3 On the record: Political party representatives challenged Part 1: Political Platforms

Justine Hunter1 October 2004

Foreword

1 Introduction

2 Methodology

3 Section 1 of the questionnaire: Government 3.1 Decentralisation 3.2 Government efficiency 3.3 Government corruption 3.4 Transparency

4 Section 2 of the questionnaire: External relations 4.1 The United Nations 4.2 The African Union 4.3 New Partnership for Africa’s Development 4.4 The Southern African Development Community

5 Section 3 of the questionnaire: Democracy 5.1 Individual rights 5.2 Group rights 5.3 Constitutionalism 5.4 Democratic rule 5.5 Participation 5.4 Opposition

1Justine Hunter is Programme Coordinator of the Namiia Insitute for Democracy’s Public Dialogue Centre.

6 Section 4 of the questionnaire: Social fabric FOREWORD 1 INTRODUCTION 6.1 Law and order 6.2 Traditional morality This report is part of a larger research None of the parties have so far released their politi- cal programmes or manifestos, which would leave 6.3 National effort/social harmony project that compares the platforms the voters with little time to glean their election 6.4 Cultural pluralism of Namibias political parties ahead of promises. Swapo appears to be the only party that the 2004 national elections. Funded has hit the campaign trail. Opposition parties say a lack of resources is hampering them, but some 7 Section 5 of the questionnaire: Social groups by the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung observers point to deep[-]seated organisational (KAS) and carried out by researchers troubles to get work off the ground. 7.1 Labour groups (Amupadhi 2004) of the Institute for Public Policy Re- 7.2 Farmers search (IPPR) and the Namibia 7.3 Underprivileged minorities Free and fair elections, which require Institute for Democracy (NID), the 7.4 Non-economic demographic groups free competition between different overall study consists of three inde- political parties, lay the foundation for pendent articles that complement 8 Conclusion democratic rule. Emminghaus (2002: one another. Accordingly, Martin Boer 290—293) identifies four main functions (2004a) compiled the paper Spot the of political parties — irrespective of their References difference: Political party platforms regional context: representation, inte- compared, which analyses the ideo- gration, legitimation, and the recruit- Appendix: Questionnaire logical histories of Namibias political ment of political elites. Focusing on parties and compares their political some African multiparty systems, manifestos and other publications Erdmann (2002:268) identifies some across a wide range of social, eco- distinctive features shared by many of nomic and political issues. Boers the political parties in those systems: paper also serves as a pre-study for ¥ Barely distinguishable political this article on political party platforms platforms and for Robin Sherbournes forthcom- ¥ Few party members ing complementary work on the eco- ¥ Informal organisation nomic programmes of political par- ¥ Personality cults ties, entitled On the record: Political ¥ Missing links to civil society party representatives challenged. organisations Part II: Economic policy. Based on ¥ Regional or ethnic support bases, comprehensive questionnaires that and constitute the basis of in-depth inter- ¥ Mobilisation on the basis of party views with political party representa- loyalty. tives, both papers examine issues that are generally omitted by the mani- Furthermore, opposition parties in festos and other party publications. particular often lack the financial resources they need for election cam- The current study benefited from paigning (Tetzlaff 2002:247). comments by Christiaan Keulder, who also compiled the underlying ques- In Namibia, the structural power im- tionnaire on political platforms. I thank balance between the ruling party and him and Martin Boer (2004b), whose the opposition is the main challenge to SWAPO Party responses to party consolidating a multiparty democra- platform questionnaires proved in- cy. Both its historic achievements and dispensable. its ethnically-determined support base of more than half the Namibian popu- lation make the ruling party, the South West Africa Peoples Organisation (SWAPO) Party a superior political actor (Emminghaus 2002:302). Since Namibias independence, the former liberation movement has managed to

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constantly increase its dominance, study is to contribute to the improve- Unfortunately, the ruling SWAPO identify members well-versed in politi- and it currently holds more than two- ment of voter education. The articles Party declined face-to-face inter- cal platforms who would be available thirds of the total number of seats in purpose is to compare the responses views. Owing to the dominance and as interviewees. In all cases, the parties the National Assembly. Thus, Namib- given by party representatives during political importance of the SWAPO selected either their president or ian politics are shaped by a demo- face-to-face interviews, and to exam- Party, the interviews were substituted another top party leader. In the sec- cratic system dominated by one ine whether there are substantial dif- by a thorough study of the partys ond stage, the persons interviewed party, making the chances of an elec- ferences in their parties priorities and political manifestos and other official were handed a questionnaire in pre- toral victory by the opposition very proposed policies. Five policy issues documents (Boer 2004b). Also, numer- paration for the interview. The third slim. As Sherbourne (2004:17) argues, in were chosen to provide a basis upon ous attempts to conduct a face-to- stage involved conducting and tran- a dominant-party system, opposition which potential policy differences face interview with the party repre- scribing the interviews. In the fourth parties are there at best to act as bell between the parties could be identi- sentative of the United Democratic and final stage, the party representa- ringers or at worst as part of a sys- fied, namely: Front (UDF) were unsuccessful due to tives responses were summarised and tem of state patronage that keeps key ¥ government the latters constant postponements. edited. These results were then com- constituencies and difficult individuals ¥ external relations The only remaining alternative was to pared with the written political mani- 2 happy. With regard to political party ¥ democracy exclude the UDF from the study. festo of the party concerned (as sum- platforms, Boer (2004a:18) concludes ¥ social fabric, and marised in Boer 2004a). Boer (2004a) and Hopwood (forth- that issues are not as important in ¥ social groups. coming:41—84) describe the parties The text that now follows comprises Namibian politics and elections as The five topics are further subdivid- included in this study, their history, and statements based on interviews with they are in other countries with ed into 22 categories. These cate- the evolution of their political plat- the following party representatives on stronger opposition parties, where gories serve to distinguish between forms. The parties themselves can be the dates indicated: some of them actually have a good party positions on those specific issues, arranged into three categories: ¥ Hewat Beukes, President of the chance of winning and implementing WRP; 13 August 2004 as well as parties general political pri- their policies. 1. Those that have been represented ¥ Rihupisa Kandando, President of orities across issues. While the in-depth in Parliament since independence SWANU; 11 June 2004 According to Keulders (2000:279) interviews examine in detail a number (the CoD, the DTA and MAG) ¥ Katuutire Kaura, President of the study on voting behaviour in Namibia, of topics that are addressed in the 2. Those that had dissolved in order DTA; 21 July 2004 party identification is the result of the various parties written manifestos, the to form part of the DTA for the ¥ Henk Mudge, President of the countrys history of race- and ethni- questionnaire includes a number of RP; 22 July 2004 Constituent Assembly elections in cally-based colonialism. As he (ibid.) issues that are generally omitted in ¥ Kosie Pretorius, Chairperson of 1989; broke away and reactivated points out, This, and the subsequent such official publications. As can be MAG; 14 June 2004 themselves in 2003; and won development of a liberation struggle, expected in the latter case, the inter- ¥ Kuiama Riruako, President of seats in the Local Authority caused a clear socio-political divide viewees personal opinion generally NUDO; 20 July 2004, and Elections in May 2004 (NUDO and ¥ Nora Schimming-Chase, in society. Party identification and comes to the fore. the RP), and Member of Parliament for the ethnicity shape voters perceptions of 3. Parties that have to date had no CoD; 14 June 2004 what makes the best party, and the electoral success (SWANU and distribution of party sympathy is rela- 2 METHODOLOGY References to secondary literature the WRP). and official party documents are also tively fixed. Given the inequality creat- Face-to-face interviews were con- indicated in the text. ed and sustained by apartheid and ducted with leaders of the following Being almost totally insignificant colonial rule, it is not surprising that the political parties, all of which are regis- today, Namibias first national move- need for change and improvement ment, SWANU, was included on tered with the Electoral Commission of 3 SECTION 1 OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE: was identified as an important voter account of its historical importance. Namibia: GOVERNMENT motivation (ibid.:276). If the strong de- ¥ Congress of Democrats (CoD) The WRP, which formed an alliance mands for change and improvement ¥ Democratic Turnhalle Alliance with SWANU for the 1999 National 3.1 Decentralisation are not met, therefore, instead of (DTA) Election but is since independent Decentralisation is the delegation or switching parties, Namibian voters will ¥ Monitor Action Group (MAG) again, was incorporated on the devolution of responsibilities, functions abstain from voting. Thus, voter volatil- ¥ National Unity Democratic grounds of its far-left political pro- and resources to regional and local ity is low; the election outcomes are Organisation (NUDO) gramme that is notably different from government within the framework of a predictable; and policy issues are ¥ Republican Party (RP) those of the ruling party and the major unitary state. The introductory ques- sidelined. ¥ South West Africa National Union opposition parties. (SWANU), and tion, Could you please tell us what your party’s position is on decentrali- As national elections are to be held ¥ Workers Revolutionary Party In the first stage of this research study, sation? in mid-November 2004, the aim of this (WRP). party presidents were approached to , is an attempt to determine

