The Palgrave International Handbook of Mixed Racial and Ethnic Classification

“This volume is an impressive intellectual feat, bringing together, for the first time, detailed examinations of the varying ways multiracial populations are classified and categorized around the world. Aspinall and Rocha offer a comprehensive guide to the history of classifying mixed-race people and contemporary approaches to measuring mixed identities, paying specific attention to the political consequences that fol- low the creation and legitimation of racial schemas in the census. This timely and important work adds empirical depth and comparative scope to a subject that will only grow in importance in coming years.” —Debra Thompson, Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of Oregon, USA Zarine L. Rocha • Peter J. Aspinall Editors The Palgrave International Handbook of Mixed Racial and Ethnic Classification Editors Zarine L. Rocha Peter J. Aspinall Department of Sociology Centre for Health Services Studies National University of Singapore University of Kent Singapore Canterbury, UK

ISBN 978-3-030-22873-6 ISBN 978-3-030-22874-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22874-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: © Kseniya Zvereva / Alamy Stock Photo

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland To Gabriel, for your patience and support. ZLR To my mother, for her innumerable kindnesses, and to my friend Şenay for her interest. PJA Acknowledgements

This book developed out of a desire to take the study of mixedness to a more international level. There are excellent books and articles in the field of critical mixed race studies, and research on classification forms a part of this—but to date, there has been little attempt to look at measuring mixed identities on a global scale. Having started with a small list of countries, the project grew dramatically, and with the encouragement of the publisher we tried to cover as much of the world as possible, with varying degrees of success. We are grateful to all those whom we contacted along the way, for their suggestions and encouragement. We express our indebtedness to all the authors who contributed their scholarly chapters to this volume, both for their writing and for the efficient way they navigated the various administrative processes and complied with our publication timetable. We acknowledge the help provided by university libraries in providing full- text access to journals and the books of selected publishers. At Palgrave Macmillan, we thank our initial contact, Tamsine O’Riordan, Editorial Director, Social Science, for her support of our project. We also thank Sharla Plant, as Publisher on the Sociology and Social Policy list, for her expert guidance throughout the preparation of the book. We thank the three anonymous reviewers who recommended our proposal. Many thanks also go to Poppy Hull, our editorial contact prior to submission, and to Divya Anish, Springer’s Production Editor for our volume, and all those involved in the production of our manuscript. ZLR would firstly like to thank Peter Aspinall, for responding so quickly and positively to the idea of bringing together country case studies on classifying mixedness around the world. He is a leading expert in the field, and it has

vii viii Acknowledgements been a pleasure and a privilege to work with him. Zarine would also like to thank Farida Fozdar for her encouragement and advice in developing the idea for this book, and her chapter co-authors, Robert Didham and Brenda S.A. Yeoh, for their always insightful and scholarly work. A special thanks to Hamada Eleleimy for his Arabic translations. She would also like to thank her family, who have very gracefully put up with deadlines and distractions, and who provide much inspiration. PJA is particularly grateful to Zarine Rocha, whose inspired idea it was to produce a volume on mixed racial and ethnic classification across the world, and for inviting me to be co-editor at the beginning of 2018. He would also like to thank academic colleagues who have supported his contributions to this volume through discussions and identification of relevant literature. Special thanks are extended to those officials at the Office for National Statistics (ONS) involved in the 2001, 2011, and 2021 Census Development Programmes on the ethnic group question for enabling me to participate in these groups and meet their wider membership. ONS nominated me as National Convenor for the ethnic group question in the 2001 Programme that agreed categorization for the ‘Mixed’ group. I would like to thank my mother, Kathleen Mary Aspinall, for her many kindnesses and inspiration over the years and Şenay for her encouragement, generosity, and the interest she has shown in the book. Contents

1 Introduction: Measuring Mixedness Around the World 1 Zarine L. Rocha and Peter J. Aspinall

2 Race and Ethnicity Classification in British Colonial and Early Commonwealth Censuses 27 Anthony J. Christopher

Part I The Americas 47

3 Introduction: North and South America 49 Peter J. Aspinall and Zarine L. Rocha

4 The Canadian Census and Mixed Race: Tracking Mixed Race Through Ancestry, Visible Minority Status, and Métis Population Groups in Canada 75 Danielle Kwan-Lafond and Shannon Winterstein

5 Methods of Measuring Multiracial Americans 95 Melissa R. Herman

ix x Contents

6 Mixed Race in Brazil: Classification, Quantification, and Identification 113 G. Reginald Daniel and Rafael J. Hernández

7 Mexico: Creating Mixed Ethnicity Citizens for the Mestizo Nation 137 Pablo Mateos

8 Boundless Heterogeneity: ‘Callaloo’ Complexity and the Measurement of Mixedness in Trinidad and Tobago 163 Sue Ann Barratt

9 Mixed race in Argentina: Concealing Mixture in the ‘White’ Nation 179 Lea Natalia Geler and Mariela Eva Rodríguez

10 Colombia: The Meaning and Measuring of Mixedness 195 Peter Wade

Part II Europe and the UK 209

11 Introduction: Europe and the United Kingdom 211 Peter J. Aspinall and Zarine L. Rocha

12 The Path to Official Recognition of ‘Mixedness’ in the United Kingdom 229 Peter J. Aspinall

13 Measuring Mixedness in Ireland: Constructing Sameness and Difference 249 Elaine Moriarty

14 The Identification of Mixed People in France: National Myth and Recognition of Family Migration Paths 267 Anne Unterreiner Contents xi

15 Controversial Approaches to Measuring Mixed-Race in Belgium: The (In)Visibility of the Mixed-Race Population 279 Laura Odasso

16 The Weight of German History: Racial Blindness and Identification of People with a Migration Background 301 Anne Unterreiner

17 Mixed, Merged, and Split Ethnic Identities in the Russian Federation 315 Sergei V. Sokolovskiy

18 Mixedness as a Non-Existent Category in Slovenia 335 Mateja Sedmak

19 Mixed Identities in Italy: A Country in Denial 349 Angelica Pesarini and Guido Tintori

20 (Not) Measuring Mixedness in the Netherlands 367 Guno Jones and Betty de Hart

21 Mixed Race and Ethnicity in Sweden: A Sociological Analysis 389 Ioanna Blasko and Nikolay Zakharov

Part III Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia and the Caucasus 405

22 Introduction: Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia and the Caucasus 407 Zarine L. Rocha and Peter J. Aspinall

