The Harvard Apa-Style Guide to Bibliographic Referencing

UNIVERSITY OF PORTSMOUTH SCHOOL OF SOCIAL, HISTORICAL AND LITERARY STUDIES SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES AND AREA STUDIES

THE HARVARD APA-STYLE GUIDE TO BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCING

CONTENTS Page

A. PRESENTING A BIBLIOGRAPHY: HARVARD APA-STYLE 3

B. IN-TEXT REFERENCES FOR ESSAYS: HARVARD-APA STYLE 6

Quoting and paraphrasing 6 Quoting long passages 7 Primary and secondary sources 7 Citing from the Internet 8 Citing page numbers in references 8 Referencing and Latin terms 9 Plagiarism and referencing 9 In-text references and bibliographies/reference lists 10

C. HOW POOR OR INADEQUATE REFERENCING WILL 12 IMPACT ON THE MARK YOU RECEIVE

Referencing Penalties 12

Original Version: Stephen Cope and Anne Worden, October 2002 Revised Version: Anne Worden, September 2005

Revised Referencing Penalties produced by Dave Russell, August 2005

All students in SLAS must use the Harvard APA referencing system.

History units within the School of Social, Historical and Literary Studies (SSHLS) use a traditional numeric referencing system but the rest of SSHLS uses Harvard APA referencing.

This guide outlines the Harvard APA-style guidelines to bibliographic referencing only.

For guidelines on the traditional numeric referencing used by History within SSHLS, please see the History Guide to Referencing accessible on the SSHLS web portal pages.

The Library has produced a website called Referencing@Portsmouth http://referencing.port.ac.uk which has many more examples than can be shown in this referencing guide. Use this guide to learn the principles of Harvard APA, then if you get stuck when you need to write bibliographic references, look at the website.

2 A. PRESENTING A BIBLIOGRAPHY: HARVARD APA-STYLE

A bibliography is a list of sources that have been used in writing an essay (or other pieces of coursework). It includes all books, chapters in edited books, journal articles, magazine articles, newspaper articles, official publications, websites etc. that have been read in planning and writing an essay, regardless of whether or not a reference has been cited in the essay. (Some departments e.g. ICJS prefer students to provide a reference list containing only those items which have been cited in the essay. However, the style in which the references are presented is the same whether the list is a reference list or bibliography so this guide uses both terms.)

The bibliography/reference list is presented at the end of the essay using single line-spacing (as shown on page 11 of this guide), and is excluded from the word-count of the essay. References should be placed in alphabetical order by surname of author/s. • If there are two or more references to the same author, they should be presented in chronological order with the earliest reference presented first. • If there are two or more references to the same author in the same year, they should be distinguished by adding a, b, c, etc. after the year of publication. Very occasionally the names of the author/s, the year of publication and other referencing details may not be evident from the material read. • If no author is named, the title of the article/website etc. should be moved into the author position in the reference and this title is then put in the correct alphabetical position within the list of authors in the bibliography/reference list. • If the publication is not dated, (n.d.) should be recorded. • If other referencing details are missing, (not known) should be recorded in the bibliographic reference.

The style of presenting a bibliographic reference varies according to the type of reference (e.g. book, journal article, film, website etc.). Below are details of how to present the most common types of material as bibliographic references.

Books Haynes, J. (2005). Comparative politics in a globalizing world. Cambridge: Polity.

Kubálková, V., Onuf, N., & Kowert, P. (Eds.). (1998). International relations in a constructed world. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

Marr, P. (2004). The modern history of Iraq (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview.

Name of author/s or editor/s using last name, plus initial/s. (Type Ed. or Eds. - short for editor/s - here if referring to a whole edited book). (Year of publication). Title of Book (Edition number goes here if later than first e.g. 2nd ed.). Place of publication: Publisher.

Electronic books Gordon, P. H., & Shapiro, J. (2004). Allies at war: America, Europe and the crisis over Iraq [Electronic version]. New York: McGraw-Hill.

