DOCSLIB.ORG

Language Deprivation Syndrome: a Possible Neurodevelopmental Disorder with Sociocultural Origins

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Language Deprivation Syndrome: a Possible Neurodevelopmental Disorder with Sociocultural Origins Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol DOI 10.1007/s00127-017-1351-7 ORIGINAL PAPER Language deprivation syndrome: a possible neurodevelopmental disorder with sociocultural origins Wyatte C. Hall1,3 · Leonard L. Levin2 · Melissa L. Anderson3 Received: 7 September 2016 / Accepted: 22 January 2017 © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2017 Abstract Language development experiences have an epidemiologi- Purpose There is a need to better understand the epide- cal relationship with psychiatric outcomes in deaf people. miological relationship between language development and This requires more empirical attention and has implications psychiatric symptomatology. Language development can for other populations with behavioral health disparities as be particularly impacted by social factors—as seen in the well. developmental choices made for deaf children, which can create language deprivation. A possible mental health syn- Keywords Behavioral health · Language deprivation · drome may be present in deaf patients with severe language Sign language · Hearing loss · Social psychiatry deprivation. Methods Electronic databases were searched to identify publications focusing on language development and mental Introduction health in the deaf population. Screening of relevant publi- cations narrowed the search results to 35 publications. Psychiatric health is often epidemiologically affected by Results Although there is very limited empirical evi- social factors, such as poverty, social distress, and preju- dence, there appears to be suggestions of a mental health dice [1–5]. In this review, we argue that language develop- syndrome by clinicians working with deaf patients. Possi- ment, or the disruption of language development, is another ble features include language dysfluency, fund of knowl- social factor that contributes to the epidemiology of mental edge deficits, and disruptions in thinking, mood, and/or illness—as observed in the deaf population. behavior. In general, people experience hearing loss in different Conclusion The clinical specialty of deaf mental health ways. The majority of hearing loss is age-related sensory appears to be struggling with a clinically observed phenom- impairment in people who have achieved language devel- enon that has yet to be empirically investigated and defined opment milestones—namely, post-lingual hearing loss [6]. within the DSM. Descriptions of patients within the clini- Those who lose their hearing at birth or during the criti- cal setting suggest a language deprivation syndrome. cal period of language development, pre-lingual hearing loss, are the focus of this discussion. Approximately two to * Wyatte C. Hall three out of 1000 children experience pre-lingual hearing [email protected] loss at birth [7]; in a sample of 37,828 deaf students with 1 known hearing loss onset, at least 55.1% reported hearing Clinical & Translational Science Institute, University problems before the age of 2 years [8], impacting the first of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA language development. 2 Lamar Soutter Library, Department of Education and Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA Language deprivation 3 Systems and Psychosocial Advances Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Massachusetts Language deprivation occurs due to a chronic lack of full Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA access to a natural language during the critical period of Vol.:(0123456789)1 3 Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol language acquisition (when there is an elevated neurologi- have their own grammars and linguistic rules equivalent to cal sensitivity for language development), approximately spoken languages [23]. Yet, less than 8% of deaf children the first 5 years of a child’s life [9, 10]. Language depriva- receive regular access to sign language in the home (i.e., tion during the critical period appears to have permanent fluent, bidirectional conversations) [8]. Although using consequences for long-term neurological development [11]. sign language is encouraged for hearing babies to develop Neurological development can be altered to the extent that language skills before they can begin to speak, sign lan- a deaf child “may be unable to develop language skills suf- guage is not routinely offered as a primary or complemen- ficient to support fluent communication or serve as a basis tary intervention for deaf children; rather, if offered at all, for further learning” [12]. it is often proposed as a last-resort option to deaf children Exposure to a fully accessible language has an inde- who have not developed speech abilities as expected [24]. pendent influence on brain development separate from the This pattern occurs—because many advocates, profes- auditory experience of hearing loss. Indeed, recent neuro- sionals, and educators believe that sign language acquisi- imaging studies indicate the presence of adult neurostruc- tion will interfere with deaf children’s development of tural differences in deaf people based on timing and quality speech skills [25, 26]—despite research that has shown of language access in the early childhood [13–15]. signing implanted children actually demonstrate better speech development, language development, and intelli- Access to spoken language gence scores than non-signing implanted children [20, 27, 28]. This resistance has recently been described as a preju- Medical professionals are not able to assure that hear- dice against both sign languages and the state of being deaf ing aids and cochlear implants will result in positive lan- [29]. As a result, delayed exposure to sign language is a guage outcomes [16]. Many deaf children are significantly “common