2Also excluded from this study is the Federal Convention of Namibia (FCN), which gained one seat in the Constituent Assembly in 1989, but lost it again in 1994. The FCN took part in the Parliamentary Elections in 1999, but did not issue an election manifesto. Also excluded are the Namibia Democratic Movement for Change (NDMC) and various Residents’ Associations. The NDMC clearly targets the rural popula- tion in eastern Namibia and is, therefore, regionally based. Although the Residents’ Associations campaigned successfully in a few towns, 04 05 they reject party politics (Hopwood, forthcoming).

whether political party representatives the benefits included people being associated with decentralisation. The contrast, the SWAPO Party seemed to favour decentralisation or centralisa- able to deal with the everyday prob- RP warned, for example, that it should regard job creation in the public sec- tion. In their responses, all parties men- lems in their region. The SWAPO Party not be allowed to detract from tor and service delivery as equally tioned the importance of the devolu- stressed that decentralisation provid- national unity, while SWANU argued important. Responding to criticism tion of powers and resources to sub- ed Namibians with more choices that decentralisation could easily be concerning the size of government, it national levels of government. For regarding public services (ibid.) MAG, misunderstood as a different form of stated that it was a direct result of example, in its official manifesto, the NUDO and the RP highlighted the apartheid. the policy of national reconciliation SWAPO Party (1999a:6) classifies the importance of bringing government to and yet another price to pay for Contradicting every other partys implementation of decentralisation the people. More practically orientat- socio-political tranquillity (SWAPO vision of decentralisation that de- within the overall goals of national rec- ed, the COD believed that decentrali- Party 1999b:18). Nevertheless, the volved functions to regional and local onciliation and fostering peace and a sation benefited socio-economic respondents did not demand that government, MAG demanded a fed- common loyalty to a unitary state. development and could prevent a public servants be dismissed. Instead, eral system based on ethnic origin. rural exodus. However, the RP, the some of the respondents emphasised A second question required respon- DTA, MAG and the CoD criticised the In its party manifesto, NUDO (n.d.:1) that merit should be the sole criterion dents to identify the sort of powers and ruling partys track record, and asserts that the regions should receive for job opportunities in the public serv- resources to be devolved. Among the demanded training and systematic additional governing powers and the ice. The CoD said it would cut down answers given were health, educa- capacity-building programmes for potential to earn more revenue. on salaries and car allowances, and tion, agriculture, and land distribution. regional councillors and local officials. Besides the views expressed by the RP recommended early retirement for In addition, the party representatives interviewee, the partys manifesto (RP civil servants. Both the DTA and NUDO were asked to name the inherent ben- Only two of the party leaders 2003:3) also calls for a ward system of emphasised the importance of efits of decentralisation. For the DTA, mentioned the inherent problems voter representation to be reintro- decentralisation, saying that the duced into local government. regions could provide job opportuni- Table 1: Decentralisation ties for civil servants. (See Table 2 on page 8) Party What sort of powers and What are the inherent benefits What are the inherent problems 3.2 Government efficiency resources should be devolved of decentralisation? of decentralisation? to the sub-national levels How would you address The second set of questions was of government? these problems? 3.3 Government corruption used to determine the extent to which The various causes of corruption can CoD Health and social welfare ¥ Could prevent a rural exodus n/a [No response given] party leaders were satisfied with the ¥ Each region should get be viewed from two perspectives. The equal powers and, thus, efficiency of the current government. explanation that involves individual facilitate genuine social and The aim was to examine whether economic development characteristics tends to view corrup- party leaders saw the public service DTA n/a [No response given] ¥ People can deal with n/a [No response given] tion as something that arises from everyday problems in the as an instrument with which to com- greed or the inability to withstand regions bat unemployment or, more specifi- ¥ Immediate procedures in the temptation. A broader explanation of case of natural disasters such cally, to promote certain groups; or corruption requires an analysis of the as floods whether they believed it should focus structural influences of society. The MAG Everything concerning group Brings government to the n/a [No response given] on the delivery of public services. We rights and local development people conditions of less-developed coun- also considered the respondents posi- tries are such that corruption is likely to NUDO Agriculture, health, education Brings government to the n/a [No response given] tion on the size of government as well people have different causes and conse- as their views on the costs and respon- quences than in their more devel- RP n/a [No response given] Brings government to the National unity should not be siveness of government services. people compromised oped counterparts. According to the SWANU Land distribution, community Unity in diversity is taken into Can easily be misunderstood The findings suggest that the SWAPO Party (1999a:23), the extent of services, education, health consideration as a different form of apartheid respondents regarded government corruption in Namibia is not sys- SWAPO Planning for development, Once the process of n/a [No response given] primarily as a service deliverer. All the temic. The party addresses the prob- Party decision-making and the decentralisation is complete, running of government affairs the people would be able to interviewees believed that govern- lem by putting in place laws and that affect their lives on a decide what services they ment was too large. SWANU demand- institutions for combating corruption day-to-day basis want, where they want them, (SWAPO Party 1999a:6) and how they should be ed more private sector initiatives with (ibid.). In an effort to fight corruption in delivered Namibia, Parliament passed the Anti- (SWAPO Party 1999a:6) regard to job creation. The RP stated that economic development needed corruption Act, 2003 (No. 8 of 2003). WRP Health and education need Indispensable component of n/a [No response given] to be coordinated democratic rule to be achieved by creating a climate The Act allows for the establishment of at the national level, but should that was conducive to investment an Anti-corruption Commission, and be activated on the regional and local level and the provision of infrastructure. In specifies its functions.

