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Chapter Two Marine Organisms THE SINGAPORE BLUE PLAN 2018 EDITORS ZEEHAN JAAFAR DANWEI HUANG JANI THUAIBAH ISA TANZIL YAN XIANG OW NICHOLAS YAP PUBLISHED BY THE SINGAPORE INSTITUTE OF BIOLOGY OCTOBER 2018 THE SINGAPORE BLUE PLAN 2018 PUBLISHER THE SINGAPORE INSTITUTE OF BIOLOGY C/O NSSE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION 1 NANYANG WALK SINGAPORE 637616 CONTACT: [email protected] ISBN: 978-981-11-9018-6 COPYRIGHT © TEXT THE SINGAPORE INSTITUTE OF BIOLOGY COPYRIGHT © PHOTOGRAPHS AND FIGURES BY ORINGAL CONTRIBUTORS AS CREDITED DATE OF PUBLICATION: OCTOBER 2018 EDITED BY: Z. JAAFAR, D. HUANG, J.T.I. TANZIL, Y.X. OW, AND N. YAP COVER DESIGN BY: ABIGAYLE NG THE SINGAPORE BLUE PLAN 2018 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The editorial team owes a deep gratitude to all contributors of The Singapore Blue Plan 2018 who have tirelessly volunteered their expertise and effort into this document. We are fortunate to receive the guidance and mentorship of Professor Leo Tan, Professor Chou Loke Ming, Professor Peter Ng, and Mr Francis Lim throughout the planning and preparation stages of The Blue Plan 2018. We are indebted to Dr. Serena Teo, Ms Ria Tan and Dr Neo Mei Lin who have made edits that improved the earlier drafts of this document. We are grateful to contributors of photographs: Heng Pei Yan, the Comprehensive Marine Biodiversity Survey photography team, Ria Tan, Sudhanshi Jain, Randolph Quek, Theresa Su, Oh Ren Min, Neo Mei Lin, Abraham Matthew, Rene Ong, van Heurn FC, Lim Swee Cheng, Tran Anh Duc, and Zarina Zainul. We thank The Singapore Institute of Biology for publishing and printing the The Singapore Blue Plan 2018. i THE SINGAPORE BLUE PLAN 2018 CONTENTS Contents Page Executive Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1 Part I The Singapore Blue Plan 2018……………………………………………….…………………….……………….……. 5 Part II Scientific Support for The Blue Plan 2018…………………………………..….…………….…………….….…. 21 Chapter 1. Ecosystems, Habitat Connectivity & Sustainable Development 1.1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………….………..…………. 23 1.2. Ecosystems……………………………………………………………………………………….….……………………. 24 1.2.1. Coral Reefs…….………………………………………………..……………………………….…………. 24 1.2.2. Seagrass Meadows…….…………………………….……………………………...........…………. 25 1.2.3. Mangrove Areas…….………………………………..…………………………………..….…………. 27 1.2.4. Associated Freshwater Habitats…..………………….……………………………….…………. 30 1.3. Connectivity of Marine Habitats.…………………………….……………………………….…………………. 32 1.3.1. Hydrodynamics.……………………………………………………………………….…………………. 32 1.3.2. Movement of Plants and Animals.………………………………………………………………. 34 1.3.3. Movement of Nutrients, Carbon and Other Inorganic Material………....………. 36 1.4. Urbanization and Sustainable Development.………………………………………………………………. 37 1.4.1. Envrionmental Goods and Services and Market Failure………….…………………... 38 1.4.2. Approaches to Valuation (Selected)……………………………………………………………. 39 1.4.3. Policies for Sustainable Development………………………..………………………………. 39 References………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………. 40 Chapter 2. Marine Organisms 2.1. Historical Accounts of Marine Biodiversity…………..……………………………….………..…………. 52 2.2. Present Day Efforts…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 53 2.3. Marine Organisms………………………………………………………..……………………………………………. 53 2.3.1. Marine Biofilms.……………………………………………………………………….…………………. 53 2.3.2. Plankton.……………………………………………………………………….……………………………. 54 2.3.3. Macroalgae.……………………………………………………………………….……….………………. 56 2.3.4. Porifera (Sponges) .………………………………………………………………….…………………. 57 2.3.5. Cnidaria (Coral, Anemones, Jellyfishes) .……………………………….….…………………. 58 2.3.6. Polycladida (Free-living Marine Flatworms) .………………………………………………. 60 2.3.7. Mollusca (Snails, Bivalves, Cephalopods) .………………………….…….…………………. 60 2.3.7.1. Mollusca: Giant Clams…………………………………………….…………..………. 63 ii THE SINGAPORE BLUE PLAN 2018 Contents (continued) Page 2.3.8. Polychaetae (Marine Bristleworms) .…………………………….……………………………. 64 2.3.9. Crustacea (Crabs, Shrimps, Allies) .…………………………………………………..…………. 65 2.3.10. Echinodermata: Crinoidea (Feather Stars) .……………………………………….………. 66 2.3.11. Echinodermata: Holothuroidea (Sea Cucumbers) ..……..……………………………. 68 2.3.12. Marine Insects………………………………………………………..………………………….……. 70 2.3.13. Ascideacea (Tunicates) ………………………………………………………..…………….……. 73 2.3.14. Fishes………………………………………………………..……………………………………….……. 74 2.3.15. Amphibia (Frogs, Toad) ………………………………………………………..…………………. 75 2.3.16. Reptilia: Lizards………………………………………………………..………………………………. 76 2.3.17. Reptilia: Crocodiles………………………………………………………..………..………………. 77 2.3.18. Reptilia: Snakes …………………………………………….…………………………………………. 78 2.3.19. Reptilia: Sea Turtles …………………………………………….………………………..…………. 81 2.3.20. Birds………………………………………………………..…………………………………..…….……. 81 2.3.21. Mammalia: Otters………………………………………………………..…………………….……. 