23 The Classification of South Africa’s Mixed-Heritage Peoples 1910–2011: A Century of Conflation, Contradiction, Containment, and Contention 425 George T. H. Ellison and Thea de Wet xii Contents

24 The Immeasurability of Racial and Mixed Identity in Mauritius 457 Rosabelle Boswell

25 Neither/Nor: The Complex Attachments of Zimbabwe’s Coloureds 479 Kelly M. Nims

26 Measuring Mixedness in Zambia: Creating and Erasing Coloureds in Zambia’s Colonial and Post-colonial Census, 1921 to 2010 495 Juliette Milner-Thornton

27 Racial and Ethnic Mobilization and Classification in Kenya 517 Babere Kerata Chacha, Wanjiku Chiuri, and Kenneth O. Nyangena

28 Making the Invisible Visible: Experiences of Mixedness for Binational People in Morocco 535 Gwendolyn Gilliéron

29 Measuring Mixedness: A Case Study of the Kyrgyz Republic 549 Asel Myrzabekova

Part IV Asia and the Pacific 569

30 Introduction: The Asia Pacific Region 571 Zarine L. Rocha and Peter J. Aspinall

31 Where You Feel You Belong: Classifying Ethnicity and Mixedness in New Zealand 587 Robert Didham and Zarine L. Rocha

32 Measuring Mixedness in Australia 605 Farida Fozdar and Catriona Stevens Contents xiii

33 Measuring Race, Mixed Race, and Multiracialism in Singapore 629 Zarine L. Rocha and Brenda S. A. Yeoh

34 Multiracial in Malaysia: Categories, Classification, and Campur in Contemporary Everyday Life 649 Geetha Reddy and Hema Preya Selvanathan

35 Anglo-Indians in Colonial India: Historical Demography, Categorization, and Identity 669 Uther Charlton-Stevens

36 Mixed Racial and Ethnic Classification in the Philippines 693 Megumi Hara and Jocelyn O. Celero

37 Vaevaeina o le toloa (Counting the Toloa): Counting Mixed Ethnicity in the Pacific, 1975–2014 711 Patrick Broman, Polly Atatoa Carr, and Byron Malaela Sotiata Seiuli

38 Measuring Mixed Race: ‘We the Half-Castes of Papua and New Guinea’ 727 Kirsten McGavin

39 Measuring Mixedness in China: A Study in Four Parts 741 Cathryn H. Clayton

40 Belonging Across Religion, Race, and Nation in Burma- Myanmar 757 Chie Ikeya

41 Recognition of Multiracial and Multiethnic Japanese: Historical Trends, Classification, and Ways Forward 779 Sayaka Osanami Törngren and Hyoue Okamura

Index 797 Notes on Contributors

Peter J. Aspinall is Emeritus Reader in Population Health at the University of Kent, Canterbury, UK. He has worked as principal and co-investigator on studies of mixed race identity and on the history of mixed race, funded by the Economic and Social Research Council and British Academy, respectively. He was national convenor for the ethnic group question in the Office for National Statistics’ 2001 Census Development Programme (which secured ‘mixed’ categorization), a member of the Academic Advisory Group for the ethnic group question in the 2011 Census Development Programme, and is currently a member of the ONS Ethnic Group Assurance Panel for the 2021 Census. He was an academic consultant for the BBC2 Television Mixed Britannia Season (October 2011) that was sparked by the British Academy grant and informed the programme coverage. He is joint Director (with Chamion Caballero) of the Mixed Museum, funded by the Arts & Humanities Research Council- funded Digital Transformations Programme (see: http://www.mix-d.org/ museum/timeline). Aspinall was Director and a Trustee of People in Harmony for ten years, Britain’s first mixed race charity. His publications comprise sev- enty-one papers in peer-reviewed journals (twenty-three on mixed race/ethnicity or the census categorization of ethnic groups), two books on mixed race (Aspinall PJ & Song AM. Mixed Race Identities. Palgrave Identity Studies in the Social Sciences Series. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013; and Caballero C & Aspinall PJ. Mixed Race Britain in the Twentieth Century. A History of Racial Mixing. Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), and chapters in books on global mixed race (International Perspectives on Racial Mixing and Mixedness. London, 2012 and Global Mixed Race. NY, 2014).

xv xvi Notes on Contributors

Polly Atatoa Carr is Associate Professor of Population Health at the National Institute of Demographic and Economic Analysis (NIDEA), University of Waikato and a practicing Public Health Physician in Paediatrics at the Waikato District Health Board, Hamilton, New Zealand. Atatoa Carr’s particular areas of interest and expertise include the translation of research evidence to policy and programmes for the achievement of health equity, and she is particularly interested in identity as a key determinant of well-being. In this space, Atatoa Carr is interested in the intersection between the official statistics, indigenous research ethics, and the appropriate interpretation of community and research data.

Sue Ann Barratt is a lecturer at the Institute for Gender and Development Studies, University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus, Trinidad and Tobago. She is a graduate of the University of the West Indies, holding a BA in Media and Communication Studies with Political Science, an MA in Communication Studies, and a PhD in Interdisciplinary Gender Studies. Her research areas are interpersonal interaction, human communication conflict, social media use and its implications, gender and ethnic identities, mental health, and gender-based violence, and Carnival and cultural studies. She is dedicated to gender awareness and sensitivity training through face-to-face sessions and mass media outreach.

Ioanna Blasko has Masters’ degrees in Modern Languages from Uppsala University and the University of St. Andrews, Scotland. Her research interests include discrimination, gender, gender biases in sports and the media, and deracialization. She has been a research assistant in the Department of Sociology, Södertörn University, and works for a project at the Department of Psychology, Gothenburg University.

Rosabelle Boswell is an Anthropologist and a National Research Foundation (NRF) Rated Researcher. She is author of Le Malaise Creole: Ethnic Identity in Mauritius (Oxford, 2006), Representing Heritage in Zanzibar and Madagascar (Addis Ababa, 2011), Challenges to Identifying and Managing Intangible Cultural Heritage in Mauritius, Zanzibar and Seychelles (Dakar, 2008), and Postcolonial African Anthropologies (co-edited with F. Nyamnjoh, Pretoria 2016). She has also authored articles on cultural identity and has done anthropological research in South Africa, Mauritius, Zanzibar, and Madagascar. Her work has been funded by the Netherlands Foundation for Scientific Research; the South African National Research Foundation, the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa, and Notes on Contributors xvii

Organization for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Africa. In 2010, she served as a research team leader for the Mauritius Truth and Justice Commission, examining the legacies of slavery. She is the Executive Dean of Arts at Nelson Mandela University, South Africa.