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Table 2: Government efficiency In respect of the parties views of All parties agreed that MPs and civil corruption, the RP, for example, con- servants should publicly declare their Party How would your What is your Is government too Are government How would your party make party’s position expensive? services too party go about sidered greed as the main motivating assets. The WRP was the only one to government on the size of costly and too rectifying these factor when it came to leading politi- qualify its point of view on this, stating more efficient? government, and cumbersome? problems? what would you cal personalities becoming corrupt. To that such declarations should be limit- propose to reform the civil service? combat corruption and self-enrich- ed to activities and businesses that ment, the CoD has put in place a involved national resources, such as CoD Government Too large n/a [No response ¥ Total chaos, ¥ Cut down on should be given] especially at salaries, car code of conduct for its own leaders diamonds and fish. slimmed down the Ministry of allowances and would force political personalities by reducing the Home Affairs and other perks Apart from the legal requirement size of Cabinet ¥ Health services ¥ Early retirement to publicly declare their private inter- and the edu- for civil servants that Namibian parties disclose foreign cation system ests. In their responses, the RP and the funding, there are no regulations gov- are inefficient CoD considered the impact of cor- erning the private funding of parties DTA Government Too large Yes n/a [No response ¥ Decentralisation ruption on foreign private investment should be given] ¥ The regions (Hopwood, forthcoming:25). Thus, the to be particularly harmful for a deve- slimmed down provide job interviewees were requested to give by reducing the opportunities loping economy. According to the size of Cabinet for civil servants their opinion on whether political par- DTA and NUDO, corruption could ties should publicly declare their MAG Government Too large YesYes n/a [No response intensify inter-ethnic tension and dis- should be given] sources of funding. The answers re- slimmed down trust.3 To counteract corrupt practices, by making the vealed that the CoD, the DTA, MAG, bicameral MAG highlighted the importance of NUDO, SWANU and the RP were in Parliament moral and religious values. The party unicameral favour of publicly declaring sources of also pointed to shortcomings in funding. However, the DTA and the RP NUDO Government Too large YesYes ¥ Decentralisation Namibias legislative and judicial sys- should be ¥ The regions stated that potential donors in respect slimmed down provide job tem. Being Marxist-Leninist and by reducing the opportunities of opposition parties were intimidated size of Cabinet for civil servants Trotskyist in ideology, SWANU and the and scared off by the SWAPO Party. In WRP stated that corruption was a RP Instead of Too large n/a [No response n/a [No response Merit should SWANUs view, foreign forces want- regarding the given] given] be the sole symptom of the deep-rooted eco- expansion of the criterion for job ed to control Namibia by means of civil service as a opportunities in nomic and political weaknesses and party funding, while the WRP again method of job the public sector shortcomings of capitalism. creation, the saw such declarations being restrict- government should achieve In their political manifestos, the DTA ed to only those resources that relat- economic development and NUDO offer additional recom- ed to the national interest. by creating a mendations to curb corruption. The climate that is The final question on the topic of conducive to DTA (1999a:5) proposes specific coop- transparency was ,Should political investment and eration with the Auditor General, and the provision of parties submit to the public records of infrastructure NUDO (n.d.:1) would prohibit Perma- their activities and expenditure?. The nent Secretaries and other members SWANU Merit should Too large Yes Yes ¥ The public CoD, the DTA, MAG and NUDO men- be the sole service should of the public service from sitting on criterion for job not be seen as tioned the importance of submitting opportunities in an instrument the boards of private companies. the public sector for job creation records of activities and expenditure ¥ Strengthen to the public. SWANU limited such an initiatives in the 3.4 Transparency private sector obligation to political parties that Since the mid-1990s, Members of SWAPO Partnership of all Direct result of n/a [No response n/a [No response Under the were represented in Parliament and, Party stakeholders the policy of given] given] SWAPO Parliament (MPs) have been obliged thus, funded by taxpayers money. brings about a national government, common reconciliation the countrys to declare their assets through the Only the WRP disapproved of the purpose to our (SWAPO Party civil service Register of Members Interests, al- submission of records, stating that it effort and 1999b:18) has become resources representative though the only time that they have would not like to reveal its political (SWAPO Party of the whole 1999a:6) population, and actually done so was in 2003 (Boer strategies. The SWAPO Party does is responsive to 2004b:4). An important question to not address these issues in its official its needs (SWAPO Party 1999a:22) ask the respondents, therefore, was documents. whether MPs and civil servants should WRP Merit should be n/a [No response No n/a [No response ¥ Organisation the sole criterion for given] given] of the masses declare their assets publicly. job opportunities ¥ Decentralisation in the public sector

3Particularly when competition for jobs is extreme, corruption can take the form of ethnic discrimination. 08 09

festo does not comment on its official the SWAPO Party itself does not men- welfare programmes (ibid.), almost all 4 SECTION 2 OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE: position regarding the UN, but the tion an official position on the AU, the political parties seem to be uncondi- EXTERNAL RELATIONS SWAPO Party-led government attach- SWAPO Party-led government has tionally committed to the vision and 4.1 The United Nations es high value to the international stated that Namibias major priority is principles of the new initiative, includ- bodys decisions (GRN 2004:63). to build strong ties with all African ing the APRM. Again, the WRP ends A number of international organisa- countries, and that the AU embod- up on the fringes by stating that tions played an active role in ies the aspirations of the African peo- NEPADs priorities are vague, and Namibias decolonisation process 4.2 The African Union ple (GRN 2004:68). that the African watchdog has and its transition to democratic rule. In 2002, the Organisation of African always been blind. Since independence, Namibia has Unity (OAU) was transformed into the itself become an active member of AU. The new body focuses on priorities 4.3 New Partnership for Africas various international organisations, and objectives that are different from Development 4.4 The Southern African Development such as the United Nations (UN), the its predecessors. With the aim to Initiated by the AU, the New Community African Union (AU) and the Southern strengthen Africas profile and its role Partnership for Africas Development SADCs principal aim is to enhance African Development Community in the international community, the AU (NEPAD) aims to increase Africas economic and political cooperation (SADC). The Namibian government plans to establish an African Parlia- international credibility, and to and integration in the southern has also sent troops to a number of ment, an African Court of Justice, and strengthen confidence among for- African region. In the long run, SADC conflict regions. an African Security Council, as well as eign and domestic investors. Through plans to move in a direction similar to a task force to intervene in internal good governance and the liberalisa- the one the European Union has During the face-to-face interviews, conflicts. tion of African economies, the initia- taken, and to adopt a regional the party representatives were ques- tive intends to renew existing relation- Parliament and a single market. tioned about their official position as Namibias party representatives ships with industrial nations. NEPAD However, a southern African free regards the UN; the role Namibia were asked to state their official posi- encourages African countries to trade area would stand on shaky should play within this international tion as regards the AU; the role achieve and maintain a high stan- ground for a number of reasons, e.g. — body; and whether Namibia should Namibia should play within the inter- dard of good governance in social, ¥ minor investment activities participate in peace and other mis- national organisation; and whether economic and political aspects in ¥ limited trade relations between sions abroad. Almost all the parties Namibia should take part in AU mis- return for enhanced development mentioned the importance of the UN sions. Even though almost all the member states assistance and better cooperation in in securing worldwide peace and sta- respondents highlighted the impor- ¥ the overwhelming economic trade (NEPRU & HSF 2004). The African bility. The CoD qualified its positive tance of the AU, some political parties dominance of South Africa Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) is an response by stressing that the UN criticised its track record. The RP, for ¥ a lack of manufacturing industries AU instrument of mutual control with treated us [the Namibian people] example, called for African leaders to ¥ the limited purchasing power of regard to good governance. undemocratically in the past. This be more forthcoming when it came to domestic markets, and statement refers to the UNs labelling intervening in the internal affairs of AU In its official documents, the SWAPO ¥ a lack of market and product of the liberation movement, SWAPO, member states. In its response, the Party does not specifically mention its diversification. as the sole authentic representative of CoD expressed the view that civil soci- position regarding NEPAD. In respect In its manifesto, the SWAPO Party the Namibian people in 1976. In addi- ety organisations needed to play an of the SWAPO Party-led governments does not mention its official position tion, the CoD mentioned that, since active role in what it called the official position on NEPAD, it remained on SADC. The SWAPO Party-led gov- Namibia regularly made its pay- Heads-of-State Club. MAG con- unclear until 2002. In fact, the govern- ernment, however, attaches great ments to the UN, it should employ tended that AU member states should ment has questioned the inclusion of importance to its relations with SADC more qualified Namibians. The only not give away their sovereignty and the political component in the APRM member states (GRN 2004:64). strictly negative reference to the UN national independence at the end of on several occasions (ibid.). After Furthermore, the government states came by way of the WRP, which the day. NUDO warned that one had some adjustments to the original that it is committed to cooperation called the UN a very dangerous to ensure ones own affairs were in NEPAD plan, Namibia, which can through sustained regional develop- imperialist organisation that is just stir- order before introducing ones ideas claim to have one of the good gover- ment and economic integration. As ring up more problems all over the to others. Again, the only clearly neg- nance systems in Africa, accepted Table 3 below shows, all the respon- world. In their responses, the CoD, ative reference to the AU came from the amended plan in principle (ibid.). dents agree on Namibias continued MAG, NUDO and SWANU emphasised the WRP, which called it a toothless While a number of civil society organ- membership of SADC. the importance of Namibias partici- organisation. Nevertheless, the WRP isations in Namibia questioned the pation in missions abroad. The DTA stated that the AU could serve as a authenticity of NEPADs ownership by To further assess the issue, the inter- and the RP did not explicitly mention platform for contacts between Africans and expressed the fear that it viewees were asked whether the UN missions. The SWAPO Partys mani- Africas progressive forces. Although was bound to put an end to social SADC region should become more

