian,” Sunderlal Bahugana in in Bahugana Sunderlal “Gandhian,” the by led one The Unquiet Woods: Ecological Change and Peasant Resistance in the Himalaya Questioning Borders inIndia 24 None of these streams, despite their 21 Liberation Ecologies: Environment, Authors such as Emma chipna means “to stick 23

Journal of Journal 75 , Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 inclusion intheemergentnewregimestheseregions. political of nature longer-term the influenced have ensued that co-option within the formal social political sphere. The processes of between negotiation and selected to centre interactions stage, as the activities how of social movements were met with responses demonstrate movements, political parties and the state brought a demand for statehood will section next The of social movements as challengers outside formal politics holds fairly well. conception the stage, this At 1970s. the in Uttarakhand and Jharkhand in to use a demand for political autonomy as a primary frame for the struggles state,’ we build castles in the air in our hearts.” our in air the in castles build we state,’ ‘our of idea the about thinking “by achieve: could statehood what about hesitation about the idea of statehood. In 1979, express one to writer began expressed USV), doubts the (especially region the in movements social to in the late 1970s, articles in the developmental the or politics environment of in the nature hills. After a the degree of alter openness to to the idea of anything statehood do would state new a of creation the whether asking length, arm’s at statehood for established in1979withthesoleagendaofcampaigningforstatehood. the region, a new regional party—the Uttarakhand Kranti Dal (UKD)—was outside resident Uttarakhandis among than rather hills the in movement 1-14 May1979. 76 darkness], NainitalSamachar, 1April1981. ______is giventothefactthathillshavespecialneeds.” attention close no planning to comes country,it when and areas plains are demand: “The problem is that the majority of the state [UP], moreover the A local newspaper editorial summarized the rationale behind the emergent more concerted voices were raised in that favour of generally,statehood within more the region. movements regional to sympathetic was be that to centre perceived the at government Janata a with time, this at out was It reach hills. to the outside living sought now were and who Uttarakhand region of residents the to particularly for statehood for campaign a led 12 November1977. the votesandtreesofthisregion,”wroteNarendraRautela. in live Delhi or Lucknow.to “These Delhi-walas hills think that they the are the contractors left of had who people by backed disproportionately was highlighted the fact that the demand was mostly raised at election time and to distance the social movements from the demand for statehood. for demand the from movements social the distance to This section has highlighted the decision made by movement leaders not Activists in the broader movements, however, continued to keep a demand a build to seeking and sentiment, of kind this consolidate to bid a In 27 26 25 Narendra Rautela, “Andhere Me Duba Unka Parvatiya Rajya” [Their hill state gets lost in lost gets state hill [Their Rajya” Parvatiya Unka Duba Me “Andhere Rautela, Narendra Rajiv Shah, “Kaisa Hoga voh Parvatiya Rajya” [How will it be, this hill state?], Uttarakhand], Separate a for Basis [The Adhar” ka Uttarakhand “Prthak Pacific Affairs: Pacific Affairs: Volume 84,No.1–March 2011 Nainital Samachar, a newspaper sympathetic 26 Writerssought frequently 25