This format is identical to that of a printed book apart from adding “Electronic version” in square brackets immediately after the book title.

3 Chapters in edited books Evans, T. (1997). Democratization and human rights. In A. McGrew (Ed.), The transformation of democracy? (pp. 122-148). Cambridge: Polity Press.

Name of author. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In Name of editor/s (Ed/s.), Title of book (pp. Start and end page numbers of chapter). Place of publication: Publisher.

Journal articles Foster, C. D. (2001). The civil service under stress: the fall in civil service power and authority. Public Administration, 79(3), 725-749.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, Volume number(issue number), Start and end page numbers of article.

Magazine articles Hobsbawm, E. (1998, November/December). The death of neo-liberalism. Marxism Today, 4-8.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication, Date of publication – month/s or month plus day if weekly). Title of article. Title of Magazine, Page number/s of article.

Newspaper articles Cowan, R. (2001, October 23). Adams asks IRA to disarm. The Guardian, p. 1.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication, Date of publication – month plus day). Title of article. Title of Newspaper, Page number/s of article.

Official publications Prime Minister’s Office & Cabinet Office. (1999). Modernising Government (Cm 4310). London: The Stationery Office.

Select Committee on Defence. (1996). Fourth Report, Westland plc: The Government’s Decision-Making (HC 519). London: HMSO.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication). Title of Official Publication (Official publication’s reference number). Place of publication: Publisher.

Conference papers Newman, J. (2001, September). New Labour and the Politics of Governance. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the European Group of Public Administration, Vaasa, Finland.

Name of author/s. (Year of publication, Month of conference). Title of Conference Paper. Paper presented at the Title of Conference or the Name of the Organisation holding the conference, Location of conference.

Website material Commission of the European Communities. (2001). Governance in the European Union: a White Paper. Retrieved August 21, 2001, from http://europa.eu.int/governance/white_paper/ index_en.htm

Name of author/s. (Year of publication). Title of web page. Retrieved date accessed, from World Wide Web address.

4 Electronic journal articles which are duplicates of the printed version Mabbett, D. (2005). The development of rights-based social policy in the European Union: the example of disability rights [Electronic version]. Journal of Common Market Studies, 43(1), 97-120.

This format is identical to that of a printed journal article apart from adding “Electronic version” in square brackets immediately after the article title.

Articles retrieved from a full-text database e.g. JSTOR, LexisNexis, Business Source Premier Hughes, K., & Smith, E. (1998). New Labour – new Europe? International Affairs, 74(1), 93- 104. Retrieved September 12, 2005, from the JSTOR database.

White, M., & Seager, A. (2005, September 5). Blair hopes to unravel textile row at EU-China summit. The Guardian, p. 2. Retrieved September 12, 2005, from the LexisNexis Executive database.

Article reference format follows that of a normal journal, newspaper or magazine article. You should then add: Retrieved month day, year, from name of full-text database.

Films Reed, C. (Director). (1949). The Third Man [Motion picture]. United Kingdom: British Lion/London Films.

Name of primary contributor - the director or producer, or both, Initials. (Role of primary contributor). (Year). Title of film [Motion picture]. Country of origin – where the film was primarily made and released: Name of studio.

Television/Radio programmes Jewhurst, A. (Producer). (2005, September 15). Dispatches: secrets of the shoplifters [Television broadcast]. London: Channel 4.

Scott-Brown, A. (Producer). (2005, September 15). Bulawayo boys [Radio broadcast]. London: BBC Radio 4.

Name of primary contributor – the producer or director. (Role of primary contributor). (Year, month & day of broadcast). Title of programme [Type of broadcast]. Place: Name of broadcaster.

Single episode from a television series Di Mambro, A. M. (Writer), & Walker, P. N. (Director). (2005). Holding on [Television series episode]. In S. Howells (Producer), Casualty. London: BBC1.

Note that this example is similar to a chapter in an edited book with the producer being placed in the position used for editor. If details of the writer are unavailable, begin your reference with the name of the director.