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integrated or stay the way it was. Most the African continent. According to of the political party representatives to In their manifestos, the DTA and of the respondents promoted further Budge and Klingemann (2001:22), a the following questions: Are individu- NUDO are the only parties to explicitly integration into SADC. Similarly, the positive attitude towards internation- als’ rights adequately protected?, and mention human rights. NUDO (2004:1) leaders mentioned the importance of alism is grouped as a left emphasis. As If not, what would your party do to emphasises the importance of pro- a regional Parliament. MAG, however, shown above, the only negative refer- improve the situation? The findings tecting human rights and all tradition- cautioned that the first responsibility ences to the international bodies in reveal that in the opinion of the RP, al cultures and customs. Among other of a Namibian Parliamentarian is the question come by way of the WRP, SWANU and the SWAPO Party, individ- things, the DTA (1999b:9) stresses that Namibian Parliament and the Namib- which generally disapproves of their ual rights are adequately protected. individual rights have concomitant ian people. NUDO stressed that structures as well as their track However, SWANU qualifies its state- responsibilities. member states were reluctant to give records. Nevertheless, under specific ment by calling for the population to up their national sovereignty for the conditions, the WRP stated it would be educated about their rights. 5.2 Group rights benefit of a supranational organisa- strongly support the idea of interna- According to the DTA, MAG, NUDO Given the countrys experience with tion. With regard to a single currency, tional cooperation. MAG, however, and the WRP, individual rights are not apartheid and colonial rule, it is not sur- the CoD, the RP and SWANU which was generally accepting of adequately protected. They ex- prising that the CoD, the DTA and the expressed their scepticism of its suc- international organisations, seemed to pressed concern about human rights RP expressed their disapproval of cess, pointing out that the economic have a more cautious and hesitant abuses committed by security forces group rights. Accordingly, the RP stat- power held by the various SADC outlook on integration. due to the militarisation of specific ed that group rights were exploited to member countries was extremely vari- areas of the country; the negative justify racial discrimination in the past. able. In the WRPs view, proper coop- effect of socio-economic inequalities The CoD pointed out that the liberation 5 SECTION 3 OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE: eration between southern African on the protection of rights; the ineffi- struggle was against apartheid. In con- DEMOCRACY countries would only be possible if one ciency of labour unions; and gender trast, MAG, NUDO and the WRP called gets rid of the governments of 5.1 Individual rights imbalances. With reference to human for the protection of group rights. today. According to the WRP, gov- rights abuses committed by paramili- Traditionally, MAG has always insisted The inalienable fundamental human ernments should be representatives of tary forces, the CoD stated that indi- on group rights for ethnic, labour and rights and freedoms that are enshrined the working masses that have a vidual rights were not protected at all. non-economic demographic groups. in Chapter 3 of the Constitution of the vital interest in changing the existing economic relations. Republic of Namibia are obliged to be upheld by the executive, legislature Overall, the findings on the topic of and judiciary powers and all organs of Table 4: Individual rights external relations suggest that, in prin- the government as well as the Party Are individuals rights adequately protected? If not, what would your party do to improve the ciple, all parties share an internation- Namibian citizenry (RoN 1990). In this situation? alist approach that is not restricted to regard, Table 4 presents the responses ¥ Not protected at all Political education ¥ Human rights abuses committed by the Special Field Force (SFF) Table 3: The Southern African Development Community ¥ Not adequately protected n/a [No response given] ¥ Human rights abuses committed during the Party Should Namibia Should the SADC Should SADC move in and a single state of emergency in the Caprivi Region continue as a member region become more a similar direction to currency? in 1999 of SADC? integrated or should it that taken by the stay the way it is? European Union and ¥ Not adequately protected n/a [No response given] adopt a regional ¥ Negative effect of socio-economic inequalities Parliament on the protection of rights

Yes More integrated Yes No ¥ Not adequately protected Tolerance ¥ Gender imbalances still need to be corrected Yes More integrated ¥ Adequately protected Yes More integrated Yes, in the long run Yes, in the long run ¥ Adequately protected Political education Yes More integrated n/a [No response ¥ Low levels of understanding and awareness given] of rights among the people

Yes ¥ Democracy is about choices and rights If anyone is wronged, our institutions are open [T]he SWAPO Party has worked hard to remove and accessible to them to redress [the situation] obstacles to these choices by guaranteeing (SWAPO Party 1999a:22) Yes More integrated Yes, in the long run freedom of speech, freedom from racism, and freedom from discrimination on the basis of religion, sex and ethnicity (SWAPO Party 1999a:5)

First meet specific First meet specific First meet specific ¥ Not adequately protected Labour unions need to participate in fighting for requirements requirements requirements ¥ Inefficiency of labour unions the rights of the individual

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The WRP interviewee called for quota 5.3 Constitutionalism basis of a national referendum. The RP 5.4 Democratic rule regulations for ethnic and sexual The Namibian Constitution contains and SWANU stated they would act After more than a century of colo- minorities to be represented at all regulations with regard to the con- according to the procedures for nialism, Namibia has experienced its organs of mass representation in cept of state; the organisation, func- amendment provided for in Article first 14 years of democratic rule. In the Parliament. The NUDO representative tions, duties and objectives of the 132 of the Constitution (ibid.). The latter short period, Namibia is still in the spoke of the partys insistence on cul- state; and the legal status of citizens results of the interviews are shown in process of consolidating its democra- tural rights for the various ethnic (RoN 1990). With the exception of Table 5. cy (Keulder et al. 2000:238). Reflecting groups. According to the SWANU rep- MAG, all the political parties believed the notions of a number of political Almost all political parties mention resentative, group rights were already that the Constitution fulfilled the theorists, Keulder (2002:4) points out the importance of respecting the protected in the Constitution: the needs of the Namibian people. that the exact point at which a new Constitution in their manifestos. right to property (Article 16) protected Nevertheless, aside from MAG, NUDO democracy can be considered con- Interestingly, in its party manifesto, the historically advantaged, while and the WRP also highlighted the solidated is not particularly clear. In MAG (2004:3) stresses that the word Affirmative Action (Article 23) need to change specific parts of the addition, political scholars disagree secular should be removed from the favoured the historically disadvan- Constitution. If they were ever faced on what preconditions to use for Constitution. During the face-to-face taged. The SWAPO Party does not with the need to change the recognising a system as a consolidat- interview, the MAG representative address the question of group rights in Constitution, the CoD, the DTA and ed democracy (see e.g. Linz & Stepan emphasised the absence of group its publications. NUDO would only to do so on the 1997; Merkel 1994). rights and the death penalty in the Constitution, and pointed out other Against this background, the Na- Table 5: Constitutionalism Articles that should be changed. mibian political parties acceptance

Party Does the Constitution of Is there a need to change any If ever faced with the need to Namibia fulfil the needs part of the Constitution? change the Constitution, how Table 6: Democratic rule of the Namibian people? would your party go about doing that? Party What are the major How would your party Just how much of a How can the quality challenges to the address these democracy is Namibia of democracy be Yes There are some things that Referendum consolidation of challenges? today? improved? could have been better written democracy at but one does not change those the moment? things after 15 years [No further explanation given] Yes Somewhere along the line ¥ Reach consensus with all one might find the need for political parties [Like the amendments [No further Constituent Assembly in 1989] explanation given] ¥ National referendum

Absence of group rights and No referendum [Disapproval of death penalty [i.e. a call to the one-person-one-vote amend Article 6] approach] Yes Article 132 (2): The majorities Referendum required in Parliament for the repeal and/or amendment n/a [No response of any of the provisions of given] this Constitution shall be: (a) two-thirds of all the members of the National Assembly; and (b) two-thirds of all the n/a [No response members of the given] National Council (RoN 1990) Yes Any amendments need to be Procedures for amendments carefully and cautiously are provided for in the considered Constitution Yesn/a [No response given] Procedures for amendments are provided for in the Constitution Commitment to constitutional n/a [No response given] n/a [No response given] rule is one of the main features n/a [No response of the SWAPO-led independent given] Namibia (SWAPO Party 1999b:3) Yes Article 16 (1): Right to property Fundamental social transformation