27

Nainital Samachar, Nainital Nainital Samachar,

Some Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 in elections in 1980. during the apparently Emergency was in return Soren for a seat-sharing politics. arrangement promised immunity electoral withfrom prosecution Congressfor into his activities while wing “underground” driven less its drawing ideologically by Jharkhand in JMM the by posed challenge the lessen to sought Gandhi Indira Congress. with pact electoral Soren’s Shibu was The first sign of the attempted co-option of social movements in Jharkhand Jharkhand: Co-option,ElectoralCompetitionandStatehoodinthe1980s that hadbeencentraltoearlierlocalstruggles. and the critique of the state demands and statehood patterns between of connection regional the economic weaken development to began locally BJP the by statehood for Support statehood. demand to began also politicians radical tactics used by activists there. The murder of 37-year-old Nirmal Nirmal 37-year-old of resolve the strengthened 1987 of August in JMM, the of president Mahato, murder The there. activists by used tactics radical chief become minister, recently travelling had to Assam leader as well as whose to Gorkhaland Assam, to learn in from the movement more students’ Surya Surya Singh Besra, a Santal of leadership the Union—under Students Jharkhand All JMM—the the of wing student a up set struggles land and forest older the to connected less oerud h ie o statehood. of idea the foreground to came elements radical more movement, each of mainstream the co-opt to sought and demands movement of elements to responded 1984 to 1980 growing the from social government central of the As government. the light central the of in interventions within onwards, 1980 actors from region each different in movements between competition increasing of The push for statehood in both Jharkhand and Uttarakhand arose as a result From SocialtoStatehoodMovements JMM, accusingSorenofhavingbeenboughtbyCongress. for the first time at the end of 1984, when Mahato formed a breakaway “real” leaders suchasA.K.RoyandBinodBihariMahato.TheJMMformallysplit when it won 11 seats, the pact was strongly opposed by more left-wing JMM Crown Publications, 2005),225. College, Ranchi,5October2007. cycles ofpolarizationwithinsocialmovements. SeeMcAdametal.,DynamicsofContention. in interested also are Tilly Tarrowand McAdam, 1988). TennesseePress, of University (Knoxville: social movement actors. See Herbert moderate H. Haines, of demands the to parties the third of whereby receptivity the process increases wing the radical a describe of emergence to Haines Herbert by coined first was phrase The movements. ______In June 1986, a new generation of activists in the Jharkhand movement Jharkhand the in activists of generation new a 1986, June In 30 29 28 Balbir Dutt, Balbir Xavier’s St department, science political the V.P.of Professor head with Sharan, Discussion social on literature in outlined effect flank” “radical the to compared be can process This Kahani Jharkhand Andolan Ki Andolan Jharkhand Kahani 29 However, despite the JMM’s electoral success in 1980, Questioning Borders inIndia adivasi student. Besra drew inspiration from the Black radicals and the civil rights mainstream, 1954-1970 28 [The story of the Jharkhand movement] (Ranchi: movement] Jharkhand the of story [The In both cases, however, local BJP BJP local however, cases, both In 30

77 Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 the creationofJharkhand.” supported everyone But region. Chotanagpur the in response good a get [land alienation, forest rights, etc.] but not in an organised way so we As didn’t roots. strong such “Weissues said, these politician all JMM raised former a Marandi, Stephen have not did JMM the Party, Jharkhand older the for base main the been had which region, Chotanagpur the Chotanagpur. in Elsewhere Singhbum, in movements forest the with along Parganas, action. The most sustained struggles led by the JMM had been in the Santal be seen as logical for a movement seeking to consolidate also a can It base leaders. for malleable co-opt collective to state the by attempts to opposition in and identity actors movement social and between competition of out territory arose Jharkhand place, of discourses historical to determinedly Jharkhand with talks leaders. hold to offered government central the strikes, of In 1988 and 1989, AJSU and the JCC (sometimes acting in harmony, harmony, in statehood and introduced acting a new tactic (sometimes of economic JCC blockades. the demanding rallies mass of number a organized independently) sometimes and AJSU 1989, and 1988 In revivalism. cultural Jharkhandi of centre the became vice which Literature and became and TribalLanguages Jharkhand for Centre a to up University,setting Ranchi of chancellor returned had Munda Dayal Ram 1980 In statehood. for demand the were pushing to and committed less Congress be to to perceived closer moved had who those especially JMM, the founders of the JCC also sought to sideline the The more right-wing elements region. of Jharkhand the of unity cultural the emphasizing and groups the Jharkhand movement by acting as an umbrella organization for different Jharkhand Coordination Committee was also formed in a bid to strengthen 78 of Jharkhandbetween 2006and2008. ______statehood. for push to colleagues his and Besra of Ethnicity:Culture andProtest inJharkhand(NewDelhi:SagePublications,1992). becoming anewstateamongadivasis: of idea the of understandings local of sophistication and significance the discussions held in Jharkhand after the achievement of statehoodlonger-term mobilizationsexemplified by the Jharkhand Party. Extracts from focus-group The decision by the leaders of the AJSU and the JCC to connect more connect to JCC the and AJSU the of leaders the by decision The 33 32 31 The idea of statehood had deep popular resonance as a result of the much Interview Interview with Stephen Marandi, 4 October 2007, Ranchi. Marandi was deputy chief minister For a good discussion of the emergence of AJSU and the JCC see Susanna Devalle, SinghBesra,10October2007,Jamshedpur. withSurya Interview because me for important very part—was this in owners land to us—the belong would that state a for need The 2] Member Group [Focus us adivasis. to specifically prosperity give would which state a with gifted be would state separate we that a us told elders had our that we remember I ours. if be would everything that knew We 1] Member Group [Focus Pacific Affairs: Pacific Affairs: Volume 84,No.1–March 2011 33