5 B. IN-TEXT REFERENCES FOR ESSAYS: HARVARD APA-STYLE

It is very important that references are provided within an essay (or other pieces of coursework) to indicate the sources of arguments, data, ideas, information, quotations etc.. Failure to provide references may constitute plagiarism, which is a serious disciplinary offence - see the University’s Student Handbook and Assessment Regulations. Furthermore, incorrect referencing can lead to a deduction of marks in the final mark given to student coursework.

Generally it is best to avoid quoting from lectures etc., as lecturers can be easily misinterpreted and student notes of a lecture etc. do not constitute a verifiable record of what was stated by the lecturer concerned.

The underlying requirement of referencing is that students must inform the reader of the precise source of material used in their essay. Students must show the reference to the source of material so that the reader also can find that material. Referencing should be used to cite and credit all sources of material (not only quotations).

There are several ways in which references can be presented, but this guide outlines a Harvard APA-style of referencing where the reference appears (in brackets) in the text of the essay, as opposed to the more traditional numeric system, where the reference appears as a footnote or endnote to the essay. If there are any queries regarding the Harvard APA-style of bibliographic referencing, students should consult the following two publications available from the University Library:

• American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. • University of Portsmouth. (2005). Bibliographic References: Harvard Format - APA Style.

Below are seven examples of Harvard APA-style referencing within the text of essays:

Example 1: Quoting and paraphrasing Fairclough stated that language “has always been important in politics and in government” (2000, p. 3). Or this quotation can be paraphrased as follows: Fairclough argued that language plays a significant role within government and politics (2000, p. 3).

Education “is permanently near the top of the political agenda in France” (Cole, 2001, p. 707). Or paraphrased: Cole argued that education is a constant and prominent issue on the French political agenda (2001, p. 707).

The same reference is cited regardless of whether quoted or paraphrased. The surname of the author/s need not appear in the cited reference if the surname/s appear in the text preceding the cited reference.

6 It is often better to paraphrase rather than quote, as paraphrasing demonstrates to the reader of the essay that you understand what you have read more than if directly quoting a passage. It is important when paraphrasing that your words are sufficiently different from the original words you have read, while conveying the same meaning of the author/s you have read. However, if quoting, it is important that you place the quoted words within “double-quotation marks” to distinguish the quoted words from your own words: ‘single-quotation marks’ should be used for colloquial, slang etc. terms that are your, and not someone else’s, words.

Example 2: Quoting long passages In the wake of the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001, Jackie Ashley wrote (2001, p. 10):

Goodbye, all those pundits who told us government and politics did not matter any more. Goodbye, the people who said history had ended. Goodbye, the notion that markets now ruled the world knitted together by the internet and cheap air travel. Goodbye, the gravediggers of the public service. Today, in the aftermath of the New York massacre, we are looking again to traditional sources of power - those fuddy-duddy sovereign governments - and we yearn for wise political leadership. Public service is back in fashion; the heroes of the hour are not just the armed forces preparing for whatever happens in the Gulf, but the self- sacrificing firefighters and police officers who walked into the jaws of death, never to return.

Quotations of a sentence or more should be separated from but introduced in the preceding text of the essay and should be double-indented. Single-line spacing should be used in presenting quotations of a sentence or more, as opposed to one-and-a-half-line spacing or double-line spacing used for the main text of the essay.

The above quotation does not have to be presented in full if parts of it are irrelevant to the point being made in the essay. By inserting three full-stops this signifies to the reader that some of the original text has been omitted from the quotation. Furthermore, it is possible for students to insert their own words into the quotation by using the parentheses, [...], as a way of shortening a long quotation. The quotation presented above can be re-presented, as follows:

In the wake of the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001, Jackie Ashley wrote (2001, p. 10):

Goodbye, all those pundits who told us government and politics did not matter any more ... [and] ... the people who said history had ended. Goodbye, the notion that markets now ruled the world ... [and] ... the gravediggers of the public service. Today ... we are looking again to traditional sources of power - those fuddy-duddy sovereign governments - and we yearn for wise political leadership. Public service is back in fashion....

