UNIT 1 Introduction Practical is basically an application of the theoretical knowledge. It occupies an irreplaceable envious position for understanding the intricacies of growth and development. Human growth and development is continuously on move to understand our past, present and future intrinsically. It has opened the doors for applied research in diverse fields and continues to be committed to understand every aspect of man more minutely, because of its strength to absorb new techniques in its framework. It also communicates immense information about the shape, size, body composition and physique of an individual. It facilitates in appreciating the variations in various body among different individuals and different populations. Not only this but practical in human growth and development play a pivotal role in assessing physical growth of children, health status and nutritional status of adolescents and adults is also assessed with the help of these measurements. Disease and determination of certain physiological functions like vital capacity, basal metabolic rate and work capacity rely on anthropometry and its valuable contribution for racial comparisons or variations in body. Anthropometry data is an asset for designing proper equipment for use in industry and defence purposes, spaceships, garments, etc and also to provide norms of the physique of any population and trends of changes in morphological traits. Various body measurements involving segmental lengths, breadths, circumferences and skinfolds are used for research and designing the instruments and apparatus used by us. Anthropometry constitutes two components a) Osteometry b) Somatometry Osteometry is the of skeleton. Further osteometry encompasses measurement of along with measurement of teeth as well as measurement of post cranial skeleton. Somatometry is made of two words 'soma' means living and 'metric' that means measurement, so in simple terms it means measurement of living beings. Somatometry a division of anthropometry is thus defined as a systematic technique to measure living body that includes head and face. Somatometry represents the outermost measurement of the body living or dead. Anthropometrists working globally on different topics are continuously in search not only of new instruments to strengthen their findings but also are looking for new measurements and are continuously in the process to improvise the old ones. The techniques of roentogrammetric, photogrammetrics, and body composition analyzer are just to name a few. Anthropologists have realized and appreciated the standard techniques for presentation and analysis of the data as it gives universal recognition. Statistical procedures have tremendously increased with a constant effort for improving in better interpretation of the data. Several statistical packages which are computer based are also available for statistical treatment of the data to give a wider spectrum to the information collected. There are varieties of instruments used in anthropometry like anthropometer, skinfold , sliding caliper, spreading caliper, wide spreading calipers (pelvimeter), measuring tape, weighing etc. One can take accurate measurements reading with proper training and relentless practice. It is extremely important to attain high level precision and accuracy by the measurer in assessing individual status with respect to a particular norm. This reflects how consistent an Anthropometrist is with self or with other measurers. The accuracy relates to how closely obtained measures match to actual measure. 5 Practicals There are standard norms which are followed while taking measurements. The measurements of the body should be taken preferably in minimum clothes as it helps in locating the landmarks; the subject should be standing in erect posture 'and bare foot on floor while taking vertical measurements. Her/his back and hips should be against the wall. The feet should be touching the wall and running parallel to each other. Generally arms should be in standard arm hanging position with palms of the hand touching the thighs. The shoulders should not be raised up during measurement. The anthropometer rod should be placed at the back of the individual incase of the non availability of the wall. The head should be in eye-ear plane. While taking the measurement, only right side measurement values of subjects are taken though, some take it on the left side. The kinanthropometerists and sports people are basically interested in the most-dominant side, therefore measurements on the right is preferred. However, in case of bilateral asymmetry, it is suggested that both sides' measurements should be taken. Incase of head and face measurements, the subject should be asked to sit on a stool of about 40 cm height. The head should be oriented in eye-ear plane, landmarks marked with skin marking pencil. While taking the projective heights in sitting position the subject should sit on a 40 cm height stool or table. The head should be oriented in eye-ear plane, body stretched to maximum and the shoulder should run parallel to the sitting surface. The thighs should run parallel to the sitting surface and at right angles to the leg which should be hanging freely. Description of anthropometric instruments

To understand human growth and its development, anthropometry holds significant position. Anthropologists have devised number of instruments for taking measurements on living as well as skeleton. It involves different types of instruments for taking various measurements depending upon its nature. Here we will describe the common instruments used in anthropometry. Anthropometer Rod

Anthropometer rod is the most sought after instrument in anthropometry as it is used in number of measurements on living beings. It is widely used to take heights and transverse breadths of the body. Martin's Anthropometer is most commonly used. The anthropometer consist of four equal graduated segments which when joined tightly forms a rigid rod which measures 200 ems. The graduation begins at the base of the lowest segment on one side and from first segment on the other side on opposite side. The uppermost segment bears at its upper end fixed casket, while there is another casket which can move up and down along the oriented rod. The movable one registers the height measurements. The casket holds the cross bars which are also graduated. The movable casket provides an elongated window on its body, through which the graduations can be seen and upper border of this opening gives a particular measure.