educational occurrence arising from the priority delayed in language skills despite their use of cochlear frequently given to speech over sign by rehabilitation pro- implants. Large-scale longitudinal studies indicate signifi- fessionals and hearing parents” [9]. The end result is that cant variability in cochlear implant-related outcomes when most deaf children do not develop native fluency in sign sign language is not used, and there is minimal predic- language. tive knowledge of who might and who might not succeed Based on the current literature, results suggest that in developing a language foundation using just cochlear technological interventions (e.g., hearing aids, cochlear implants [17]. implants) are insufficient as a stand-alone approach for lan- For example, a study of 27 French-speaking implanted guage acquisition in deaf children. Paired with delayed or children found that only half of these children displayed absent exposure to sign language during the critical period language skills comparable to their hearing peers at the of language acquisition, a deaf child can be at risk for expe- word level and less than half at the sentence level [18]. riencing long-term language deprivation—which leads to Long-term language trajectories of 188 implanted children a spectrum of neurological, educational, and developmen- were described as “slower and more variable” than their tal consequences across the lifepan. Therefore, many deaf 97 hearing peers and even those who were implanted ear- children are likely experiencing some level of language lier than 18 months of age continued to exhibit language deprivation that might contribute to greater health dispari- delays of more than a year behind their peers [19]. Stud- ties relative to the general population, such as the increased ies of long-term speech production and perception in 110 prevalence of mental illness seen in the deaf population. implanted children found extreme variability as some dem- onstrated zero ability to express or perceive spoken Eng- Behavioral health lish clearly, while others performed nearly as high as 100% accuracy from elementary school to high school [20, 21]. Deaf individuals experience a higher prevalence of Finally, a meta-analysis of 12 studies focusing on spoken behavioral health concerns than the general population. language vocabulary found that implanted children had sig- For example, a study conducted with a community sample nificantly less expressive and receptive vocabulary knowl- of 236 deaf individuals found significantly poorer quality edge than their hearing peers [22]. of life and higher levels of emotional distress compared to the general population [30]. Deaf female undergradu- Access to visual language ates are two times as likely to experience interpersonal trauma [31]. In addition, a community sample of 308 In contrast to depending solely on spoken language, another deaf individuals found elevated reports of lifetime emo- communication option for deaf children is sign language— tional abuse (27.5%), physical abuse (21.0%), and sexual a fully accessible, visual language for deaf children. Con- violence (20.8%) [32]. Deaf adolescents can experi- trary to popular—but uninformed—opinion, sign languages ence emotional and behavioral mental health problems 1 3 Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol associated with low self-esteem and peer rejection [33], Method and a range of developmental adversities unique to being deaf in a hearing world, such as lack of accessible com- Search strategy munication with parents and peers [34]. While overall increased rates of mental health prob- Five indexed databases were used for the literature search lems and extreme barriers to behavioral health care are to identify articles that discuss the impact of language on reported in the deaf population, the early
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Blog: Language Deprivation and Deaf Mental Health: Introduction to a Webinar Neil Glickman, Ph.D., University of Massachusetts Medical School
    Blog: Language Deprivation and Deaf Mental Health: Introduction to a Webinar Neil Glickman, Ph.D., University of Massachusetts Medical School In many respects, the processes of providing mental health dysfluencies range from mild and barely noticeable to profound care to native users of sign and providing mental health care and complex, but they are often clinically significant in mental to users of spoken languages are comparable. This is health contexts. especially the case when working with deaf people who are At the extreme end of the language deprivation continuum are a- native users of either spoken or sign languages. In those lingual deaf people—people with no or minimal formal language cases, a cultural perspective on Deaf people is often much skills. Hearing people have usually never met such people and more useful than a disability perspective in planning services. may find it hard to believe that human beings with normal Mental health care of culturally Deaf people has many parallels intelligence can be, essentially, language-less. Inside the Deaf with mental health care of other linguistic, social, or cultural Community, however, the problem of language deprivation is well- minorities (Glickman, 2013; Glickman & Gulati, 2003; Glickman known. Programs and specialists that serve D/deaf people usually & Harvey, 1996; Leigh, 2010). Cultural self-awareness, a know some a-lingual or semi-lingual deaf people. respectful, affirmative attitude, a body of specialized In the United States, we are most likely to find a-lingual deaf knowledge about the target community, specialized language, people among immigrants from third world countries where and communication and intervention skills are all essential, as they received minimal education, but you can also find them in they are when working with other minority populations rural, isolated American communities or other places where (Glickman, 1996; Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992).