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of the concept democracy was first mocracy is Namibia today? Table 6 The questions posed to the intervie- cy. Being Marxist-Leninist in its ideolo- assessed by means of the question, Do provides a number of proposals by the wees aimed at assessing the degree gy, SWANU stated there is nothing you believe democracy as we have it parties regarding what they saw as of satisfaction with political participa- wrong with a one-party state, in the Constitution at the moment is challenges to the consolidation of tion in Namibia. If dissatisfaction pre- adding, however, that the ruling party the most appropriate form of govern- democracy, and what they would do vails, the underlying problems need to needed to put democracy into prac- ment for Namibia? In their responses, to improve the quality of democracy. be identified and addressed. The find- tice among its members. NUDO all parties agreed that democracy Particularly interesting were MAGs ings represented in Table 7 show that pleaded for what it termed a was the most appropriate form of gov- proposal to raise the minimum voting all respondents were dissatisfied with Government of National Unity, in ernment. This finding suggests that the age to 35 years; NUDOs proposal the current levels of political participa- which all political parties partici- main political players accepted to establish a constitutional court; tion. In their responses, the CoD, the pated. The SWAPO Party addresses democracy to be the only game in and the DTAs proposal to change the DTA, MAG and SWANU suggested neither the function nor the necessity town (Linz & Stepan 1997:15). current party-list system. In its official that education was the key to of opposition parties in its official A second question puts the issue of publications, the SWAPO Party addressing the underlying problems. publications. democratic consolidation at the cen- (1999a:4) states that Namibia[s tre of the analysis, namely, What are democracy] has been applauded far 5.6 Opposition the major challenges to the consoli- and wide, and that it plans to pro- 6 SECTION 4 OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE: Table 8 presents the responses to dation of democracy at the moment? vide Namibians with more choices by SOCIAL FABRIC the following question: What are the With respect to their responses, the directing its efforts towards decentra- roles and functions of an opposition lisation (ibid.:6). 6.1 Law and order political parties can be divided into party? The respondents named a All of the party representatives cited two groups: (1) the CoD, NUDO, the number of functions that were practi- crime as a serious daily problem that RP and the WRP demand that the 5.5 Participation cally identical to the definitions pro- affected women and children in Constitution must be put into prac- Even if electoral participation is im- vided by political scholars such as particular. The respondents identified tice by the ruling elite; and (2) the portant with regard to the selection of Nohlen (2003: 348), namely criticism, a variety of root causes for this: DTA, MAG and SWANU identify a rulers, a living democracy also requires control, and alternative policies. Thus, The DTA, for example, argued that a lack of education among the citizen- non-electoral participation in the polit- the respondents can be said to misinterpretation of freedom had ry as a stumbling block to the consol- ical process on the part of the citizen- understand the role and function of resulted in a high crime rate after inde- idation of democracy. ry. As Keulder et al. (2000:238) states, the opposition. pendence, but added that the the future of democracy lies not only In a similar vein, the interviewees Another important question posed recently declining figures were due to in the hands of the ruling elites, but were asked, Just how much of a de- to the respondents was how neces- effective police work. The CoD stated also in the hands of ordinary citizens. sary opposition parties were for that corruption in the penal system, Namibias future. The results showed inefficiency and slowness were deci- Table 7: Participation agreement among all the respon- sive factors with regard to the escalat- Party Current levels of participation Major problems Solution proposed by party dents except SWANU, which was that ing crime rate. The CoD, NUDO and Unsatisfactory Lack of education Education opposition was inherent to democra- the WRP saw poverty as the root cause

Unsatisfactory Voter apathy Voter education

Unsatisfactory ¥ Hopelessness Political education Table 8: Opposition ¥ White Namibians believe that they cannot make an impact Party Roles and functions of an opposition party because of their numbers Unsatisfactory Voter apathy n/a [No response given] Unsatisfactory Political apathy, especially Motivation among Namibian whites and the Christian community Unsatisfactory Poverty Civic education n/a [No response given] n/a [No response given] ¥ Enhance popular participa- tion to influence public policy decisions (SWAPO Party 1999a:3) ¥ Provide genuine democratic governance that allows for the existence of a plurality of political views and social forces (SWAPO Party 1999b:3) ¥ To challenge government Unsatisfactory Lack of confidence among the Empowering the masses masses

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of crime. Reflecting its hard-line right as the root cause of the decline of 6.3 National effort/social harmony SWANU qualified their positive position policy position, MAG strongly empha- morality. All respondents condemned With independence, Namibia inher- by saying that diversity could only be sised an effective authority and law pornography, while NUDO stated that ited the burden of more than 100 an asset if handled properly. Only the and order by demanding the rein- pornography and alcohol abuse years of racial and ethnic segregation WRP argued that cultural diversity was statement of the death penalty. The related mainly to a lack of self-control. as well as the violent heritage of a war a liability because it created difficulty SWAPO Party (1999a:23) intends to The CoD called for poverty and that lasted for more than 20 years. In in uniting the working class. increase its efforts to counter crime unemployment, which it saw as the this context, therefore, the party rep- Asked about their position on English against women and children and root causes of alcohol abuse, to be resentatives were asked to identify the as the official language, all respon- to strengthen support mechanisms combated. In the context of its cam- main challenges to nationhood and dents except the WRP expressed their for the victims of crime. Furthermore, paign on the prevention and control social harmony, and suggest how approval of the status quo. According the ruling party will make it more of sexually transmitted diseases, the they would address these challenges to the WRP, the middle class used difficult for serious offenders to get SWAPO Party (1999a:10) emphases (see Table 11 below). Not surprisingly, English as a tool to oppress the un- bail (ibid.). Table 9 below records the the countering of alcohol abuse. As all the parties pointed out that there educated masses. Most parties parties proposals in respect of crime regards abortion, four of the respond- was still much to be done to consoli- argued that all languages in the reduction. ing parties condemned it, while the date unity in diversity. The SWAPO country should either be developed CoD demanded legalisation that Party (1999b:4) identifies unemploy- In its manifesto, the CoD (1999b:3) adds to stand on an equal footing with would cater for specific circum- ment, poverty and socio-economic the review of gun legislation to its list of each other, or at least promoted in stances. Both the DTA and NUDO dis- inequities as the major challenges party proposals on crime reduction. the media and the school system. tinguished between two different ahead. The CoD, the DTA and the The SWAPO Party does not address kinds of homosexuality: one that was WRP complained about ethnicity and the issue of language in its publica- 6.2 Traditional morality a natural phenomenon, and one tribalism among the political leader- Generally, an emphasis on tradition- that was learned. Regarding the ship, specifically that certain groups tions. al morality is described as a rightist state of family life, the DTA and were favoured for employment in the The party leaders were also ques- policy position (Budge & Klingemann SWANU claimed that a return to tradi- public sector. Contradicting every tioned about their views on current 2001:21). The party responses con- tional values was needed. Unfortu- other parties vision of a unified challenges with regard to the national tained in Table 10 below indicate that nately, both parties refrained from Namibia, MAG stated that the forced culture and local cultures. Table 12 the DTAs, MAGs, NUDOs and the defining what they meant by tradi- integration into a unified culture chal- suggests that all parties favoured unity RPs positions on traditional values tional values. The SWAPO Party does lenged nationhood and social harmo- in diversity. clearly lean to the right. The results not address the issues of prostitution ny. To sum up, one might say that (See Table 12 on page 21) also show that the DTA, MAG and the and sex work, pornography, abortion, almost all the parties rated unity on an RP strictly disapproved of prostitution homosexuality and the state of family equal footing with diversity, while and sex work. SWANU and the WRP life in its official publications. MAG seemed to give preference to 7 SECTION 5 OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE: identified the socio-economic set-up (See Table 10 on pages 20/21) diversity. SOCIAL GROUPS (See Table 11 on page 20) Table 9: Law and order 7.1 Labour groups

Party How crime can be reduced 6.4 Cultural pluralism As Namibia has a large rural popula- tion and an underdeveloped manu- The category social pluralism was facturing sector, labour groups, i.e. included in the study in order to deter- unions, seem to represent only a small mine whether the interviewees had a minority. Nevertheless, Namibias positive or a negative attitude to- overall unionisation rate is high by wards multiculturalism. Given the fact international standards (LaRRI 2002), that the Namibian nation is endowed and the unions remain key players with the cultural variety of at least ten among Namibias civil society language groups, an important ques- organisations. After independence, tion to pose was the following: Is Namibia’s cultural diversity an asset or the biggest challenge facing the labour unions was to devise an effec- a liability? tive strategy by means of which to A significant proportion of the influence broader socio-economic respondents regarded cultural diversi- policies in favour of its working class