Example 3: Primary and secondary sources When referencing it is important that students cite the source of the material they used in writing their essay. It may be that the source of the quotation is not the primary source (that is, the original text) but a secondary source (another text citing from the original text). If so, students must cite the secondary source of the material, and may cite the primary source only if significant, as follows:

Hayek believed that “the intellectual foundations of socialism have all collapsed” (taken from 7 Gamble, 1994, p. 34). This presentation of a reference tells the reader that the quoted words are Hayek’s words (and not Gamble’s words) but that Hayek’s words were taken from Gamble’s book.

Fox and Miller argued that there are no agreed criteria for ascertaining claims of truth (taken from Rhodes, 1997, p. 185). This presentation of a reference tells the reader that Fox and Miller’s paraphrased argument was taken from Rhodes’ book.

It was argued that there “is some reason to doubt that the non-Western cultures of the world will prove capable of creating and maintaining the high degree of organization without which a modern economy and a democratic political order are impossible” (Banfield, 1958 as cited in Nodia, 2001, p. 30). This presentation of a reference tells the reader that the quoted words are Banfield’s words and cites the year in which his words were written, thus allowing the reader to make more sense of the quotation.

Example 4: Citing from the Internet Students must cite sources taken from the Internet in their essay as follows:

The British Government believed that Bin Laden and his terrorist network, Al Qaida, are responsible for the terrorist attacks that took place in America on 11 September 2001 (Prime Minister’s Office, 2001).

The terrorist attack of 11 September 2001 against “symbols of U.S. military and financial might” represented “the worst act of terrorism in modern history” (Public Agenda, n.d.).

When citing from Internet-based sources, students should download and keep a copy of the material used for their essay to protect against any charges of plagiarism.

Example 5: Citing page numbers in references The key rule in referencing is to state precisely the sources of material used by students in writing essays. For example, students must specify the precise page number/s of their sources in their references, unless students are either referring to a general argument contained in a book, chapter in an edited book, journal article, magazine article, newspaper article, official publication or conference paper, or referring to an Internet-based source. Four relevant examples are shown below:

George Monbiot argued that American attempts to overthrow the Taliban regime and to install a pro-Western government, if successful, “will have crushed not only terrorism, but also the growing ambitions of both Russia and China” (2001, p. 19).

It has been calculated that the Labour Party spent £7.4 million in the general election campaign of 1997 (Russell, 2000, p. 20).

Harris charted the Nazi roots of many extreme right political organisations in Europe (1999, pp. 8-9).

Globalisation is having significant domestic effects upon Britain under New Labour (Axford, 2000; Krieger, 1999). 8

The first three examples above of a quotation, a figure and a specific point being taken from a source require page numbers in their references; whereas the fourth example of a general point taken from a source does not require any page numbers in its reference as it is referring to the argument outlined in the whole book. The fourth example also cites two sources; in cases where more than one source is cited, each reference is separated by a semi-colon.

From the above, it can be seen that the abbreviation, p. (meaning ‘page’), denotes a single page (e.g. p. 89); whereas the abbreviation, pp. (meaning ‘pages’), denotes more than one page of a book, etc. referred to in the essay (e.g. pp. 23-25, 148).

Example 6: Referencing and Latin terms Students should not use Latin terms such as etc. (meaning ‘and so on’), ibid. (‘the same as cited immediately beforehand’), op. cit. (‘as previously cited beforehand’), and passim (‘mentioned throughout the cited reference’) in their bibliographic references. However, students can use the term et al. (meaning ‘and others’), in their in-text references, (et al. is only used in bibliographies when more than 6 authors are listed - if you have 6 authors or less, you must give all the names). Et al. is used in-text when there are three or more authors, - if you have 3-5 authors, list them all the first time, then abbreviate to the first plus et al. after that, e.g.:

It has been argued that the reform of public services in the United Kingdom over the last twenty years “involved the development of processes designed to scrutinize, evaluate and regulate the performance of agencies involved in service provision” (Clarke et al., 2000, p. 250).