    [Show full text]
  • Effects of Early Language Deprivation: Mapping Between Brain and Behavioral Outcomes
    Effects of Early Language Deprivation: Mapping between Brain and Behavioral Outcomes Qi Cheng, Eric Halgren, and Rachel Mayberry 1. Introduction One core issue regarding language development is the role of early language experience. The literature on child language development has found that the quality and quantity of early language input is associated with children’s language performance, but the exact nature of the relation between early language experience and language development is less clear. Because language is ubiquitous in the environment, almost all children are immersed into a linguistically rich environment from birth. This makes it difficult to directly test the effects of a lack of language experience on subsequent language development. Here we present a study of individuals born deaf who experienced sparse language throughout childhood that will help illuminate the question. Postnatal brain development follows genetically predetermined growth patterns, but is also strongly influenced by learning and environmental factors (Huttenlocher 2002). Nonetheless, little is known about how early linguistic experience may affect the establishment of the brain’s dynamic language network. Studies on brain development suggest that the language network matures relatively late (Sowell et al. 2004; Lebel et al. 2012; Pujol et al. 2006), and that its degree of maturation correlates with language performance (Pujol et al. 2006; Mills, Coffe-Corina, and Neville 1997). However, there are multiple possible explanations for the correlation between late establishment of the neural system and accompanying language development. One possibility is that this protracted development is solely due to late maturation alone, and, as a result, that this constrains language development in early years.
    [Show full text]
  • Language and Mind Prof
    LING 1010 Language and Mind Prof. Jon Sprouse 03.15.21: The critical period for language acquisition What is the timeline of typical language acquisition? Now that we’ve reviewed examples of acquisition in phonology, morphology, and syntax, we can put it all together to look at the timeline of acquisition: Birth 6 mo 12 mo 2 yr 3 yr 4 yr 5 yr Age 6 babbling begins at 6mo, becomes variable and language-specific by 12 mo. First words are produced between 10-15 mo. For many children, word learning accelerates dramatically around 18 mo. This is called the vocabulary explosion. Complex morphology appears on words. Two word utterances Function words and longer utterances More complex syntax (transformations) Stages, not ages People really like to talk about milestones for babies (child development). There are entire websites dedicated to this. Milestones serve an important role in helping parents to identify potential problems early (if the baby doesn’t reach a milestone, it could be evidence of a problem). The problem with milestones is that people tend to link them to ages. This is the wrong way to do it. There is quite a bit of variation in the ages that children hit milestones, especially for language. Instead, for language we should look at the stages that children go through. What we find is that all children go through the same stages in the same order. All children move from babbling, to first words, to two-word utterances, to longer utterances, in that order. But they may do it at slightly different speeds.
    [Show full text]
  • An Illusion of Inclusion That Perpetuates Language Deprivation
    Running Head: THE ILLUSION OF INCLUSION 1 American Sign Language Interpreters in Public Schools: An Illusion of Inclusion that Perpetuates Language Deprivation Naomi K. Caselli1, Wyatte C. Hall2, Jonathan Henner3 Boston University1 University of Rochester Medical Center2 University of North Carolina Greensboro3 Author Note Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Institute On Deafness And Other Communication Disorders of the National Institutes of Health under Award Number R21DC016104. Wyatte Hall was supported by the University of Rochester CTSA award number 3 UL1 TR002001-03S2 from the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the National Institutes of Health. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. This work is also supported by National Science Foundation grants BCS 1625793 and 1918252 to Naomi Caselli. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Naomi K. Caselli, Wheelock College of Education and Human Development, Boston University, 2 Silber Way, 3rd Floor, Boston, MA, 02215 ([email protected]). Running Head: THE ILLUSION OF INCLUSION 2 Abstract Purpose: Many deaf children have limited access to language, spoken or signed, during early childhood – which has damaging effects on many aspects of development. There has been a recent shift to consider deafness and language deprivation as separate but related conditions. As such, educational plans should differentiate between services related to deafness and services related to language deprivation. Description: Many deaf children attend mainstream public schools, and the primary service offered to students who use American Sign Language (ASL) is generally a sign language interpreter.