31 A month later, the the later, month A 32 After a series Discourses Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 to imbuenon-Christian tribalswithaHinduidentity. which is derived from the name given to the place of worship in each adivasi village. The RSS sought Jharkhand, India,”CulturalAnthropology 21,no.4(2004):501-534. Locality,TransnationalIndigenousness, the Dams: and Local in and Sphere Flows Global “Between movement put between himself and Jharkhand leaders involved in electoral politics. Kaushik Ghosh, district ,November2007.Thanksto AnujKumarandSaurabhSumanforresearchassistance. ______activists local other arms’ length. many Nevertheless, consciously rights. kept the campaign economic for statehood—both and cultural and social electoral—at prominent social movement activists as a betrayal of broader struggles around mainstream Hindusociety. the with constituted the majority of the associated tribal population, and to closely assimilate them into been had Jharkhand Party) (which and increasingly to mobilize regions the non-Christian tribals, tribal who in Church Party’s 1963 merger with Congress. It hoped to counter the activities of the Jharkhand the after “movement,” a Jharkhand the for uncertainty in of period Jharkhand in organization its up stepped It movements. Jharkhand earlier the of targets the been had who outsiders) (exploitative “dikus” the often were who elites, industrial and trading especially groups, non-tribal a base in Jharkhand from the late 1960s. Its original support was drawn from BJP party policy. The Jana Sangh, forerunner to the BJP, had been building behind the demand for statehood was the adoption of the demand as official late 1980s which was of critical importance in building political the momentum of development major One bandwagon. statehood the join to parties in 1989, says that he got involved in politics because of “an obsession that obsession “an of because politics in involved got he that says 1989, in in getting the party nationally to officially support the demand for statehood Singh player pivotal a and 1990 and 1988 between president state BJP Namdhari, Inder idea. the for support their explain to Bihar of rest the from a adopted for Jharkhand used BJP the fact that the region’s developmental needs differed the that JCC, the and determined AJSU focus on of statehood. The politics BJP’s longer-term agitational advocatesnew of statehood 1980s, in response to the emergence of the JMM in electoral politics and the politicians in Jharkhand began to discuss statehood. But it was really in the 36 35 34 Thus we should not see the shift to a focus on the goal of statehood among The forceful campaign for regional autonomy encouraged other political In the late 1970s under the Janata government in Bihar, Jana Sangh Sangh Jana Bihar, in government Janata the under 1970s late the In anyone’s money, justrespect,andthiswasit. children—the beloved his of land the Birsa, Lord of land the freedom, got we since ever for waiting been had we that land promised a of piece a Jharkhand: 3] Member Group [Focus sisters’ existence. my,of question a was it somehow my all as well as The religious practice or form of worship of Non-Christian tribals is often described as “sarna,” Karo Koel the of leader the that distance the well describes instance, for Ghosh, Kaushik Extracts from focus group discussions in Mandar and Torpa assembly constituencies of Khunti 35