¥ Poverty reduction leads to crime reduction ty as an asset. However, MAG and base (ibid.). This task proved to be

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Table 10: Traditional morality

Party Prostitution and sex work Pornography Alcohol abuse Abortion Homosexuality Family life Youth

Concentrate on the Should be discouraged Combat the root causes Legalise abortion in cases Sexual preferences are Threatened because of Lack of role models and accompanying complex of alcohol abuse: poverty of rape and on medical, private matters unemployment and low vision of problems, especially and unemployment psychological or social pensions health grounds4

Moral decadence Moral decadence: needs Problem not so severe Absolutely opposed ¥ Distinguishes between Security and a return to n/a [No response given] to be banned two types: (1) a natural traditional values needed phenomenon and a learned phenomenon ¥ No need for interference

Disapprove Disapprove Disapprove Disapprove Disapprove Group rights need to Stricter implementation apply in respect of the of the international family unit conventions on the rights of the child

¥ Human desire as the Problem of a lack of Problem of a lack of Disapprove ¥ Distinguishes between Emphasis lies on Knowledge of own and root cause self-control self-control two types: (1) a natural faithfulness in marriage other cultures needed ¥ The societys social phenomenon and a responsibility learned phenomenon

Support every action to Support every action to Support every action to Support every action to Society (especially Needs protection Needs protection and eliminate eliminate eliminate eliminate churches) need to opportunity to develop influence behavioural change

Socio-economic set-up as n/a [No response given] Tolerated in moderation Question of religious belief Tolerant Call for a return to Education in social the root cause for relaxation traditional values responsibilities and moral values

n/a [No response given] Campaign of prevention n/a [No response given] n/a [No response given] n/a [No response given] n/a [No response given] Address the problem of and control of sexually unemployment among transmitted diseases the youth (SWAPO Party emphasises the counter- 1999a:4) ing of alcohol abuse (SWAPO Party 1999a:10)

Socio-economic set-up as n/a [No response given] Socio-economic set-up as Free choice Tolerant Threat of domestic n/a [No response given] the root cause root cause violence

Table 11: National effort/Social harmony Table 12: Cultural pluralism

Party How to address the main challenges to nationhood and social harmony Party Proposals on current challenges with regard to the national culture and local cultures

Party slogan: One party, one country, many cultures; i.e. unity in diversity Preserve local cultures and traditions in order to form a national culture

Merit should be the sole criterion for job opportunities in the public sector ¥ Europeanisation led to local cultures being misrepresented as uncivilised and backwards ¥ Call for a return to local cultures for the sake of personal identity n/a [No response given] Group rights should be part of the Constitution Tolerance and mutual acceptance Tolerate and accommodate different cultures Merit should be the sole criterion for job opportunities in the public sector ¥ Condemn discrimination Lessons from history, especially the recognition of the contribution to the liberation struggle by ¥ Respect each others traditions and cultures various parts of the nation ¥ Local cultures should be preserved through the implementation and correct handling of (From SWAPO Party 1999a:3, 4 and 1999b:iv, 4) traditional matters ¥ The policy of national reconciliation led to the rapid disappearance of racial and ethnic hatred and a unified nation that was still evolving ¥ Build unity without sacrificing diversity (SWAPO Party 1999a:5) ¥ A great deal of work still needs to be done to consolidate unity in diversity ¥ Preserve, protect and promote diverse cultures and build a strong and vibrant nation (ibid.) ¥ Affirmative Action is needed to redirect resources to the needs of previously neglected communities ¥ The living conditions of the poor majority of the people need to be improved ¥ Use cultural diversity as resource for nation-building ¥ A firm foundation for the diversification and expansion of economy needs to be laid ¥ No support for traditions or cultures that are oppressive

¥ Comprehensive and coherent programme on nation-building ¥ Promotion of the peoples interests on a national level

4 The interviewee qualified her statement by saying that legalising abortion made people reject condoms, which aggravated the risk of HIV/AIDS. 5 Except cases provided by law. 6 Except cases provided by law. 7 Except cases provided by law. 8 Except cases provided by law.

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extremely difficult in the light of the 7.2 Farmers views almost all the opposition party leadership. Nevertheless, the eco- ruling SWAPO Partys conservative Even 14 years after Namibias inde- leaders focused instead on the gov- nomic and cultural living conditions of economic policy (Jauch 2000). The pendence, land distribution remains ernments recent attempts to expro- the Himba are threatened by a hydro- most prominent labour union, the an obvious expression of expropria- priate commercial farmland. The CoD electric power plant that the govern- National Union of Namibian Workers tion, oppression and extermination of criticised the ruling partys track ment plans to construct (ibid.). Apart (NUNW), maintained its links with the the African people by German and record, stating that commercial from ethnic minorities, sexual minori- SWAPO Party after independence — South African colonists, settlers and farmers should not be scapegoats of ties such as homosexuals can also be although the SWAPO Party does not members of the occupation forces the economic disaster of the coun- regarded as underprivileged (ibid.). address the issue of labour groups in its (Werner 2000:9). Accordingly, the try, and that the criteria for expropri- Three questions were used to deter- publications. In this context, the issue highly charged land question reflects ation, e.g. being in the national inter- mine which groups the respondents of political affiliation continues to be a the inherited inequalities and the est, needed some clarification — espe- regarded as underprivileged; whether dividing factor among Namibian overall need for redistribution of cially the term national interest. The and why these groups and their trade unions. wealth. As Keulder (2003:14) states, DTA referred to announcements by situation were important; and whether [i]n many respects, land is more of a the government that it intended Generally, an emphasis on labour the parties had any specific pro- political than an economic issue. It is speeding up land reform and target- unions is regarded as a leftist policy posals with regard to these groups. an affirmation of national citizenship ing commercial farms for expropria- position (Budge & Klingemann Interestingly, the respondentsanswers of a free country, and of a previously tion. The party disapproved of the 2001:22). With two exceptions, almost differed in terms of their identification oppressed identity as indigenous governments attempt to solve labour all party leaders interviewed stressed of underprivileged groups. While the (black) African. Against this back- disputes by expropriating farms on the importance of labour unions and DTA, MAG, NUDO, the RP and SWANU ground, the aim of the questions which there had been disputes collective bargaining. NUDO was the named ethnic minorities such as the posed was to determine how much between management and employ- only party to mention the negative San and Himba, the CoD stated that attention was being paid to farmers ees. In line with the CoD and the DTA, effects of strikes and demonstrations the majority of Namibians lived in needs and the issues that affect them, the RP stated that irresponsible on economic activities and growth. extreme poverty. According to the and to examine what the party actions by the government had the The WRP, which generally supported CoD, therefore, people needed to be experts views were on the countrys potential not only to damage rela- labour unions, stated that collective regarded as underprivileged on an dual commercial/communal farming tions among Namibians[,] but could bargaining should be replaced by an individual level on account of their system. also cause irreparable damage to the annual wage increase that was linked economy. To the latter partys regret, current living conditions, and not on to the inflation rate.9 The CoD, MAG, In its official publications, the commercial farmers kept a low profile the grounds of their race or ethnic ori- the RP and SWANU identified the SWAPO Party (1999a:8,21) states that regarding party politics. In contrast to gin. In its response, the WRP stated NUNWs political affiliation as the main it has been involved in addressing the RP, MAG contended that farmers that specific ethnic groups as well as current challenge with regard to the problem of land hunger by, for should restrict themselves to agricul- certain labour groups needed to be labour relations. With the exception of instance, strengthening mechanisms tural issues and bow out of politics. regarded as underprivileged. While the WRP, none of the political parties to extend loans to communal farm- NUDO mentioned that its representa- the WRP warned about the loss of cul- interviewed had any links with any ers aspiring to become commercial tives were personally involved in medi- ture and heritage of underprivileged labour union. The WRP maintained farmers. Furthermore, their policy ini- ating between landowners and farm groups, the DTA compared groups in that its party policies were taking the tiatives have focused not only on workers. Namibia with the plight of Native NUNW to the stars and back — and raising the income of livestock farm- Americans affected by poverty and they are just trying to hold on to their ers, but [also] on improving the well- alcoholism. 7.3 Underprivileged minorities seats in the aeroplane. being of the small[-scale] communal The Constitution prohibits discrimina- Party leaders also differed in respect farmers who are largely engaged in In their party manifestos, the DTA tion on the grounds of sex, race, of specific proposals regarding these crop production (SWAPO Party and SWANU provide a more thorough colour, ethnic origin, religion, creed or groups. The RP, for example, wanted 1999b:12). vision of labour relations in Namibia. socio-economic status (Article 10) to challenge government to expose The DTA (1999a:17) pledges to pro- Contrary to the opposition parties (RoN 1990). In contrast to (historically) actions10; the DTA demanded mod- vide sound guidelines based on written manifestos that provide privileged minorities such as Namibian ern education for groups that lived a principles espoused by the Inter- detailed suggestions on how, in their whites, ethnic minorities like the San traditional lifestyle; the CoD sought national Labour Organisation. SWANU opinion, privately-owned commercial and the Himba are generally referred poverty alleviation; NUDO proposed (1999:4) declares it would terminate farms and communal land could best to as underprivileged (Daniels 2003). what it called a Government of casualisation, i.e. the replacement of be distributed (e.g. CoD 1999b:6, DTA While the San are impoverished and National Unity; and the WRP empha- a permanently employed workforce 1999a:11, NUDO n.d.:1, SWANU marginalised, the Himba are relatively sised the importance of development by casual workers. 1999:3), during the face-to-face inter- well-off and have a strong traditional programmes. In its written statements,