    [Show full text]
  • Social Service Review
    Social Service Review Avoiding Linguistic Neglect of Deaf Children --Manuscript Draft-- Manuscript Number: 2016056 Full Title: Avoiding Linguistic Neglect of Deaf Children Short Title: Avoiding Linguistic Neglect of Deaf Children Article Type: Major Article Corresponding Author: Donna Jo Napoli, Ph.D. Swarthmore College Swarthmore, Pennsylvania UNITED STATES Corresponding Author's Institution: Swarthmore College First Author: Tom Humphries, Ph.D. Order of Authors: Tom Humphries, Ph.D. Poorna Kushalnagar, Ph.D. Gaurav Mathur, Ph.D. Donna Jo Napoli, Ph.D. Carol Padden, Ph.D. Christian Rathmann, Ph.D. Scott Smith, MD Order of Authors Secondary Information: Manuscript Region of Origin: UNITED STATES Abstract: Deaf children who are not provided with a sign language early in their development are at risk of linguistic deprivation; they may never be fluent in any language and they may have deficits in cognitive activities that rely on a firm foundation in a first language. These children are socially and emotionally isolated. Deafness makes a child vulnerable to abuse, but if deafness is accompanied by linguistic deprivation, the abuse is compounded because the child is less able to report it. Thus linguistic deprivation is itself child maltreatment. Parents rely on professionals as guides in making responsible choices in raising and educating their deaf children. But lack of expertise on language acquisition and over-reliance on access to speech often result in professionals not recommending that the child be taught a sign language or, worse, that the child be denied sign language. We recommend action that those in the social welfare services can implement immediately, to help protect the health of deaf children.
    [Show full text]
  • Deaf Children As' English Learners': the Psycholinguistic Turn in Deaf
    education sciences Review Deaf Children as ‘English Learners’: The Psycholinguistic Turn in Deaf Education Amanda Howerton-Fox 1,* and Jodi L. Falk 2 1 Education Department, Iona College, New Rochelle, NY 10801, USA 2 St. Joseph’s School for the Deaf, Bronx, NY 10465, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-914-633-2680 Received: 9 May 2019; Accepted: 11 June 2019; Published: 14 June 2019 Abstract: The purpose of this literature review is to present the arguments in support of conceptualizing deaf children as ‘English Learners’, to explore the educational implications of such conceptualizations, and to suggest directions for future inquiry. Three ways of interpreting the label ‘English Learner’ in relationship to deaf children are explored: (1) as applied to deaf children whose native language is American Sign Language; (2) as applied to deaf children whose parents speak a language other than English; and (3) as applied to deaf children who have limited access to the spoken English used by their parents. Recent research from the fields of linguistics and neuroscience on the effects of language deprivation is presented and conceptualized within a framework that we refer to as the psycholinguistic turn in deaf education. The implications for developing the literacy skills of signing deaf children are explored, particularly around the theoretical construct of a ‘bridge’ between sign language proficiency and print-based literacy. Finally, promising directions for future inquiry are presented. Keywords: deaf education; critical period for language; sign bilingualism; deaf multilingual learner (DML); english learner (EL); age of acquisition; literacy; cognition; ableism 1. Introduction The purpose of this literature review is to present the arguments in support of conceptualizing deaf children as ‘English Learners’, to explore the educational implications of such conceptualizations, and to suggest directions for future inquiry.