Questioning Borders inIndia 36

34

adivasis brothers’ and brothers’ adivasi . We don’t want want don’t We . 79 Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 around the idea of statehood concealed fundamental conflicts and and conflicts fundamental concealed statehood of idea the around 80 district ,November 2007. ______state. the create to party likely most the was BJP the that felt he because leadership JMM the with out falling after 1996 in BJP the joined he that said MP JMM this period, apparently inspired by its commitment to statehood. One former could do this.” Nevertheless, a number of JMM politicians joined the BJP in candidate a or party political a felt really never “I said. he state,” the create people’sa be would would it that felt movement “I box: ballot the through that statehood was to be achieved as the outcome of a popular struggle, not and of itself? One focus group participant expressed a commonly held view in good a as activists Jharkhand by seen be Wasto state. statehood a create the BJP should be offered instrumental support as the party “most likely” to political parties in demanding statehood, especially about the extent to which here aregreaterthananyotherstate.” resources country. The the in state first the be could we then exploited or there should be a separate state. If nature’s resources were properly utilised land.” our from separate be would name cruel his that wished Wejust atrocities. Lalu’s of up fed was I as state new a give would which party the for voted for primarily created being regime in Bihar, even though many were wary about a state that they felt was Yadav’sPrasad Lalu during statehood of idea the welcome caste anti-upper to begun had they that reported example, for villagers, upper-caste Some demand. the with associated exclusivity ethnic or cultural of notions down break to helped statehood for party’ssupport The 1990s. the in too tribals non-Christian to out reached increasingly it but Jharkhand, in non-tribals and castes upper among was BJP the of base support traditional The 1998. second chief minister of the new state of Jharkhand, also joined the party in to havearegionalratherthan“racial”character. no longer in the majority in the region, it was important for the movement was population Jharkhand tribal the because that historical fact the the underlined He movement. of Jharkhand Greater the from state new a for comprise only the districts of south Bihar, distinguishing the BJP’s demand be named Vananchal rather than Jharkhand, and that the new state should state the that proposed Namdhari JMM. the against better compete to BJP The emergent consensus between civil society activists and political parties 40 39 38 37 of role the about activists many among concerns strong were There Importantly, he also sensed that support for statehood would allow the allow would statehood for support that sensed also Importantly,he Extracts from focus group discussions in Mandar and Torpa assembly constituencies Telephoneof withShailendra Mahato,17October2007. Khunti interview oftheJharkhandmovement],225. Dutt, KahaniJharkhandAndolanKi[Thestory withInderSinghNamdhari, 13October2007,Ranchi. Interview 40

39 Arjun Munda, a tribal politician from the JMM and the BJP’s the and JMM the from politician tribal a Munda, Arjun Pacific Affairs: Pacific Affairs: Volume 84,No.1–March 2011 A oe apt ilgr xlie, “I explained, villager Rajput one As adivasis. 37

38 Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 of a state in the name of Jharkhand was a matter for ambivalence not not ambivalence for matter a was celebration inandofitself: Jharkhand of name the in state a of achievement simple The Jharkhand. “political” and “territorial” a between understanding of the demand for statehood. For him, their in shift fundamental a Vananchal,represented therethan state new the for was no distinction rather Jharkhand, name the use to concession BJP’seventual the which to extent the questioned JCC the with involved deeply been had who activist state’sthe veteran in A involved formation. compromises the about uneasy feel to 1980s the in statehood for call the led had who those of some led statehood of desirability the around consensus growing the of heart the at concern from about exclusionary grown patterns of had development which and dispossession. 1970s This tension the of movements the to contrast in stood This Hinduism. into assimilation their by supported mainstream, and natural resource extraction and help to absorb tribals into the economic BJP reflected a vision of a state which wouldthe by supportmade statehood for case The communities. tribal large with regions the expansion of industry neighbouring in take not did it because Jharkhand of idea the to identity tribal of centrality the reduced perforce Bihar South into fell that districts those just to contraction The communities? different of expectations and needs the to itself reorient state new a would How state? new a of borders the be should What statehood. of meaning the surrounding ambiguities ______groups competingforelectoral spaceintheregion. which support for statehood became the lowest commonbut political parties played a key denominatorrole in shaping the new electoral arena, in among against the JMM. The idea of statehood arguably came from the “movement” the adoption of the statehood goal wouldthat convinced became workers improveBJP local time, same the theirAt statehood. for chances of competing Committee (JCC), which increasingly underscored the urgency of the need in the All Jharkhand Students Union (AJSU) and elections. theIn the later Jharkhand1980s, a more radical wing Coordinationof the movement emerged been brought within the Congress’ sphere of influence and began to contest place in the 1980s after part of the JMM leadership led by Shibu Soren had 41 took movement(s) statehood to social from shift a then, Jharkhand, In Interview withSanjay BosuMullick,Ranchi,16October 2007. Interview a socialistrevolution. towards population Indian larger the of interests the in movement this on build to is goal larger the then and state, separate a of form the in autonomy need you First, rights. ‘usufructory’ their jamin): and jungle (jal, resources natural of control the of terms in people the of rights economic and political the protecting of one was problem state…The Freedom from exploitation would only be possible in a different type of 41 Questioning Borders inIndia