9 Presumably only when it rises. 10 The RP did not elaborate on what it meant by this. 22 23

the SWAPO Party frequently refers to 7.4 Non-economic demographic the left emphasise the expansion of done to address the needs of the dis- formerly disadvantaged Namibians, groups social services. As described above, abled (ibid.:6). Both the SWAPO Party but fails to define this term beyond This study also explored the party traditional values were assigned to and the CoD, the latter in the interview, blacks. The SWAPO Party (1999a:23) leaders attitudes towards non-eco- the right (Budge & Klingemann professed their commitment to has implemented Affirmative Action nomic demographic groups. Thus, the 2001:21—22). strengthening the role of women within to open many and new opportunities question, Does your party have any their own party structures. In its official publications the SWAPO for those who were marginalised in special policies or specific proposals Party emphasises the importance of With regard to womens issues, MAG the past. with regard to the following groups: women, the elderly, people with dis- uplifting the role of women, the elderly, maintained its rightist stance by disap- With the exception of MAG, most of abilities,orphans,and people infected and people with disabilities. For exam- proving of Affirmative Action and the parties manifestos clearly state and affected by HIV/AIDS?11, was ple, the SWAPO Party (1999a: 11—12) gender quotas. In contrast, the CoD their commitment to eliminating dis- asked to determine whether the states that it intends to continue im- favoured quota regulations for crimination (Boer 2004a:15). The most respondents promoted a limitation or, proving pension benefits as the econo- women as well as people with disabil- comprehensive pledge to protect in contrast, an expansion of social my grows. The party (ibid.:8) further ities. The CoD and the DTA also called minorities comes from the CoD services. Generally, parties leaning to undertakes to remove all hindrances to for old age pensions to be increased, (2001:5), which includes foreigners and the right support the limitation of full participation by women, and but did not suggest how extra funds sexual minorities such as homosexuals. social services, while those leaning to admits that there is still much to be would be raised. In its response, MAG

Table 13: Non-economic demographic groups

Party People with disabilities Orphans People infected with and affected by HIV/AIDS

Equal representation on the political Increase pensions Representation on the political level Joint acceptance of responsibility: Joint acceptance of responsibility: level government as well as extended government as well as extended family (combination of a social family (combination of a social welfare system and African welfare system and African tradition) tradition)

Elimination of all forms of Increase pensions Assistance and integration needed Joint acceptance of responsibility: Joint acceptance of responsibility: discrimination against women, government as well as extended government as well as extended and promotion of their complete family (combination of a social family (combination of a social recognition in all spheres of society welfare system and African welfare system and African tradition) tradition)

Against Affirmative Action and Amount of pension should be n/a [No response given] n/a [No response given] n/a [No response given] gender quota regulations determined by need

n/a [No response given] n/a [No response given] n/a [No response given] Joint acceptance of responsibility: Joint acceptance of responsibility: government as well as extended government as well as extended family (combination of a social family (combination of a social welfare system and African welfare system and African tradition) tradition)

Need to be in a position where Programmes should be in place to n/a [No response given] Programmes should be in place to Involvement of the churches and they can make a contribution as let them benefit from the natural let them benefit from the natural thousands of educators needed representatives of their community resources of the country resources of the country

Supports the emancipation of Resources of experience Community care in the spirit of Community care in the spirit of Community care in the spirit of women African traditions African traditions African traditions

The SWAPO Party has set itself Namibia is one of the few countries We also need to do a great n/a [No response given] The prevalence of HIV/AIDS is a goal of removing all obstacles in Africa that provides monetary deal more to address the needs undoubtedly a serious concern; hindering the full participation of assistance to its senior citizens in of disabled (SWAPO Party 1999a:6) and the SWAPO Government is women in the process of decision- the form of social pension. Prior making concerted efforts to reduce making within the party and to independence, the amount the spread of the disease government structures as well as in of social pension was determined (SWAPO Party 1999b:6) the society at large (SWAPO Party according to race Soon after 1999a:8) the country became independent, however, the SWAPO government equalised these social benefits As the economy grows, the SWAPO government will further improve these benefits (SWAPO Party 1999a:11—12)

n/a [No response given] Disapproval of retirement homes n/a [No response given] Joint acceptance of responsibility: Joint acceptance of responsibility: government as well as extended government as well as extended family (combination of a social family (combination of a social welfare system and African welfare system and African tradition) tradition)

11 Human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome. 24 25

proposed that the amount of a social detail a number of issues that were reactionary white minority and is, necessarily imply differences between pension should be determined accor- also addressed in the various parties therefore, located at the political and the platforms of the parties them- ding to individual needs. With regard manifestos. In most cases, the publi- social periphery. Although ethnic vot- selves. Theoretically, some party rep- to orphans and people infected with cations and the interview responses ing is assumed rather than proved resentatives could also find a political and affected by HIV/AIDS, the CoD, complemented rather than contra- (Keulder 2000:268), it can be stated home in another party. It would the DTA, NUDO and the WRP seemed dicted each other. that ethnic groups in Namibia tend to appear that a number of Namibian to regard the expansion of social serv- be associated with particular political politicians joined political parties not, Overall, much variation is shown in ices (and government intervention as parties. NUDO and SWANU rely mainly as one would expect, primarily on the the grouping of various parties accor- such) and the maintenance of tradi- on one ethnic group that, on the grounds of agreement with its plat- ding to their responses, although it can tional family values as being of equal other hand, distributes its support form, but for other reasons, such as be stated that MAG and the WRP re- importance. Surprisingly, the only neg- among several parties. Despite its Namibias recent liberation history gularly end up on the fringes. ative reference to social services claim to represent all groups in and ethnicity, as well as personal Namibias main parties remain broad- came by way of the socialist party, Namibia, the RPs primary aim is to get ambition. ly centrist, and could be seen as more SWANU, which downplayed govern- the previously advantaged back pragmatic and less ideological in ment intervention by stressing tradi- into mainstream politics (Sherbourne nature. Even if the parties follow a gen- tional family values. 2004:16). Certainly, one needs to dis- erally centrist line, moderate tenden- tinguish between the parties percep- In their official publications, the main cies to the left in the case of the CoD tion and portrayal of themselves in political parties emphasise the impor- and the SWAPO Party (both consul- their official publications on the one tance of non-economic demograph- tative members of Socialist Internatio- hand, and the observers perception ic groups, mentioning the role of nal) and to the right in the case of of them on the other. For instance, all women, social pensions for senior citi- the DTA, NUDO and the RP can be parties pledge unity and an open zens, and HIV/AIDS. For instance, the identified. membership, but some still widely CoD (1999a:6) proposes that the pen- In contrast, some of the less signifi- favour one particular ethnic or racial sion scheme be extended to reach cant parties are dramatically distinct group (Boer 2004a:18). Finally, with its 100% percent of the aged. In its mani- from the main parties. Ideologically, well-defined position to the left, the festo, the DTA (1999b:7) states its aim the most distinctive parties are MAG, WRP could be described as an ideo- to provide senior citizens with a pen- with its strong rightist position, and the logically class-based movement. 12 sion linked to the inflation rate. With WRP, with its extreme leftist stance. regard to HIV/AIDS, the CoD (1999b:4) SWANU also remains one of the few In many cases, an element of confu- undertakes to declare HIV/AIDS a options for voters on the left of the sion was introduced by the difficulty of national emergency, and would coor- political spectrum (Hopwood, forth- distinguishing between official party dinate the combating of the disease coming:55). In any event, these small policy and an interviewees personal from the Office of the President. parties are unlikely to pose any elec- bias. This applied especially to issues toral threat to either the ruling SWAPO that had not been dealt with before in Party or the main opposition parties. the parties written documents, and to 8 CONCLUSION smaller parties whose popularity The SWAPO Party is a classic exam- It is important to differentiate be- hinged on their leaders charismatic ple of an African liberation movement tween the parties general political pri- personality. With regard to the major that has transformed itself into a orities and their policies on specific parties, opinions might also differ nationalistic mass-based party. Even if issues. Although the main political par- amongst their respective members on the ruling party receives almost all the ties are by and large ideologically sim- a number of topics. Although the votes of the Owambo-speaking ilar, specific issues are differently respondents had been identified and, majority, it also draws enough support emphasised and prioritised. The oppo- thus, were authorised to represent the from other ethnic groups to be called sition parties criticised the ruling partys political party as its expert on political multi-ethnic. On the opposition spec- track record several times, offering a issues, one should anticipate that the trum, the CoD and the DTA seem to number of interesting alternatives. interviewees personal bias or opinions be multi-ethnic catch-all parties that Unfortunately, most parties were silent may have clouded some of the try to maximise their voter support by on how to implement and fund their answers given. Consequently, differ- means of a wide aggregation of inter- proposals. ences between the responses by ests. With a clear and consistent right political party representatives do not The in-depth interviews examined in position, MAG draws its support from a