    [Show full text]
  • Lessons from the LEAD-K Campaign for Language Equality for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children
    Lessons from the LEAD-K Campaign for Language Equality for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children Christina Payne-Tsoupros* ABSTRACT This Article asserts that early intervention under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEIA) should be amended to recognize the needs of the young child with the disability as primary over the needs of the child’s family. This Article contends that certain requirements of the IDEIA cause early intervention professionals to view and treat the child’s family, rather than the child herself, as the ultimate recipient of support. In many situations, the needs of the family and the needs of the child may wholly align, but that is an assumption that bears questioning. This Article analyzes groundbreaking legislation efforts in the field of deaf education, the Language Equality & Acquisition for Deaf Kids (LEAD-K) campaign, to illustrate a framework that maintains the focus on the primacy of the child’s needs, with support to the family in service of those needs. The LEAD-K campaign has developed model legislation for adoption by states. Since 2016, twelve states have adopted a form of the LEAD-K model bill. There are approximately fifteen more states with LEAD-K teams in various stages of development. This Article highlights LEAD-K for its potential to transform early intervention for deaf and hard of hearing children and uses the LEAD-K model bill to illustrate a flaw in the IDEIA. The IDEIA subsumes the needs of the child within the consideration of the needs of the family, when the child and family should instead be considered as separate (but related) stakeholders.
    [Show full text]
  • Deaf Children Need Language, Not (Just) Speech
    FLA0010.1177/0142723719834102First LanguageHall et al. 834102research-article2019 FIRST Article LANGUAGE First Language 1 –29 Deaf children need © The Author(s) 2019 Article reuse guidelines: language, not (just) speech sagepub.com/journals-permissions https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723719834102DOI: 10.1177/0142723719834102 journals.sagepub.com/home/fla Matthew L. Hall University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, USA Wyatte C. Hall University of Rochester Medical Center, USA Naomi K. Caselli Boston University, USA Abstract Deaf and Hard of Hearing (DHH) children need to master at least one language (spoken or signed) to reach their full potential. Providing access to a natural sign language supports this goal. Despite evidence that natural sign languages are beneficial to DHH children, many researchers and practitioners advise families to focus exclusively on spoken language. We critique the Pediatrics article ‘Early Sign Language Exposure and Cochlear Implants’ (Geers et al., 2017) as an example of research that makes unsupported claims against the inclusion of natural sign languages. We refute claims that (1) there are harmful effects of sign language and (2) that listening and spoken language are necessary for optimal development of deaf children. While practical challenges remain (and are discussed) for providing a sign language-rich environment, research evidence suggests that such challenges are worth tackling in light of natural sign languages providing a host of benefits for DHH children – especially in the prevention and reduction of language deprivation. Keywords Cochlear implant, deaf children, global language proficiency, hearing loss, language deprivation, sign language Corresponding author: Matthew L. Hall, Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road, Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA.
    [Show full text]
  • Variations in Phonological Working Memory: Linking Early Language Experiences and Language Learning Outcomes
    Applied Psycholinguistics 38 (2017), 1265–1300 doi:10.1017/S0142716417000236 KEYNOTE ARTICLE Variations in phonological working memory: Linking early language experiences and language learning outcomes LARA J. PIERCE Boston Children’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School FRED GENESEE McGill University AUDREY DELCENSERIE Université de Montréal GARY MORGAN City University of London ADDRESS FOR CORRESPONDENCE Lara J. Pierce, Division of Developmental Medicine, Boston Children’s Hospital, 1 Autumn Street, Boston, MA 02115. E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected] ABSTRACT In order to build complex language from perceptual input, children must have access to a powerful information processing system that can analyze, store, and use regularities in the signal to which the child is exposed. In this article, we propose that one of the most important parts of this underlying machinery is the linked set of cognitive and language processing components that comprise the child’s developing working memory (WM). To examine this hypothesis, we explore how variations in the timing, quality, and quantity of language input during the earliest stages of development are related to variations in WM, especially phonological WM (PWM), and in turn language learning outcomes. In order to tease apart the relationships between early language experience, WM, and language development, we review research findings from studies of groups of language learners who clearly differ with respect to these aspects of input. Specifically, we consider the
    [Show full text]
  • The Critical Period Hypothesis for Language Acquisition: a Look at the Controversy*
    The Critical Period Hypothesis for Language Acquisition: A Look at the Controversy* Patricia Andrew FES-Acatlán The age factor in second language acquisition (SLA) has long been a controversial topic among researchers and one that has been surrounded by popular beliefs as well. Many of these beliefs have been called into question in recent years and the search for answers has generated a large body of research on the subject. This paper explores the issue of age in SLA, focusing specifically on the debate surrounding the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH). After a brief discussion of the CPH andfirst language acquisition , a more extensive examination of the different positions on the CPH and SLA is made. Finally , consideration is given to alternative explanations of age effects in SLA. While no irrefutable conclusions can be offered, it is clear that the ramifications for second-language teachers, educational planners and second language theorists are great enough to warrant a careful reappraisal of the CPH. Palabras clave: hipótesis del periodo crítico, edad, adquisición de lenguas Fecha de recepción del artículo: abril de 2004 Patricia Andrew FES-Acatlán Ahuehuetes 42, Izcalli del Bosque, Naucalpan, 53278, Estado de México. Correo electrónico: [email protected] * A briefer version of this paper was presented at the XVIII FEULE (Foro de Especialistas Universitarios en Lenguas Extranjeras) convention in Tijuana, B.C., in March 2004, and a summary will appear in the published proceedings of that event. Estudios de Lingüística Aplicada, núm. 40, 2004 14 Patricia Andrew El factor edad en la adquisición de una segunda lengua ha sido un tema controvertido entre investigadores, y uno también rodeado de creencias populares.