81 Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 the Forest Act and in favour of the need for a separate hill state. hill separate a for need the of favour in and Act Forest the Almora district in 1984 to discuss the act. At the meeting, Jina argued against Act. Shoban Singh Jina, an elderly leader of the BJP, organized a meeting in leaders of the BJP were concerned about the implications of the 1980 Forest 82 Perspective andExtent ofDevelopment](DehraDun: ChaviPrakashan,2004). in 2007). ______statehood. for fight to 1979 in established party regional the (UKD), Dal Kranti Uttarakhand the from drawn was andolan this of leadership The region. the across place taking from schools) roads, electricity, as (such projects development much-needed other preventing of effect perverse the be to considered many what had which Regulations cut closed to local industry. Furthermore, a the Forest Department continuing to fell trees of whileincidents were suchthere because opportunitiesoccurred protests Now were hills. the in began movement itself declined from this point but a new wave ofmoratorium on protestfelling trees movementat over 1000 feet was implemented. 15-year Thea Chipko, Chipko to response direct in 1981, In deforestation. preventing been introduced which increased state control over in forestry the name of of thehills. in Uttar context Pradeshpolitical encouragedthe and fresh statehood mass for mobilizationcall in the protestraised at parties the political treatment after happened This emerged. have to said be could statehood on focused a that mid-1990s the until not was it Uttarakhand, of hills the in other way: from parties to movements. Despite a the historywent largely statehood of idea the of oftransmission the Uttarakhand, In protest movements andPopularMobilization Uttarakhand: PoliticalParties support the demand for a hill state as early as 1983. party as early as state the hill a for of demand the support leadership national the demanded and statehood for need forest regulations,tothedemandforstatehood. anti-liquor the as such They gradually began to link various strands of movement activity in the hills, to the state level (their slogan was “New Bharat [India] new Uttarakhand”). affairs, defence, communications, currency and railways would be devolved was of a radically decentralized federalism in which all matters except claimedforeign to be fighting for more than simply statehood, however. Their vision They statehood. for campaign the up take to Chipko—decided in involved Uttarakhand Sangharsh Vahini (USV)—the most left-wing of the organizations 44 43 42 had Act Forest new a power, to returned Gandhi Indira after 1980, In At a similar time, local BJP politicians began to pass resolutions on the on resolutions pass to began politicians BJP local time, similar a At down Dr Nityanand, Dr withBachiSinghRawat,BJP MPforNainital,24October2007. Interview with Interview Narayan Singh Jantawal, Nainital, 3 November 2007 (acting president of UKD trees took place in 1988-89 as part of a protest against the new Forest Pacific Affairs: Pacific Affairs: Volume 84,No.1–March 2011 Uttaranchal: Itihasik Paridrshya evam Vikas Ke Aayam Ke Vikas evam Paridrshya Itihasik Uttaranchal: of the early 1990s and protests about new about protests and 1990s early the of andolan jungle katao andolan, a movement to 43 42 Like the UKD, local UKD, the Like Also in 1988, the the 1988, in Also [Uttaranchal: Historical [Uttaranchal: 44 Another movement Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 particularly keen to stem migration from the hills, which they saw as as saw they which hills, the enemies. from its against India weakening were migration They stem to development. keen economic particularly without region border this in risk leader Bhaurao Devras. The RSS believed that national security would be at Hindu nationalist organizations, was the senior Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sanghproponent of the idea of statehood within the Sangh Parivar, the “family” of the movement or political realm (such as the ex-servicemen) but older older but ex-servicemen) the as (such realm political or movement the outside from hailed and generation, younger a from came leadership the followed. Much of protests, road blockades and disruption to local services of Months statehood. of banner the under hills the of treatment the about grievances of set broader a together bring to began and government state the of provocations the by galvanized were groups These women’sgroups. and students’ ex-servicemen, including groups social of coalition diverse castes lower for action affirmative to opposition their was concern main whose castes upper chauvinistic as hills the in protestors the portraying by credentials fraying social coalition among own lowerhis cement castesto sought He andhills. the highlightin protests anti-reservations his of out own social justice capital political make to opportunity an seized deliberately seemingly had Mayawati. The OBC chief minister of Uttar Pradesh, Mulayam and Singh Yadav,Yadav Singh Mulayam as such leaders state by statements incendiary deliberately apparently and demonstrators, on firing police of instances of number a after momentum gained movement The statehood. demanding hills, organized by student leaders, spiralled the into a in mass policy regional movement reservations new this of impact the against protests of series A population). OBC percent 2 only and caste upper predominantly their higher education institutions across Uttar Pradesh (including the hills with lower-caste communities designated as “Other Backward Classes” (OBCs) in for action) (affirmative reservations new introduced had government state Pradesh Uttar The 1994. in however,came statehood, of idea the around as well as elections ofthisperiodinUttarPradesh1989,1991and1993. Uttaranchal, called BJP the Vananchal (Jharkhand) what in 1989. for It highlighted the issue during statehood the frequent supporting Perspective andextent ofDevelopment]. founding member of the Jan Sangh and Janata Party MLA 1977-80), Dehra Dun, 15 November 2007. ______from its platforms.” its from became intense in the 1980s and the Naxalite factor also started to be gradually Uttaranchal of invitedcreation the for campaign “The writes: He 1980s. the in question statehood the on agitations increasing the to responding also were RSS the that suggests Dun, Dehra in college a at professor and The real moment at which social movement actors and parties fused fused parties and actors movement social which at moment real The 46 45