Patrick Broman is a PhD student in Demography at the National Institute of Demographic and Economic Analysis (NIDEA), University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand. His research interests lie in questions of majority identity and belonging, and in data collection in the realms of culture and identity. Broman holds degrees in Sociology and Demography, also from the University of Waikato.

Jocelyn O. Celero is an assistant professor at the Asian Center, University of the Philippines, Philippines. She obtained her PhD in International Studies from the Waseda University, Graduate School of Asia Pacific Studies, Tokyo, Japan, in 2016. Her dissertation examined the transnational life trajectories of 1.5- and second-generation Japanese-Filipinos. She has written articles on migration and transnationality of Filipino migrants and Japanese-Filipinos. In 2017, she was New Scholar Associate at the Center for Global Social Policy, University of Toronto, to contribute to the ‘Gender, Migration, and the Work of Care in the Asia-Pacific’ Research.

Babere Kerata Chacha is Senior Lecturer in African History in the Department of Public Affairs and Environmental Studies at Laikipia University, Kenya. He is the director of External Linkages and the founder and coordinator of the Centre for Human Rights at Laikipia University. Chacha has been a fellow of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London; junior fellow at St. Antony’s College, University of Oxford; fellow at Wolfson College, Cambridge; and, more recently, a global fellow at the University of New South Wales, Australia. In the past he has taught as Adjunct Lecturer in History and Development Studies at the University of Eastern Africa, Baraton. His main research interests include political assassinations and human rights, but he also has wide interests in environment, terrorism, reconciliation, religion, and sexuality. He consulted with the Truth, Justice and Reconciliation Commission (TJRC) in Kenya on political assassinations and spearheaded the launch of the political science programme and the study of human rights as a common core course at Laikipia University.

Uther Charlton-Stevens is a professor at the Institute of World Economy and Finance, Volgograd State University, Russia, and a fellow of the Royal xviii Notes on Contributors

Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Charlton-Stevens completed his doctorate in South Asian History, with a thesis on Anglo-Indians and Decolonization, at the University of Oxford, under the supervision of Judith Brown and Francis Robinson. His first book, Anglo-Indians and Minority Politics in South Asia: Race, Boundary Making and Communal Nationalism, was published in 2018. He is working on Anglo-Indians and the End of Empire, under contract with Hurst Publishers.

Wanjiku Chiuri is a Deputy Vice-Chancellor (A&R) at Laikipia University, Kenya, with a PhD from University of Waterloo, Canada. She is Associate Professor of Environmental Studies. She previously served as Rwanda Country Director for the International Centre for Tropical Agricultural (CIAT), Dean Faculty of Education—Laikipia Campus. Her research interests include politics, gender mainstreaming and analysis, ethnicity, value chain analysis, and development of innovation platforms as the new approach to stakeholder par- ticipation in development and wealth creation ranging from natural resources management, resource use, conflict resolution, and local adaptations to cli- mate change vagaries. She is a member of several institutions including the global gender and water alliance and Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA).

Anthony J. Christopher is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Geosciences, Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa. In a career spanning more than fifty years, he has written extensively in the fields of historical and political geography. He is currently engaged in an examina- tion of the development of the population census in the Commonwealth.

Cathryn H. Clayton is an associate professor and Chair of the Asian Studies Program in the School of Pacific and Asian Studies at the University of Hawai’i (UH), Mānoa, USA. A cultural anthropologist by training, her teaching and research explore questions of Chineseness—how and why it becomes a com- pelling form of collective subjectivity (be it nationalist, ethnic, racial, dia- sporic, regional, civilizational) at different points in time and space. Her first book, Sovereignty at the Edge: Macau and the Question of Chineseness, won the 2010 Francis L. K. Hsu Award for a best new book on East Asia from the Society for East Asian Anthropology in the American Anthropological Association. She has taught at UH-Mānoa since 2006.

G. Reginald Daniel is Professor of Sociology at the University of California, Santa Barbara, USA, where he teaches courses on comparative race, culture, Notes on Contributors xix and identity, particularly in terms of multiraciality. Since 1989, he has taught ‘Betwixt and Between’, which is one of the first and longest-standing courses to examine specifically the question of multiracial identity comparing the USA with various parts of the world. He completed his PhD from the University of California, Los Angeles, and lived in Brazil while studying issues of race, culture, and identity. His publications on this topic include More Than Black?: Multiracial Identity and the New Racial Order (2002), Race and Multiraciality in Brazil and the United States: Converging Paths? (2006), Machado de Assis: Multiracial Identity and the Brazilian Novelist (2012), and a co-edited volume titled Race and the Obama Phenomenon: The Vision of a More Perfect Multiracial Union (2016). In addition, Daniel is a co-founding editor and Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Critical Mixed Race Studies (JCMRS).

Robert Didham is a Demographer with Statistics New Zealand and a research associate with the National Institute of Demographic and Economic Analysis at Waikato University, New Zealand. He is a specialist in ethnicity and identity, with interests in historical linguistics, Buddhology, diaspora studies, and the relationship between social and biological sciences and the importance this interface has on health and inequality and has written widely in these fields.

George T. H. Ellison has a background in the natural and social sciences and is Associate Professor of Epidemiology at the University of Leeds, UK. He has spent several extended periods living, studying, and working in southern Africa: completing his PhD and then lecturing at the Universities of Pretoria and Namibia between 1986 and 1992; returning annually for field work before working at the University of South Africa and the Institute for Urban Primary Health Care between 1996 and 1998; and thereafter joining the University of Johannesburg as a visiting professor. His research includes a focus on the racialization of social identities and their application in biomedi- cal research, and extends across a range of ‘Critical Science Studies’, most recently focussing on bias and error in the analysis of Big Data at Leeds Institute for Data Analytics. Ellison has worked closely with Thea de Wet since the early 1990s when they met at the Birth-to-Ten cohort study and developed a unique collaboration which has spanned child growth and development, nutrition and public health, social studies of knowledge, and, most recently, Johannesburg’s troubled experiment with bicycle lanes. He lives in North Yorkshire with two of his three extraordinary children and his elderly Labrador Fidget, but spends as much time as he can in Johannesburg and on Sanday in the Orkney Isles. xx Notes on Contributors

Farida Fozdar is an associate professor in the Department of Anthropology and Sociology at the University of Western Australia, Australia. She is an author of over sixty publications on racism, nation, and migration, including several on mixed race in Australia, and has edited two collections, with Rocha on Mixed Race in Asia: Past, Present and Future and McGavin on Mixed Race Identities in Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, as well as a special issue of Social Identities with Yeoh, Rocha, and Acedera on Mixing Race, Nation, and Ethnicity in Asia and Australasia.