    [Show full text]
  • Linguistically Deprived Children
    Linguistically deprived children: meta-analysis of published research indicates mental synthesis disability – implications for novel intervention strategies for children with language delay Andrey Vyshedskiy, PhD, Boston University, and Rita Dunn, MS, ImagiRation – the developer of educational puzzles for children with language delay Introduction SUBJECTS Genie (1970) Victor of E.M. Maria & Marcus I.C. Shawna, Cody and Carlos (Curtiss S, 1977, Aveyron (Grimshaw Chelsea (Curtiss S, 1988) (Morford J, 2003) (Hyde DC, 2011) (Ramírez NF, 2012) • Most researchers believe that there is a strong association between early language TESTS 1981) (1797) GM, 1998) acquisition and normal cognitive development (critical period hypothesis, Lenneberg, 1 Learning vocabulary, semantic acquisition, naming Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 1967); however, there is no consensus on the neurological mechanism of this association. items, good memory of images and words • We analyzed published reports of children who grew up without exposure to formal 2 Talking about nonpresent people and objects Yes No data No data No data Yes No data Yes language, such as feral children, and deaf linguistic isolates, since these cases present a 3 Singular vs plural: e.g. ‘Show me the flowers.’ Yes No data Yes No data No data No data No data rare opportunity to study the effect of syntactic language on the developing brain. 4 Comparative: e.g. ‘Which button is smaller?’ Yes No data Yes No data No data No data No data • Feral children grow up in an isolated environment, with little or no exposure to human 5 Copying stick and block structures language (see the case of Genie and Victor of Aveyron).
    [Show full text]
  • What You Don't Know Can Hurt You: the Risk of Language Deprivation by Impairing Sign Language Development in Deaf Children
    Matern Child Health J DOI 10.1007/s10995-017-2287-y COMMENTARY What You Don’t Know Can Hurt You: The Risk of Language Deprivation by Impairing Sign Language Development in Deaf Children Wyatte C. Hall1 © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2017 Abstract A long-standing belief is that sign language all developmental domains through a fully-accessible first interferes with spoken language development in deaf chil- language foundation such as sign language, rather than dren, despite a chronic lack of evidence supporting this auditory deprivation and speech skills. belief. This deserves discussion as poor life outcomes con- tinue to be seen in the deaf population. This commentary Keywords Hearing loss · Sign language · Language synthesizes research outcomes with signing and non-sign- deprivation · Deaf child development · Cochlear implant ing children and highlights fully accessible language as a protective factor for healthy development. Brain changes associated with language deprivation may be misrepre- For hundreds of years, language philosophies and edu- sented as sign language interfering with spoken language cation of deaf children have been mired in an “either-or” outcomes of cochlear implants. This may lead to profes- dilemma between sign language-inclusive and spoken lan- sionals and organizations advocating for preventing sign guage-only approaches. It has been described as a “highly language exposure before implantation and spreading mis- polarized conflict” with widespread misinformation about information. The existence of one—time-sensitive—lan- what is the best approach (Humphries et al. 2012b), such guage acquisition window means a strong possibility of as the belief that sign language acquisition interferes with permanent brain changes when spoken language is not fully spoken language acquisition.
    [Show full text]