82 2.3.22. Mammalia: Dugong………………………………………………………..……………….….……. 84 2.3.23. Mammalia: Cetaceans………………………………………………………..……………………. 84 References………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………. 85 Chapter 3. Ecological Communities 3.1. Introduction……………………………….………………………………………………………..……………………. 89 3.2. Subtidal Benthic Communities………………………………………………………..…………………………. 89 3.3. Mangrove and Sandy Shore Crab Communities……………………………….………………………. 104 3.4. Reef Coral Communities: Population History and Phylogeny……………………………………. 106 3.5. Reef Fish Communities……………………………….……………………………………………………………. 110 References………………………………………………………………………………………………….………..…………. 112 Chapter 4. Environmental Reconstruction 4.1. Reconstructing Lead Levels in the Singapore Straits……………………………….….……………. 121 4.2. Proxies for Retrospective Terrestrial Runoffs……………………………….………………….……….. 122 4.3. Reconstruction of Nutrient Cycling in Coral Reefs……………………………….…………………... 122 4.4. Metal Ligands as Proxy for Riverine Organic Matter……………………………….…….…………. 123 4.5. Reef Coring: Reconstructing Coral Communities………………………..……………………………. 123 4.6. Long-term Environmental Variability……………………………….………………………………………. 124 References………………………………………………………………………………………………….………..…………. 124 Chapter 5. Threats to the Marine Environment 5.1. Natural Ecosystems and Increasing Population…………………………..……….………..…………. 129 5.2. Climate Change……………………………………………………………………………………………..…………. 129 5.2.1. Warming Seas………………..…………………………………………………….………..…………. 129 5.2.2. Ocean Acidification……………………..……………………………………….………..…………. 132 5.2.3. Sea Level Rise, Changes in Rainfall Patterns, Increased Storm Activities……. 133 5.2.4. Declining Water Quality………………………………….…………..……….………..…………. 134 5.3. Harmful Algal Blooms…………………………..……….………..……………………………………….………. 136 iii THE SINGAPORE BLUE PLAN 2018 Contents (continued) Page 5.4. Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture……………………………………………..……….………..…………. 138 5.5. Invasive Species……………………………………………………………..…………..……….………..…………. 140 5.6. Microplastics…………………………..……………………………………………………….….………..…………. 141 5.7. Marine Ecosystems and the Future…………………………..……….………..………………………..…. 143 References………………………………………………………………………………………………….………..…………. 147 Chapter 6. Mitigative Measures 6.1. Current Impacts……………………………………………………………..…………..……….………..…………. 155 6.2. Enhancing Marine Ecosystems……………………………………………………………..…..…..…………. 156 6.2.1. Sisters’ Island Marine Park……………………………………………………………..…………. 156 6.2.2. Marine Restoration……………………………………………………..……….………..…………. 156 6.2.3. Safe Boating and Shipping……………………………………………………………..…….……. 157 6.2.4. Engaging the Public……………………………………………………………..…………..….……. 157 6.3. Coral Reef Restoration………………………………………………………………..……….………..…………. 158 6.3.1. Restoration of Coral Reefs in Singapore………….…………..……….………..…………. 158 6.3.2. Monitoring and Research…………………………………………………………..…..…………. 159 6.4. Mangrove Rehabilitation……………………………………………………………..…………..…...…………. 160 6.4.1. Mangrove Rehabilitation Efforts in Singapore………………………………..…………. 160 6.4.2. Key Considerations in Mangrove Rehabilitation……………….….………..…………. 162 6.5. Ecological Engineering of Seawalls……………………………………………………………..……….……. 165 6.5.1. Biodiversity on Seawalls………………………………………………………………...…………. 165 6.5.2. Ecological Engineering Solutions………………………………………………..…..…………. 166 References………………………………………………………………………………………………….………..…………. 167 Part III Legislative Support for The Blue Plan 2018………………………………..….……..…….…………….….…. 175 Environmental Laws and Policies………………………………..….…………………….……….………….….…. 177 1.0. Coastal Development and Planning………………………………..….……….……….…………….….…. 177 1.1. Urban Planning………………………………..….…………………….………………………………..…….….…. 178 1.2. Development Control………………………………..….…………………….…………………………….….…. 178 1.3. Building Works………………………………..….…………………….……………………………………….….…. 179 1.4. Land Reclamation………………………………..….…………………….…………………………….…….….…. 179 1.5. Marine Works and Operations………………………………..….……………………….…………….….…. 180 1.6. Coastal and Marine Spatial Planning………………………….….…………………….…………….….…. 180 1.7. Recommendations………………………………..….……………………………………………………….….…. 180 2.0. Coastal and Marine Nature Conservation………………………………..….…………………….….…. 181 2.1. Rules of International Law on the Conservation of Marine Environment…………………. 181 2.2. Singapore Law on the Conservation of Marine Environment Including Biodiversity…. 183 2.3. Recommendations………………………………..….…………………….…………………………..…….….…. 184 3.0. Protected Areas in Singapore………………………………..….……………..………….…………….….…. 184 3.1. Recommendations………………………………..….…………………….…………….…………………………. 186 4.0. Pollution from Coastal and Marine Activities………………………………..….…….………….….…. 186 4.1. Ship-based Pollution………………………………..…………………...…………………….…………….….…. 186 iv THE SINGAPORE BLUE PLAN 2018 Contents (continued) Page 4.1.1. Ship-based Operation Pollution………………………………..….…………………….….…. 187 4.1.2. Ship-based
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