12 Again, presumably only when the rate of inflation rises. 26 27

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Windhoek: politischer Parteien in Afrika. afrika LaRRI. SWANU. Budge, Ian & Hans-Dieter Klingemann. spektrum, 37, 3:259—283. 2001. Finally! Comparative over-time Linz, J & A Stepan. 1997. Towards consoli- SWAPO Party. 1999a. SWAPO Party: mapping of party policy movements. GRN/Government of the Republic of dated democracy. In Diamond, L, M Election Manifesto 1999. Windhoek: Budge, Ian, Hans-Dieter Klingemann, Namibia, Ministry of Regional, Local Plattner, Y Chu & H Tien (eds.). Cons- SWAPO Party. Andreas Volkens, Judith Bara & Eric Government and Housing. 1998. olidating the Third Wave democra SWAPO Party. 1999b. SWAPO: The driving Tanenbaum (eds.). Mapping policy Decentralization in Namibia: The cies: Themes and perspectives. Balt- force for change. Windhoek: SWAPO differences: Estimates for parties, policy, its development and imple- imore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Party. electors and governments 1945—1998. mentation. Windhoek: Ministry of MAG/Monitor Action Group. 2004. 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Section 2: External relations Section 3: Democracy Opposition APPENDIX: QUESTIONNAIRE What are the roles and functions of The United Nations Individual rights Section 1: Government an opposition party? How necessary What is your partys official position What is your partys official position are opposition parties for the future of on the UN? What sort of role, if any, on individual rights? In your view, are Decentralisation democracy in this country? Could you please tell us what your should Namibia play within the UN? individuals rights adequately protect- partys position is on decentralisation? Should Namibia partake in UN peace ed? If not, what would your party do Section 4: Social fabric Do you support the idea that powers and other missions abroad? to improve the situation? be devolved to sub-national levels of Law and order The African Union Group rights government? If so, what sort of pow- In your view, just how much of a What is your partys official position According to your party, is there a ers should be devolved? What sort of problem is crime in Namibia? What on the AU? What sort of a role should need to protect group rights? If not, resources should be devolved? What, does your party propose to do about Namibia play within the AU? Should why not? If so, whose rights should this in your view[,] are the inherent bene- the issue? In your view, is there a need Namibia partake in AU missions? If yes, [these] be? What sort of rights would fits of decentralisation? What, in your for stiffer sentences to solve crime[- what sort of missions? be protected? How would your party view[,] are the inherent problems of ]related problems? Should the death go about protecting these rights? decentralisation? How would you New Partnership for Africas penalty be brought back? address these problems? Development Constitutionalism Traditional morality What is your partys official position In your view, does the Constitution of Government efficiency What is your partys official position on NEPAD? What does Namibia stand [the Republic of] Namibia fulfil the According to your party, just how on: prostitution and sex work; porno- to gain from NEPAD? What does needs of the Namibian people? If not, efficient is government and adminis- graphy; alcohol abuse; abortion; Namibia stand to loose [lose] from what are its failures? How can these tration in Namibia today? How would homosexuality; the state of family life; NEPAD? Should Namibia uncondition- problems be rectified? Is there [a] your party make government more and the youth? Does your party have ally commit itself to the Peer Review need to change any part of the efficient? What is your partys position any special policies or strategies with Mechanism? If not, what alternative Constitution? If so[,] which part? If on the size of government, and what, regard to these? arrangements would you propose (if ever faced with the need to change if any[thing], would you propose to any)? the Constitution, how would your reform the civil service? Is government National effort/social harmony party go about doing that? too expensive? Are government serv- The Southern African Development Just how united is the Namibian nation today? What are the main ices too costly and too cumbersome? Community Democratic rule challenges with regard to nationhood How would your party go about recti- Should Namibia continue as a mem- Do you believe democracy[,] as we and social harmony? How do you pro- fy[ing] these problems? ber of SADC? If not, please provide have it in the Constitution at the pose to address these challenges? reasons. Should the SADC region moment[,] is the most appropriate Government corruption become even more integrated or form of government for Namibia? If Cultural pluralism What are the challenges in this should it stay the way it is? If more inte- not, what should be changed? What Is Namibias cultural diversity an country with regard to corruption? grated, what are your partys propos- are the major challenges to the con- asset or a liability? What are the cur- What is the extent of the problem? als? Should SADC move in a similar solidation of democracy at the rent challenges with regard to the What are the root causes of the prob- direction as the European Union and moment? How would your party national culture and local cultures? lem? How would your party address adopt a regional Parliament [a]nd a address these? What are your views What is your partys official position on these problems? single currency? What does Namibia on the current quality of democracy English as the official language? And stand to gain from such measures? Transparency in the country[, i.e.] just how much of on the status of local and traditional What does Namibia stand to loose According to your party, should a democracy is Namibia today? How languages? Does your party have an [lose] from such measures? Members of Parliament and civil ser- can the quality of democracy be official policy or special proposal with vants declare their assets publicly? If improved? regard to preserving local cultures, so, how should this be done? Should Participation religions, and heritage? If so, what political parties declare their sources Are you satisfied with the current lev- does that entail? of funding publicly? If so, how should els of political participation in the this be done? Should political parties country? If not, what do you consider submit[,] to the public, records of their to be the major problems? How would activities and expenditure? your party address these problems?

30 31 Section 5: Social groups

Labour group What is your party’s official position with regard to labour unions and collective bargaining? What are the current challenges with regard to labour relations? How would your party deal with these challenges? Does your party have links with any labour groups? If so, could you please describe these?

Farmers What is your party’s official position with regard to farmers and farming groups? What is your party’s view on the dual farming system in the country? How would you go about implementing these ideas?

Underpriviledged minorites Which groups, if any(,) would you regard as underprivileged? And on what basis? Why are these groups and their situation important? Do you have any special policies or specific proposals with regard to these groups?

Non-economic demographic groups Does your party have any special policies or specific proposals with regard to the status of the following groups: women; the elderly; people with disabilities; orphans; and people infected with and affected by HIV/AIDS?/ If yes, could you please describe these?

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Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung PO Box 1145, Windhoek, Namibia Tel +264 61 232 156 Fax +264 61 225 678 Published by: Namibia Institute for Democracy PO Box 11956, Klein Windhoek, Namibia Tel +264 61 229 117 Fax +264 61 229 119