Lea Natalia Geler is a Social Anthropologist from the University of Buenos Aires, Argentina, and obtained her PhD in History from the University of Barcelona, Spain. She is a researcher at Argentina’s National Council for Scientific and Technological Research (CONICET) and at the Institute of Argentine and American History ‘Dr Emilio Ravignani’ at the University of Buenos Aires. Using a historical-anthropological approach, her work focuses on Afrodescendants in Buenos Aires from the nineteenth century to the present, exploring questions of Afro Argentine memory, of (self) representations, and of race, nation, class, and gender in Argentina. Geler is the author of Andares negros, caminos blancos. Afroporteños, Estado y Nación Argentina a fines del siglo XIX (Prohistoria, 2010) and is co-editor (with Florencia Guzmán and Alejandro Frigerio) of Cartografías Afrolatinoamericanas I and II (Biblos, 2013, 2016). She has also written numerous articles in journals including African and Black Diaspora, Runa, Población y Sociedad, Tabula Rasa, Memoria Americana, and in several edited volumes.

Gwendolyn Gilliéron is an affiliated researcher at the International University of Rabat, Morocco. She holds an MA in Social Sciences in the field of migration studies and is a PhD candidate at Goethe-University Frankfurt. Her research looks at the self-perception and social positioning of young adults of mixed families in Switzerland and Morocco. With the support of the Swiss National Science Foundation, she conducted field research in Morocco where she lives. She has been a member of the ISA (International Sociological Association) Research Committee 38 ‘Biography & Society’ and a board member of the international migration conference since 2014.

Megumi Hara is an assistant professor at the National Institute of Technology, Wakayama College, Japan. She obtained her PhD in Human Sciences from Osaka University. She has written articles on transnational children and is one of the contributors of Thinking Beyond the State: Migration, Integration, and Citizenship in Japan and the Philippines edited by J. Zulueta (2018), South- Notes on Contributors xxi

East Asia: Introduction to Area Studies edited by G. Miyabara, co-authored with S. Yokota (2017), and Mobile Childhoods in Filipino Transnational Families edited by I. Nagasaka and A. Fresnoza-Flot, co-authored with S. Takahata (Palgrave Macmillan 2015).

Betty de Hart is Professor of Transnational Families and Migration Law at Vrije Universiteit (VU) University Amsterdam, Law Faculty. She is an interdisciplinary researcher with an interest in law in the everyday lives of transnational families, as well as the historical development of law applying to transnational families. In 2016, she received an European Research Council (ERC)-consolidator grant as PI to the project ‘Euromix: regulating mixed intimacies in Europe’. In 2007, she received a personal research grant for the Vidi-project ‘Transnational families between Dutch and Islamic family law’. She has written widely on (dual) citizenship, family reunification, mixed status families, gender, and migration.

Melissa R. Herman is an interdisciplinary scholar from Dartmouth College focused on identity, adolescent development, race, and achievement. She studies and teaches in the fields of sociology, psychology, political science, education, and public policy. Her most recent publications look at interracial relationships and attitudes towards multiracial individuals.

Rafael J. Hernández is Assistant Professor of Human Development at California State University San Marcos, USA, where he teaches about multiculturalism, diversity, and social justice. He holds a PhD from the University of California Santa Barbara, and lived in Brazil while studying issues of racism, culture, and identity.

Chie Ikeya is Associate Professor of History at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, USA, specializing in Burma and in Southeast Asia more broadly, with interests in the related fields of Asian history/studies, women’s and gender history, race, gender and sexuality studies, and post-colonial studies. She is the author of Refiguring Women, Colonialism, and Modernity in Burma (2011).

Guno Jones is an interdisciplinary researcher, currently part of the ERC- funded research project ‘Euromix: Regulating Mixed Intimacies in Europe’ at Vrije Universiteit (VU) University, coordinated by Betty de Hart. He con- ducts research on the regulation and construction of ‘Mixed Intimacies in European Law’. His main research interests are on political discourses on citi- xxii Notes on Contributors zenship, post-colonial migration, and the nation in the Netherlands, Belgium, and the UK; the politics of the Second World War heritage in the Netherlands and its former colonies; the politics of the heritage of colonialism and slavery in the Netherlands; the construction and politics of ‘mixedness’. He has lectured at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (Faculty of Law, Faculty of Social Sciences, Faculty of Humanities), University of Amsterdam (Faculty of Humanities), and the Institute for Graduate Studies and Research at the Anton de Kom University (Paramaribo).

Danielle Kwan-Lafond (B.S.W., M.Ed., Vanier Canada Graduate Scholar 2011) is a mixed race Canadian who resides in Toronto. She is a professor at Centennial College, in the Indigenous Studies: First Peoples in Canada Stackable Credentials programme. This unique programme allows students enrolled in traditional college programmes to take several courses in Indigenous studies while in college. Kwan-Lafond comes from a mixed race family that is Asian, French, and Indigenous, and she is multilingual. Her past research and academic work have been in the areas of critical mixed race studies, race and education, and the experiences of marginalized youth. Most recently, she was a contributor to the Our Stories: First Peoples in Canada eTextbook (2018), a free Open Educational Resource (OER) funded by eCampus Ontario and Centennial College that profiles the histories and current issues for Indigenous Peoples in Canada through text, video, and interactive tools.

Pablo Mateos is a Full Professor at the Center for Research and Advanced Studies in Social Anthropology (CIESAS) in Guadalajara, Mexico, since 2012. Previously, he was a lecturer at the Department of Geography, University College London (UCL), UK (2008–2012). In Mexico, he is a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI—level III), and member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences. He obtained a PhD in Social Geography at the University of London (2007) and his research interests focus on investigating ethnicity, migration, and segregation in the UK, Spain, the USA, and Mexico, in particular dual/multiple citizenship, and categorizations of ethnicity, using innovative research methods. He has written a book monograph, an edited book, four journal special issues, and over 50 articles and book chapters.