Nityanand, Nityanand, Uttarakhand, in full-timer RSS (first ShastriDevendra of son Debral,Rishiraj with Interview . In fact the movement in the hills drew together a together drew hills the in movement the fact In . court tout Uttaranchal: Itihasik Paridrshya evam Vikas Ke Aayam Aayam Ke Vikas evam Paridrshya Itihasik Uttaranchal: 46 The BJP national executive first passed a resolution a passed first executive national BJP The Questioning Borders inIndia 45 Dr Nityanand, another RSS worker RSS another Nityanand, Dr [Uttaranchal: Historical Historical [Uttaranchal: 83 Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 to depoliticize ethnic cleavages and/or unsettle an attempt by social social by politics of particular marginalized attempt communities. an emancipatory an with unsettle identity political regional a and/or associate to movements cleavages ethnic depoliticize to the around within particular regional identities was an attempt by some political parties statehood consensus political of emergence the for reasons the of one that suggested seeking that new pro-poor regimes. In an argument developed further elsewhere, I have suggest creating to route reliable a be not borders—may federation—questioning coalitions statehood federal system. the of levels other at lie 2000 year the in creation state of act final the for of result a as statehood of interactions support between in social locally movements developed and political that parties. coalitions The explanations of state creation because the aim has been to demonstrate the nature of the between institutionalizedandnon-institutionalizedpolitics. interrelationships the of account take must marginality of politics the of not to diminish an the agency of, of the marginalized up but possibility taken to been argue have themes and that These any politics. for, subaltern account of field autonomous spaces the about thinking when interactions such to social attention pay must iconic we that most clear it India’s makes article of the movements, some of discussion pre- a to states Through in new eminence. for activists demand social a by bringing adopted Uttarakhand, and strategies Jharkhand and goals the shape to helped This article has shown how the intersection of movement and party politics Conclusion andEpilogue of politicalpartythathelpedtoproduceafocusonstatehood. types new and state the movements, social between interactions the was It hills. the in resistance of politics a to connected naturally means no by was mass for subject mobilization a became as a statehood result of of idea changes the in the Jharkhand, broader in political as context.Here, Statehood 84 of Ethnicity,” unpublished manuscript;seealsoTillin, ChangingStates. Political Weekly 31no.4(1996):205-210. ______regardless of the attempts by UP’s political leadership to paint init a in waythis comparablelight. to the ethnic content movement, ofregional Uttarakhand the the to character originalcaste explicit no fact Jharkhandin demand, was There involved. became also era Chipko the of memories with activists were constituted, such developments bases meantsocial inclusive new,more with thatregimes political which theat moment a process of state formation The narratives presented in this paper stop short of the actual moment actual the of short stop paper this in presented narratives The 49 48 47 Louise Tillin, “Ethnic ‘Inbidding’ and Democratic Stability: Indian RegionalismSee LouiseTillin, ChangingStates:ThePoliticsofBorders inIndia(forthcoming). and the Politics Classes,” Backward Other and agitation “Uttarakhand Mawdsley, Emma See 48 Pacific Affairs: Pacific Affairs: Volume 84,No.1–March 2011 The compromises involved in the emergence of broad pro- 49 Rather than representing Economic and and Economic 47

Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 Sridharan (NewDelhi: Sage,2006),92. in Convergence,” to Hegemony From 1952-2002: University ofMichiganPress,2003). International Development and the New Politics of Inclusion, eds. P. Houtzager and M. Moore (Ann Arbor: ______poverty reduction. of rates explaining in matter well-institutionalized, been has castes/classes lower of power political the which to extent the particular in and regimes, political state-level us, reminds Harriss John As basis. regional a on differs government central the of initiatives anti-poverty the of reception the why explain to help histories political regional Such states. new the in legacies practices of exclusion. This brief epilogue will consider the impact of these left an uneasy legacy of superficial political inclusion that masked continued different chief ministers, and two periods of President’sRule. of periods two and ministers, chief different has seen the formation of eight different short-lived governments with four it (2000-2010) years ten In state. Indian other any possibly than instability of Naxalism (as well as counter-Naxal movements). This reflects in part a part in reflects This movements). counter-Naxal as well (as Naxalism of state creation with the spread of a variety of groups under the loose umbrella there has been a reversion to movements outside the electoral system since looks set to remain elusive. Furthermore, in Jharkhand (and Chhattisgarh), contract. Without functioning state institutions, inclusive economic growth political new a representing than rather tensions such masked statehood of favour in Agreement development. of visions divergent deeply between also marks the absence of a political settlement that can effectively mediate it But movements. resistance local by maintained spaces and strength the the by industrial signed government. business In some with senses, understanding following the of paralysis memorandums in governance of on indozens Jharkhand movement resettlement reflects forestalled also and has instability such Equally, development. rehabilitation for standards goals. It has delayed the agreement, for example,regime ofhas reducedminimum, the implementableability of the state to pursue long-term developmental loose, very short-term or groupings entrepreneurship hold individual sway. where and conventions party political by is a situation of extreme fluidity in which electoral competition is not bound and Palshikar have described as a “malady” of “systemless competition.” This lure of political careers. Jharkhand appears to be moving close to what Yadav the increases ventures industrial and mining from rents extract to promise the as even candidates, aspiring for mobility limited offer parties political Jharkhand Vikas Morcha. There is a strong impression that weakly organized party,own minister,his chief form to BJP the left the has Marandi, Babulal formation, the BJP’s rising 52 51 50 Since the granting of statehood, Jharkhand has displayed greater political Yogendra Yadav and Suhas Palshikar, “Party System and Electoral Politics in the Indian States, These detailsarecorrectasofNovember 2010. in India,” Across Differences Regime and Reduction “Poverty Harriss, John 50 Questioning Borders inIndia adivasi leader of the 1990s and Jharkhand’s first , eds. P.R. de Souza and E. and Souza P.R.de eds. , Parties Political India’s 52 The absence of a stable political 51 Changing Paths: Changing Since state Since 85 Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 86 be to elections panchayat for held. way the paving 2010, January in Court Supreme the by overturned www.indianexpress.com/news/attacking-the-right-to-ask/322527/. ______implementation. its in corruption against campaigning activists of intimidation the of and the of UPA’sone of flagshipimplementation schemes,the thein Nationalirregularities Ruralof Employmentreports Guaranteeserious Scheme,are decades-old protest against the Koel Karo dam, leading the in to part taking villagers on fire opened police 2001, eightin created was state deaths. There the after Shortly UPAgovernment. central the of initiatives the mirroring program” minimum “common a of design the over and resettlement, and to institute consultations with key activists over issues such as rehabilitation 2000, despite attempts by ministers in the UPA-led coalition between 2006-08 some ways Jharkhand has become a more hostile space for civil society since of lives ministers have been Maoist activityacrosscentralIndia. contests over the ownershipas of well natural as resources in politics, the institutionalized context of of increasing functioning the with dissatisfaction 50 percent. for High Court challenging the reservation of Jharkhand the the postsby ruling of2005 a followed This enacted. were amendments not to have held elections to panchayats since the 73rd and 74th constitutional become cognizantofthespecificneedshills. and Kumaon the to legislators local encouraged have would of argue they which Garhwalhills, border the on nestled Gairsain, of location remote preferred their than rather plains, the of edge the on is Dun Dehra capital than Jharkhand. Some veteran activists complain, for instance, that the state thus topographical in this region, which is much improving morethe new of ethnicallystate’sgrounds economic ostensible homogenousviability.the on The main government axes central of exclusionthe are of insistence the at districts of Haridwar and Udham Singh Nagar were included in the new state geography of the hills (central to the original idea of statehood). The plains sidelining of calls for more careful effective the attentionfor allowed The has to hills, the development as well as areas, in formation. plains large the include distinctive its of nature the by to government central the by state new the of borders the of affected manipulation been has too it but 2000 54 53 chief four leadership—all tribal to lip-service play parties political All Uttarakhand has seen far greater political stability than Jharkhand since adivasis in scheduled areas where the tribal population had fallen below The 2005 Jharkhand High Court verdict which challenged the reservation of seats was was seats of reservation the challenged which verdict Court High Jharkhand 2005 The See, for instance, Aruna Roy, “Attacking the right to ask,” or their political representation are harder to discern. In discern. to harder are representation political their or adivasis 54