When quoting, it is vital that students quote word-for-word from their sources. Sometimes this reproduction of someone else’s words may mean replicating grammatical errors, spelling mistakes and clumsy phrases (such as sexist terminology). Students cannot correct the text by substituting it with what they thought the original author meant to write or ought to have written. However, students can insert the term, sic (meaning ‘thus used or spelt’), after the offending piece of quoted text, as follows:

Parsons noted that “Bower’s [sic] study of environmental pollution compares and contrasts two models used in the analysis of environmental decision-making: the pluralist view and the political economy/Marxist view” (1995, p. 271).

The term, sic, indicates to the reader that the student knows the academic cited has been spelt wrongly in Parsons’ book; it should read ‘Blowers’. It is vital that students faithfully record what the author of the passage quoted actually wrote. The term, sic, allows students to disassociate themselves from any problematic text written by others.

Example 7: Plagiarism and referencing The key principle of referencing is that students must inform the reader of the exact source of information which they used in writing an essay, whether it is an argument, numerical data, an idea or a quotation. Incorrect referencing may lead to charges of plagiarism levelled at students. Plagiarism is academic theft, in that students are passing off someone else’s words as their own. Plagiarism is not condoned within the University, and anti-plagiarism software and search engines can be and are used to detect plagiarism. Please consult the relevant sections on plagiarism in the University’s The Student Handbook. According to the University, plagiarism is “the incorporation by a student in work for assessment of material which is not their own, in the sense that all or a substantial part of the work has been copied without any attempt at attribution, or has been incorporated as if it were the student’s own 9 when in fact it is wholly or substantially the work of another person or persons”. The following examples provide some guidance on what is and what is not plagiarism:

Hobsbawm argued that “history is the raw material for nationalist or ethnic or fundamentalist ideologies, as poppies are the raw material for heroin addiction” (1997, p. 5). This is correctly referenced and not plagiarised.

Hobsbawm argued that “history is the raw material for nationalist or ethnic or fundamentalist ideologies, as poppies are the raw material for heroin addiction” (1997). This is incorrectly referenced because of the missing page number, though not plagiarised as the quotation marks signify that the words quoted are not those of the student writing the essay.

History is key in shaping nationalist and other ideologies (Hobsbawm, 1997, p. 5). This is correctly referenced, and not plagiarised as the paraphrased words used, while conveying the same meaning as intended by Hobsbawm, are sufficiently different from those used by Hobsbawm.

History is the raw material for nationalist ideologies like poppies are for heroin addiction (Hobsbawm, 1997, p. 5). This is plagiarised, despite the source being correctly referenced, as many of the key words used are Hobsbawm’s words that are not presented within quotation marks.

History is the raw material for nationalist ideologies as poppies are for heroin addiction. This is plagiarised as a) many of the key words used are Hobsbawm’s words but are not presented within quotation marks, and b) there is no in-text reference attributing the source of Hobsbawm’s view.

Plagiarism is a serious disciplinary offence. It is important that students do not cheat by plagiarising, whether it is intended or not. It is vital that students, when making notes from material, such as books and journal articles, record accurately the precise reference of material they have read. Also it is vital that they distinguish any quoted text, by using quotation-marks, from their own words in their notes to be used in writing essays.

Example 8: In-text references and bibliographies/reference lists

The Harvard APA-style of referencing detailed above allows the reader of an essay to search for the full details of each cited reference in an essay within the bibliography/reference list that is presented in alphabetical order at the end of an essay using single line-spacing. For example, the references cited in the above seven examples should appear in the bibliography of an essay (along with other material not referenced but read for an essay) as follows:

10 Bibliography

Ashley, J. (2001, October 8). History and social democracy start again. New Statesman, 10- 12.