Kirsten McGavin is Honorary Research Fellow in Anthropology at the University of Queensland, Australia. She is a mixed race woman of New Zealand Pakeha and Papua New Guinean descent. McGavin’s research interests include mixed race and Pacific Islander identity, place and belonging, material culture, representation, and pop culture. Notes on Contributors xxiii

Juliette Milner-Thornton is the author of The Long Shadow of the British Empire: The Ongoing Legacies of Race and Class in Zambia (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012). She is an adjunct research fellow at the School of Humanities, Languages and Social Sciences, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia.

Elaine Moriarty is an assistant professor in the Department of Sociology in Trinity College, University of Dublin, Ireland. Her teaching and research interests include race and ethnicity, mobility and migration, employment and labour markets, and qualitative research methods. Moriarty’s current research focuses on mobilities, hybridity, mixed race, and diaspora. Moriarty has a BSocSc from University College Cork, an MPhil in Ethnic and Racial Studies from Trinity College, and a PhD in Sociology from Trinity College.

Asel Myrzabekova is completing her PhD from the University of Bonn, Germany. Her research project ‘Romantic Securityscapes of Mixed Couples in Kyrgyzstan: Day-to-Day Dating and Marriage Strategies’ is conducted within a larger three-year project that is coordinated by the Bonn International Center for Conversion titled ‘Local Security-Making in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan: The Production of Securityscapes by Everyday Practices’. In 2014 she completed her Master’s degree in Peace and Conflict Transformation from University of Tromsø (UiT), the Arctic University of Norway. She is also working at the American University of Central Asia in the Kyrgyz Republic as a faculty member in the Social Science Division. Her research interests include, but are not limited to, identity, peace and violence, gender equity, and sustainable development.

Kelly M. Nims is a senior doctoral lecturer in the Departments of English and Gender Studies at Hunter College, The City University of New York, USA. A trained anthropologist with an expertise in Zimbabwe’s Coloured community and narrative ethnography, her first book project,The Goffal Speaks: Coloured Ideology and the Perpetuation of a Category in Post-Colonial Zimbabwe, focuses on the colonial classification of race and its meanings in modern day Zimbabwe, particularly among the Coloured or mixed race population. Nims’ research interests also include literary ethnography—specifically the work of Zora Neale Hurston—critical race theory, and the global south. She is working on a second monograph about miscegenation through an engagement with twentieth-century American literature and political anthropology. Her most recent publication includes the article ‘The Necessary xxiv Notes on Contributors

Violence of Frantz Fanon and Malcolm X in Global Black Revolution’, forth- coming in an essay collection on the black American 1960s (Oxford UP).

Kenneth O. Nyangena is a lecturer in the Department of Public Affairs and Environmental Studies, Laikipia University, Kenya. O. Nyangena has completed his Doctorate in Sociology from the Open University of Tanzania. He also holds a Masters in Development Studies from the University of the Free State, Republic of South Africa, and a Bachelor of Arts in Sociology and Anthropology from the University of Nairobi, Kenya. Nyangena teaches development, governance and leadership, and gender-related modules, has attended numerous international conferences, and written in refereed journals.

Laura Odasso is temporary Lecturer in Sociology at Aix-Marseille Université, France, researcher at Laboratoire Méditerranéen de Sociologie at the Maison méditerranéenne des sciences de l’homme d’Aix-en-Provence, and fellow of the French Collaborative Institute on Migration, Paris. Mainly characterized by a comparative and qualitative approach, her research is situated at the intersection of sociology of family migration, political contention, and sociology of law. She has written Mixités conjugales. Discrédit, résistances et créativités dans les familles avec un partenaire arabe (Rennes, PUR, 2016) and Border Lampedusa with G. Proglio (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2018). She is also the author of several articles in Revue des Mondes Musulmans et de la Méditerranée, Journal of Contemporary European Research, Recherches Familiales, and book chapters in English, French, and Italian on mixedness, legal consciousness, and bureau- cratic experiences from below.

Hyoue Okamura is an independent scholar within the fields of Sociology and Critical Race Studies. He is active in the mixed Japanese community through his academic work and social engagements. His most recent publications include ‘The Language of “Racial Mixture” in Japan: How Ainoko Became haafu, and the Haafu-gao Makeup Fad’ and ‘The “Human Duty” to Deracialize Nationality’ in Asia Pacific Perspectives (2017).

Sayaka Osanami Törngren holds a PhD in Migration and Ethnic Studies and is a researcher at the Malmö Institute of Migration, Diversity and Welfare (MIM) at the Department of Global Political Studies, Malmö University, Sweden. She is engaged in research on race, ethnicity, mixed marriages, mixed identities, and colour-blindness in Sweden and Japan. Her most recent publications include ‘Ethnic Options, Covering and Passing: Multiracial and Notes on Contributors xxv

Multiethnic Identities in Japan’ in the Asian Journal of Social Science (2018) and ‘Talking Color blind—Justifying and Rationalizing Attitudes Toward Interracial Marriages in Sweden’ in Peter Hervik (ed.) Racialization in the Nordic Countries (2018).

Angelica Pesarini completed a PhD in Sociology in 2015 from the Centre for Interdisciplinary Gender Studies at the University of Leeds, UK. She is Lecturer in Social and Cultural Analysis at NYU (New York University) Florence where she teaches Black Italia, a course entirely dedicated to the intersectional analysis of racial identity in Italy. Pesarini previously worked at Lancaster University as Lecturer in Gender, Race, and Sexuality. Her current work investigates dynamics of race performativity with a focus on colonial and post-colonial Italy and she also works on the racialization of the Italian political discourse on immigration. She has previously conducted research on gender roles and the development of economic activities within some Roma communities in Italy and she has analysed strategies of survival, risks, and opportunities associated with male prostitution in Rome. She has been published in a number of journals and edited volumes and she is currently writing a monograph of her first book.

Geetha Reddy is a Social Psychologist based at the University of Groningen, Netherlands. In her current position as Assistant Professor of Transdisciplinarity and Sustainable Cooperation, she focuses on developing transdisciplinary research and teaching methods within the social sciences. Her research takes an intersectional perspective on identities, racism, migration, and multiculturalism, highlighting power structures and systems that influence the psychology of the individual as they traverse multiple social worlds. She completed her PhD in Psychology at the London School of Economics and Political Science, UK. Her mixed methods doctoral thesis focused on racial identity construction amongst Malaysians and Singaporeans, and posited that individuals constructed their racial identities strategically, depending on the specific demands of different socio-political contexts.