Pacific Affairs: Pacific Affairs: Volume 84,No.1–March 2011 53 Until December 2010, Jharkhand is the only state in India adivasis—but substantive improvements in the material Indian Express, 14 June 2008, http:// pradhan (chairperson) Copyright (c) Pacific Affairs. All rights reserved. Delivered by Ingenta to IP: 192.168.39.211 on: Sat, 02 Oct 2021 10:02:59 University ofCambridge,UK,November2010 hills, butisconsiderablymorestable. in Uttarakhand is quite different to the hill-state imagined by activists in the and counter-strugglesstruggles the inof Jharkhandout produced lacksbeen thesehas that characteristics.state The autonomy.The of state produced political regimes responsive that can stable, negotiate requires between different inclusion interests Political with a politics. degree electoral the of from centre it shift least at or Uttarakhand, and Jharkhand as such regions resource-rich in place taking development of forms the of critique a blunt or negotiate to parties political national allowed reorganization territorial In short, the long-term history of state formation matters. Supporting matters. formation state of history long-term the short, In Inspirg progams. Sleindct rnship dtgueMAPSoam. no-prfit gazsdvec nterpis, adofcml teaching drs,Iuof The UnivrstyofBClumbadpxc e inboth MASTER OF most renwd no-prfit gazsdvec nterpis, adofcml to he The MAPSprogamvidsnctly ues rlvant Asia Pcfregontdupvm ents, a NewGnr Asia peclt,Cnd’ ARTS – For meinfat,vsw ASI Questioning Borders inIndia P ACIF POLY Asian Rerch,wofultydmC’ s leadingrchutoyf .iar STUDIE(MAP)ROG .ubca/mps a tion of GlbaCitzens Asia. s 87