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Dragonflies As Bioindicators and Biodiversity Surrogates for Freshwater Ecosystems

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Dragonflies as bioindicators and biodiversity surrogates for freshwater ecosystems Gabriella Joy Kietzka Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Conservation Ecology) at Stellenbosch University Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Faculty of AgriSciences Supervisor: Prof. James S. Pryke Co-supervisor: Prof. Michael J. Samways Co-supervisor: Dr. René Gaigher December 2019 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights, and that I have not previously in its entirety, or in part, submitted it for obtaining any qualification. December 2019 Copyright © 2019 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved 2 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za General summary Biological indicators (bioindicators) are useful for rapid and cost-effective ecosystem assessments. Dragonflies are valued for their potential as bioindicators in freshwater ecosystems. My dissertation aims to assess and expand on their use as bioindicators in transformed landscapes and as surrogates for other aquatic biodiversity. Of the three bioindicator categories (environmental, ecological and biodiversity), biodiversity indicators and their application are poorly understood. The umbrella species concept is a biodiversity surrogacy method that aims to conserve a large number of species in an ecosystem by focusing on a select group of co-occurring species. I used the umbrella index, which quantitatively identified a group of seven dragonfly species and a group of eight Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT) species, any of which could be used as biodiversity surrogates (Chapter 2). Adult dragonflies can only be surveyed on warm, windless days during summer, but are easily identifiable. On the other hand, their larvae can be sampled under any weather conditions and are also sensitive bioindicators. I showed that the interchangeability of the life stages for assessments was dependent on landscape spatial scale, coupled with the specific question asked (Chapter 3). Comprehensive biodiversity surveys at fine ecological scales should sample both adults and larvae. However, at larger spatial scales with coarser ecological questions, either adults or larvae can be used. To mitigate the detrimental effects caused by forestry, ecological networks (ENs) are integrated into plantation landscapes. These comprise grassland corridors connected to protected areas (PAs), which often include rivers. They aim to conserve biodiversity by creating habitats or facilitating dispersal of grassland species. I showed that water quality and adult dragonfly diversity did not differ between EN corridors and PAs (Chapter 4). Therefore, the EN approach is an effective method for conserving dragonfly diversity and river ecosystem integrity in plantation landscapes. In the Pietermaritzburg Botanical Gardens, an insect conservation pond was built along a degraded stream. Dragonfly species richness and abundance significantly increased, as both lentic and lotic species were able to colonize the area. Over time, the pond became overgrown and siltation reverted it back to a stream, which negatively affected dragonfly diversity. Shortly after extensive restoration efforts, the dragonfly assemblage had almost completely recovered 3 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za and closely resembled that of the original pond. This was linked to alien plant removal, decreased vegetation cover and the inclusion of a range of microhabitats. This indicates that conservation ponds need to be actively maintained to keep their function as biodiversity reservoirs. This highlights the value of dragonflies as indicators of habitat quality in aquatic restoration projects. Throughout the thesis, adult dragonflies continuously demonstrated their success as bioindicators. The umbrella index validated the use of dragonflies as biodiversity indicators and surrogates for some of the most sensitive aquatic taxa (the EPT). Although dragonfly larvae and adults are both indicators of water quality, they are not always interchangeable, in terms of sampling at the species level. Their interchangeability depends on the specific question asked and the scale used. I also successfully monitored dragonfly assemblage responses in agricultural lotic and urban lentic environments, which highlighted their benefits for good aquatic conservation planning in transformed landscapes. 4 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements I wish to express my sincere thanks to the following organisations/people, in no specific order: My supervisors, Prof. James Pryke, Prof. Michael Samways and Dr René Gaigher for their support and valuable guidance. I could not have asked for a better team to travel this journey with. I would like to thank my amazing brother Daniel Kietzka and Cleo Biscombe for their love and assistance with proofing. I would also like to thank Pippa Pieterse, Liesel Kets and Shana Beirne for their kindness and support throughout the years. I am also grateful to my friends from the office, Jurie Theron and Charl Deacon, for providing me with hours of entertainment and listening ears when I needed it most. For field, lab and office assistance I thank: A Hallett, M. Brits, A Madden, M Doubell, R Doubell, P Pieterse, D Kietzka, C Deacon, M Eckert and S Beirne. The Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology at Stellenbosch University for infrastructure, administrative and technical support. I would like to thank Mondi Group for financial support, Mondi International for access to plantations, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife for access to natural areas and specifically Rob Faure for his assistance in site selection. Further thanks go to the Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve, the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve, Cape Winelands District Municipality (Stellenbosch), City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality (Somerset West), Cape Nature, and Lourensford and Eikenhof Farms for site access. I dedicate my thesis to my amazing mom Janine Kietzka and fantastic fiancé Francois Roets, thank you for being my pillars of strength and being at my side all the way. 5 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Table of contents Declaration................................................................................................................................ 2 General summary..................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. 5 Chapter 1: General Introduction ......................................................................................... 10 1.1 Global threats to freshwater ecosystems ........................................................................ 10 1.2 Threats to South African freshwater systems ................................................................ 11 1.3 Conserving freshwater ecosystems ................................................................................ 12 1.4 Assessing and monitoring with biological indicators .................................................... 14 1.5 Using dragonflies as the focal taxon .............................................................................. 17 1.6 Thesis aim and outline ................................................................................................... 20 1.7 References ...................................................................................................................... 23 Chapter 2: Does father know best? Exploring the links between adult male dragonflies and conspecific larvae ............................................................................................................ 37 Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 37 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 38 2.2 Materials and methods ................................................................................................... 42 2.2.1 Study area and sites ................................................................................................. 42 2.2.2 Sampling of adult, exuviae and larval dragonflies.................................................. 43 2.2.3 Environmental variables ......................................................................................... 43 2.2.4 Data analyses .......................................................................................................... 44 2.2.4.1 Analyses for the ‘father knows best’ hypothesis ............................................. 44 2.2.4.2 Analyses for the ‘shared environmental preferences’ hypothesis .................... 45 2.3 Results ............................................................................................................................ 46 2.3.1 Results for the ‘father knows best’ hypothesis ..................................................... 46 2.3.1.1 Larval and adult associations ..........................................................................
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