Zarine L. Rocha is a sociologist, and the Managing Editor of Current Sociology and the Asian Journal of Social Science. She holds a PhD from the National University of Singapore, an MSc from the London School of Economics and Political Science, and a BA from the University of Canterbury, New Zealand. Rocha specializes in issues of mixed race/mixed ethnic identity, narratives of belonging, multiculturalism, diversity, and social conflict in Asia and the Pacific. She has worked as a researcher at the United Nations Research xxvi Notes on Contributors

Institute for Social Development, the United Nations Environment Programme, and the World Economic Forum. Rocha has written books, chapters, and articles on issues of identity, belonging, and race/ethnicity, including journal articles in Identities: Global Studies of Culture and Power, Ethnicities, and the Journal of Intercultural Studies. Her first monographMixed Race’ Identities in Asia and the Pacific: Experiences from Singapore and New Zealand was published in 2016. She has recently co-edited two volumes on mixed race: Mixed Race in Asia: Past, Present and Future (2017, with Farida Fozdar) and Mana Tangatarua: Mixed heritages, ethnic identity and bicultural- ism in Aotearoa/New Zealand (2018, with Melinda Webber).

Mariela Eva Rodríguez studied Anthropology at the University of Buenos Aires (UBA), Argentina. After finishing her studies, she completed a Masters in Romance Languages and Literature at the University of Notre Dame, and a PhD in Latin American Literature and Cultural Studies at Georgetown University. She is a researcher at the National Council of Scientific and Technological Research (CONICET) of Argentina, and teaches Anthropology at the University of Buenos Aires (UBA). She got several scholarships from Argentinean, American, and British institutions. She is a member of different research teams in Argentina. Her research in Southern Patagonia links the demands of indigenous peoples, state policies, and academic projects. From an engaged ethnographic approach with Mapuche and Tehuelche people from Patagonia, and recently with Charrúa people from Uruguay, she studies the relationships between past and present through oral memories and archive research. Among other topics she is concerned with indigenous re-emergency (ethnogenesis) patrimonialization processes, indigenous land recovery, human remains repatriations, interculturality, and indigenous language revitalization. She has written numerous articles in national and international journals, conference proceedings, and book chapters.

Mateja Sedmak is a Research Councillor and since 2007 the Head of the Institute for Social Studies at the Science and Research Centre Koper, Slovenia. She has lectured at the University of Primorska. She is the editor of the Annales—Series Historia et Sociology journal and a member of the editorial boards of Social Discussions (SI), Italian Sociological Review (IT), and Demography (SR). She is a member of the board of the Slovenian Sociological Association. She leads several national and international projects. At the moment she is the leader of Horizon 2020 project MiCREATE—Migrant Children and Communities in a Transforming Europe. Her research interests are Notes on Contributors xxvii ethnic studies, intercultural studies, migration studies, mixedness, transcul- turality, sociology of family, and sociology of everyday life.

Byron Malaela Sotiata Seiuli is Samoan with ancestral lineage to the vil- lages of Malie, Manono, and Faleula (Samoa). As a senior Pacific researcher and health clinician, Sotiata Seiuli brings extensive knowledge and experience in the areas of Pacific health, family relationships, suicide prevention, trauma, grief, adolescence mental health, addiction, and recovery. Sotiata Seiuli has written on Samoan and Pacific people’s emotional and psychological well- being. He is a past recipient of HRC research awards and his current research focuses on mental health challenges among Pacific young adults in New Zealand, Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji.

Hema Preya Selvanathan is a Social Psychology PhD candidate in the Psychology of Peace and Violence Program at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, USA. Her research focuses on the psychology of social change from an intergroup perspective to help illuminate the antecedents, challenges, and outcomes of collective action. In her work, she uses a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods, with cross-sectional, experimental, and longi- tudinal research designs in both laboratory and field settings. To provide a more complete picture of human psychology, she has examined the perspectives of both majority and minority groups in various countries, such as the USA, Malaysia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, and Israel-Palestine.

Sergei V. Sokolovskiy is a research fellow at the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, and the editor of the oldest Russian anthropology journal Etnograficheskoe obozrenie. He is the author of many books and more than 400 academic articles on issues of ethnicity, identity politics, minority rights, and the rights of indigenous peoples, and on the history and current state of Russian anthropology.

Catriona Stevens is completing her PhD in Anthropology and Sociology at the University of Western Australia, Australia. Her dissertation considers the impacts of social class throughout processes of migration through an ethnography of trade skilled migrants from China who came to Perth during the recent resources boom. Alongside her doctoral project, she has conducted analyses of Census data in relation to ethnicity and changing populations, findings from which have been published in theInternational Journal of Sociology and Social Policy. xxviii Notes on Contributors

Guido Tintori is a senior research associate at the International and European Forum for Migration Research (FIERI), Turin. His research interests focus on citizenship, diaspora politics, international migrations, nationalism, and international political sociology. Tintori holds a PhD in History of the European Institutions and Society (State University of Milan and J.F.K Institut für Nordamerikastudien, Freie Universität, Berlin) and a Post-Doc in Politics (New York University). He worked and taught at the University of Leiden, New York University, European University Institute of Florence, and was awarded the Marie Curie Fellowship (2013) and Fulbright-Schuman Research Scholarship on EU Affairs and EU-US relations (2010).

Anne Unterreiner specializes in migration studies. She holds a PhD in Sociology (2012, EHESS—Paris). Her PhD findings on mixed children were published at the Presses Universitaires de Rennes (Feb. 2015) and in different Journals (Sociologie, Sociologie et sociétés, Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism for instance). She worked as Survey Coordinator within the INTERACT Project framework at the Migration Policy Centre (Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, European University Institute— Florence), and was then a postdoctoral research fellow at the Observatoire Sociologique du Changement (Sciences Po Paris) and a visiting scholar at the Department of Sociology of the City University of New York Graduate Center. She is now a research associate at the Centre Maurice Halbwachs (Paris, EHESS-ENS-CNRS).