Axford, B. (2000). Globalisation: is it good or bad for Britain? In L. Robins, & B. Jones (Eds.), Debates in British Politics Today (pp. 192-205). Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Clarke, J., Gewirtz, S., Hughes, G., & Humphrey, J. (2000). Guarding the public interest? Auditing public services. In J. Clarke, S. Gewirtz, & E. McLaughlin (Eds.), New Managerialism, New Welfare? (pp. 250-266). London: Sage.

Cole, A. (2001). The new governance of French education? Public Administration, 79(3), 707-724.

Fairclough, N. (2000). New Labour, New Language? London: Routledge.

Gamble, A. (1994). The Free Economy and the Strong State: The Politics of Thatcherism. Basingstoke: Macmillan.

Harris, G. (1999). The extreme right in contemporary Europe. Politics Review, 8(3), 8-10.

Hobsbawm, E. (1997). On History. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.

Krieger, J. (1999). British Politics in the Global Age. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Monbiot, G. (2001, October 23). America’s pipe dream. The Guardian, p. 19.

Nodia, G. (2001). The impact of nationalism. Journal of Democracy, 12(4), 27-34.

Parsons, W. (1995). Public Policy: An Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Policy Analysis. Aldershot: Edward Elgar.

Prime Minister’s Office. (2001). Responsibility for the terrorist atrocities in the United States, 11 September 2001. Retrieved October 8, 2001 from http://www.number- 10.gov.uk/news.asp?Newsld=2686&Sectionld=30

Public Agenda. (n.d.). Terrorism. Retrieved October 8, 2001, from http://www.publicagenda.org/specials/terrorism/terror_overview.htm

Rhodes, R. A. W. (1997). Understanding Governance: Policy Networks, Governance, Reflexivity and Accountability. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Russell, A. (2000). New Labour and the electorate. In D. Coates, & P. Lawler (Eds.), New Labour in Power (pp. 16-33). Manchester: Manchester University Press.

11 SECTION C: HOW POOR OR INADEQUATE REFERENCING WILL IMPACT ON THE MARK YOU RECEIVE FOR YOUR ASSIGNMENT

Normally coursework assessments must be referenced using Harvard APA style (or ‘numeric footnoting’ system for History units in SSHLS) and must have a bibliography/reference list for your work which details full bibliographical references for each of the sources cited in your text. An assessment that does not have a bibliography/reference list at the end will automatically receive a maximum mark of 40 at level 1 and 0 at levels 2, 3 and Masters level. A maximum mark of 40 will be awarded if the correct referencing system is not used. Students may lose up to 10 marks for incorrect referencing and demonstrating poor bibliographical skills. The following will apply except in the case of exams/tests and also some other types of assessment where the Unit Handbook will make it clear that these normal expectations do not apply.

Referencing Penalties

1. Missing bibliography/reference list L2/3/M: Fail 0 L1: Maximum mark 40.

2. Wrong referencing system used Maximum mark 40 for all students with the exception of L1 students in Sem 1 only

i.e. the correct referencing system to be used should be clearly indicated in the unit handbook (normally this will be Harvard APA except for History units in SSHLS, which require the ‘numeric footnoting’ system)

3. Poor/inadequate referencing 5-10 marks lost

- Where the required referencing system is inconsistently or incorrectly used throughout the work - Where the precise source of material is not clearly provided in the required manner in a significant number of instances - Where there are insufficient or no in-text references

4. Minor referencing mistakes/ omissions 2-4 marks lost

- Where there are some minor technical errors in referencing - Where there are faults in the presentation of the bibliography/reference list - Where the precise source of material is not clearly provided in the required manner in a few isolated instances

5. Weighted assessment criteria

The above sliding scale will be applied effectively ‘in reverse’ for the positive allocation of marks for referencing/citations whenever weighted assessment criteria are used [your Unit Handbook will say if this applies]. Normally, up to 10 marks will be allocated to a weighted criterion of this kind.