Peter Wade is Professor of Social Anthropology at the University of Manchester, UK. His publications include Blackness and Race Mixture (1993), Race and Ethnicity in Latin America (2010), Race, Nature and Culture: An Anthropological Perspective (2002), and Race and Sex in Latin America (2009), Mestizo Genomics: Race Mixture, Nation, and Science in Latin America (2014), and Race: An Introduction (2015). His most recent book is Degrees of Mixture, Degrees of Freedom: Genomics, Multiculturalism and Race in Latin America (2017). With Mónica Moreno Figueroa, he is co-directing a project on ‘Latin American Antiracism in a “Post-Racial” Age’.

Thea de Wet has an interdisciplinary PhD in Sociocultural, Biological, and Linguistic Anthropology from the University of Florida, USA, where cross- disciplinary training included both quantitative and qualitative methodolo- gies. Her research and teaching interests combine sociocultural insights with biology and local contexts. During the 1990s she worked for the South African Medical Research Council as the Project Manager for Africa’s largest Notes on Contributors xxix birth cohort—the Birth-to-Ten study—where she met George Ellison; a twenty-five-year collaboration ensued. Wet is Professor of Anthropology and Development Studies, and Director of the Centre for Academic Technologies at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa, where her work is focused on supporting innovative and emerging technologies such as augmented and vir- tual reality to enhance teaching and learning, and ‘Big Data’ for learning analytics. Her recent research on the financial lives of poor women in Siyabuswa, northeast of Pretoria, and urban youth in two Gauteng townships confirmed the complexity of the economic portfolios women and young people use to manage their day-to-day survival. With colleagues she is completing an inves- tigation of how students and lecturers at four South African universities responded to #FeesMustFall and is in the final stretch of a study with the University of Johannesburg, Rhodes, and Fort Hare universities about the challenging transition rural students face at universities in South Africa.

Shannon Winterstein is an expert in Indigenization strategies and Indigenous curriculum development. She is a professor and the Indigenous Curriculum Developer in the Centre for Academic Quality, Academic Excellence Unit at Centennial College in Toronto, Canada. Previously she was the Coordinator of the Stackable Credential Programming in the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences at Centennial College. Winterstein co-created the Indigenous Studies: First Peoples in Canada Stackable Credential, which grew under her leadership from a small programme to one that currently has over 2000 students enrolled. Winterstein was the Executive Producer and contributing author of the Our Stories: First Peoples in Canada eTextbook, a first of its kind in Canada. Winterstein holds a number of advisory positions, including a seat on the Aboriginal Education Steering Committee and contributed to the development of the Indigenous Strategic Framework (2018). Her work contributed to the College winning the 2016 Colleges and Institutes Canada Award for Indigenous Education Excellence. Winterstein is Indigenous (matrilineal) with Scottish/German ancestry, though she is displaced from her nation as a result of the ‘60’s Scoop’. Winterstein’s work to date has focused on working with Indigenous communities to create Indigenous-centred curriculum and programming.

Brenda S. A. Yeoh is Raffles Professor of Social Sciences at the National University of Singapore (NUS) and Research Leader of the Asian Migration Cluster at the Asia Research Institute, NUS, Singapore. Her research interests include the politics of space in colonial and post-colonial cities, and she also has considerable experience working on a wide range of migration research in xxx Notes on Contributors

Asia, including key themes such as cosmopolitanism and highly skilled talent migration; gender, social reproduction, and care migration; migration, national identity, and citizenship issues; globalizing universities and international student mobilities; and cultural politics, family dynamics, and international marriage migrants. She has written widely on these topics and her recent books include Transnational Labour Migration, Remittances and the Changing Family in Asia (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015, with Lan Anh Hoang), Contested Memoryscapes: The Politics of Second World War Commemoration in Singapore (2016, with Hamzah Muzaini), Asian Migrants and Religious Experience: From Missionary Journeys to Labour Mobility (2018 with Bernardo Brown), and Handbook of Asian Migrations (2018 with Gracia Liu-Farrer).

Nikolay Zakharov is Senior Lecturer in Sociology in the School of Social Sciences at Södertörn University, Sweden. He is finishing a research project on the comparative study of anti-racism in Brazil, South Africa, Sweden, and the UK. His latest books include Race and Racism in Russia (Palgrave 2015) and Post-Soviet Racisms (Palgrave 2017, with Ian Law). List of Figures

Fig. 7.1 A sample of casta paintings, eighteenth century. (Source: Anonymous (eighteenth century) Museo Nacional del Virreinato, Tepotzotlán, Mexico. Reprinted with permission) 138 Fig. 7.2 Proportion of the population of New Spain/Mexico by ethnicity (1570–1921). (Source: Compiled from data in Dirección General de Estadística 1977, p. 23; De la Peña 2018; Valdés 1995; the orig- inal sources reported by these authors are: for 1570–1810, from Aguirre Beltrán 1970; for 1823, from Humboldt 1823; for 1857 and 1880, from García Cubas 1857, 1880; and for 1921, Valdés 1995) 150 Fig. 7.3 Proportion of speakers of indigenous languages in Mexican Censuses (1895–2010). Note: Percentage of the population aged five years or older who spoke an indigenous language or dialect. (Source: Resano Pérez 2015) 152 Fig. 7.4 The race question in the 1921 Census. (Source: Dirección General de Estadística 1977, p. 23 1er censo de población de la Nueva España) 153 Fig. 7.5 Percentage of the population that belongs to an indigenous group (2000–2015). (Source: INEGI 2000, 2010, 2015 Censuses of population and intercensal survey) 155 Fig. 7.6 Skin-tone colour scale as implemented by INEGI in the module on intergenerational social mobility. (Source: INEGI 2016, p. 81) 157 Fig. 7.7 Percentage of respondents by race—Module on Social Mobility Survey (2016). (Source: INEGI 2016) 158 Fig. 8.1 Codes and frequencies. (Source: IPUMS International 2018) 166

xxxi xxxii List of Figures

Fig. 11.1 Averages for 2008–2010 of the percentage of mixed couples on total married couples by country (countries sorted by descending order on the period 2008–2010). (Source: EUROSTAT 2012. The estimates are produced using data primarily from the Labour Force Survey (LFS), supplemented with data from the Survey on Income and Living Conditions (SILC). Key: Belgium (BE), Bulgaria (BG), the Czech Republic (CZ), Denmark (DK), Germany (DE), Estonia (EE), Ireland (IE), Greece (EL), Spain (ES), France (FR), Italy (IT), Cyprus (CY), Latvia (LV), Lithuania (LT), Luxembourg (LU), Hungary (HU), Malta (MT), the Netherlands (NL), Austria (AT), Poland (PL), Portugal (PT), Romania (RO), Slovenia (SI), Slovakia (SK), Finland (FI), Sweden (SE), the United Kingdom (UK), Iceland (IS), Norway (NO), and Switzerland (CH)) 221 Fig. 12.1 2011 England and Wales Census question on ethnic group 241 Fig. 13.1 CSO Pilot census question on ethnicity, 1999 251 Fig. 13.2 CSO revision to 1999 Pilot ethnicity question, 2000 252 Fig. 13.3 ‘Racist Incidents Report Form’ 254 Fig. 13.4 Department of Health Hospital In-patient Enquiry Form 256 Fig. 13.5 Ethnicity question used in 2006 Census form 257 Fig. 13.6 Ethnicity question used in Census form 2016 258 Fig. 13.7 Average annual growth rates for each ethnic or cultural group, 2011–2016 259 Fig. 13.8 Department of Education and Skills Primary school form 260 Fig. 13.9 Ethnic or cultural background by Nationality, 2011–2016 261 Fig. 20.1 Dutch citizens with multiple nationalities, 1 January 2015. (Source: CBS) 381 Fig. 29.1 Interethnic marriages in the USSR, 1989 557 Fig. 31.1 Current census question. (Source: Statistics New Zealand) 591 Fig. 32.1 Race question from the ABSTUDY application form 608 Fig. 32.2 Country of birth, refugee, and ATSI question, from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) survey (2018) 609 Fig. 32.3 The single race question from the most recent Australian Census (ABS 2016a) 613 Fig. 32.4 Country of birth and language questions from the most recent Australian Census (ABS 2016a) 614 Fig. 32.5 The ancestry question from the most recent Australian Census (ABS 2016a) 615 Fig. 32.6 Multiple ancestries, Australian Census, 2006, 2011, 2016. (Source: Fozdar 2018) 618 Fig. 33.1 Census question on ethnic/dialect group. (Source: Singapore Department of Statistics) 636 List of Figures xxxiii

Fig. 34.1 Question on ethnicity in 1980 Census questionnaire (World Bank 2019) 657 Fig. 36.1 Registered live births by nationality of father and mother. (Source: Philippine statistics authority, civil registration service, vital statistics division 2006–2016, and national statistics office, vital statistics report 1988–2005) 702 Fig. 36.2 Live births occurred abroad to Filipino mother or father, or both by nationality of father and mother. (Source: Philippine statistics authority, civil registration service, vital statistics division 2006–2017) 703 Fig. 41.1 Chronology of Japanese terms referring to mixed individuals 787 List of Tables

Table 3.1 Ethnicity data collection and mixedness in Canada, USA, and Bermuda 56 Table 3.2 Ethnicity data collection and mixedness in South American countries in the 2010/2011 census round 58 Table 3.3 Ethnicity data collection and mixedness in Central American countries in the 2010/2011 Census round 63 Table 3.4 Ethnicity data collection and mixedness in Caribbean countries in the 2010/2011 census round 65 Table 7.1 Nicknames given in casta paintings to the ethnicity of children of mixed ethnicity parents according to different combinations of the parents’ ethnicities 148 Table 9.1 Population of Buenos Aires, 1778 182 Table 9.2 Births from ‘race mixture’ and from ‘People of colour’ 185 Table 11.1 Ethnicity data collection and mixedness in European countries in the 2010/2011 census round 216 Table 19.1 Emigration from Italy (1861–1930) 352 Table 20.1 Percentage of ‘allochthones’ marrying a partner from another population group 369 Table 20.2 Second-generation persons with migration background 380 Table 22.1 Ethnicity data collection and mixedness in forty-eight African countries in the most recent available census round, 1995 to 2015 412 Table 22.2 Ethnicity data collection and mixedness in Middle Eastern countries in the most recent available census round, 1995 to 2015 418 Table 22.3 Ethnicity data collection and mixedness in Central Asia and the Caucasus in the most recent available census round 420

xxxv xxxvi List of Tables

Table 25.1 Population Censuses conducted between 1901 and 1969 and the enumerated populations of Europeans and Coloured and estimated population of Africans 486 Table 26.1 Census statistics of African and non-African population, 1911–1961 504 Table 26.2 ‘Coloured population by race of parents in [the] 1946 and 1951’ censuses 505 Table 26.3 1980 census codes 509 Table 27.1 Ethnic affiliation, Kenya, 2009 Census 530 Table 29.1 Recognized and non-recognized ethnic groups 555 Table 30.1 Ethnicity data collection and mixedness in Asian countries, 2005–2015 575 Table 30.2 Ethnicity data collection and mixedness in Pacific countries from 2005 to 2015 578 Table 31.1 Percentage of people recorded with more than one ethnicity and per cent born in New Zealand, 2001–2013 Censuses of population and dwellings 592 Table 31.2 Percentage of people recorded with more than one ethnicity and per cent born in New Zealand, selected sole ethnic groupings, 2001–2013 Censuses of population and dwellings 593 Table 31.3 Māori total and prison populations, adults aged 15 years and over, Census 2013 600 Table 32.1 Example of three level categorization of ancestry responses from the most recent Australian Census (ABS 2016a) 615 Table 33.1 Distribution of Singapore’s resident population by citizenship status and race 638 Table 33.2 Trends in resident transnational marriage in Singapore 640 Table 33.3 Trends in resident interethnic marriage in Singapore 640 Table 35.1 An early attempt to enumerate anglophone Eurasians (the group later redesignated as Anglo-Indians) separately from the ‘Indo- Portuguese’ (i.e. Luso-Indians) and other mixed race peoples in India and Burma 677 Table 35.2 Population data compiled from the general and provincial returns of the decennial Census of India 1891–1941, including Burma in the ‘all India’ statistics until 1931 679 Table 35.3 Salary scales for the ‘Superior Staff’ of the Salt Department by racial and communal groupings, representing the Raj’s socio- racial employment hierarchy 683 Table 37.1 Characteristics of Pacific Island countries and territories included in study 715 Table 37.2 Coverage of Pacific Island census forms, by census round 716 List of Tables xxxvii

Table 37.3 Approaches towards mixedness in Pacific Island censuses, 1975–2014 719 Table 37.4 Number of Pacific countries and territories undertaking mixed counting, by census round 720 Table 40.1 Zerbadee, Indo-Burman, and Eurasian Populations in Burma (1891–1931) 763