6 Anthropometer Rod Source: www.indiamart.com Manipulations Anthropometry

Anthropometer is used for measuring vertical distance of different landmarks in relation to standing floor. Hold the instrument vertically close to subject's body. Index finger of the left hand is used to point the landmark while right hand is used to operate the movable casket and push the crossbar by thumb so that tip of the crossbar touches the landmark. Note the reading. All precautions concerning the anatomical position must be taken. The rod must be kept erect and vertical while taking the measurement reading.

Rod : The first segment of the anthropometer used as a large sliding caliper by adjusting the crossbar is rod compass. It is graduated in descending order starting from the top fitted with fixed socket. It is used to measure breadth.

Manipulations

Hold the fixed casket with crossbar with your left hand and movable casket with right hand. In doing so the two index fingers should lie on the two cross bars tip- to-tip. Note the reading at the level of the inner side of the movable casket.

Spreading caliper: It is mainly used for taking head and face measurements where curved areas are involved. It consists of two long arms which are curved outwards and straight on the other end which is screwed together so that arms can move freely. A meter scale (35cm) is fixed to one of the arms and passes though the socket of the second arm. The screw at the back socket, provides to and fro movement to the scale. The free ends of the long arms are provided either with blunt (used in measurement of living beings) or pointed end (used in measurements of skeletons). Spreading calipers are available in two sizes

• One of 25 cm for taking smaller measurements

• Large variety of spreading caliper of 60 cmis called pelvimeter used for measuring .

Spreading Caliper Source: www.indiamart.com Manipulations.

Hold the instrument at the curved ends of the caliper by both the hands. Place the middle finger below and thumb above and index finger resting on the curved border of the caliper. The index finger basically is used to locate the landmark and place the knob of the caliper on it. Keep the graduated scale free for easy sliding through casket. 7 Practicals Sliding caliper: It consist of long straight scale 25 cm graduated on both sides and 12.5 cm long, two cross bars one fixed on one end of the scale and other one parallel to the fixed one which can slide over the scale with the help of socket provided with a screw to be used to fix the socket at any place. Both the arms are projected to an equal distance on both sides of the scale. The free end of the caliper is graduated upto 50mm this is used for measuring depths when the movable socket is fitted on the scale in reverse order. Sliding caliper is used to measure shorter breadths. The blunt end is used to take measurement on body while the sharp end on .

Sliding Caliper Source: www.KinanthrEometric Asses

Manipulations

Hold the metal plate against palm with fingers so that the thumb can regulate the sliding casket. Place the fixed end of the crossbar on one landmark while adjust the sliding crossbar on the other landmark by moving the casket. Read directly from the graduated metal plate at the level of the inner side of the sliding crossbar. While taking the depth measurement, the sliding caliper is adjusted upside down by adjusting the sliding caliper upside down. In this situation reading is obtained from scale.

Skinfold caliper: The purpose of the skinfold caliper is to measure the thickness of double fold of subcutaneous fat plus skin at various sites of the body. It is used for assessment of subcutaneous fat. Harpenden, Holtain and Lange's skinfold calipers are mostly used for the purpose. Harpenden skinfold caliper comprise of a spring that exerts a constant pressure on 10 gm/mm? over the jaw surface area with a range 2 to 40mm.

Harpenden Caliper 8 Source: www.harpendenskinfoldcaliper.com Lange skinfold caliper also exerts a constant of 10 gm/mm' throughout Anthropometry the range of jaw openings. The reading is shown by fine pointer on a semicircular dial situated to the left of instruments body has a diameter of 6.5 cm with almost linear scale.

Lange Caliper Source: www.youbefit.com

Holtain skinfold caliper is a superior version of harpenden skinfold caliper. It is lighter in and easier to hold. Here too the dial is on left of the instrument body.

Holtain Caliper Source: www.trade.indiamart.com

Manipulations

Hold the grip of the instrument conveniently with right hand such that thumb rests on the . Elevate the skinfold to be measured using thumb and index finger of the left hand and place the jaws of the caliper by pressing the lever at one centimeter distance and then release the pressure. Record the value from the dial within four ., I 9 Practicals Steel tape: It is made of flexible steel graduated on both the sides wound in a metal case from which it can be pulled out and can rewind after use. The width of the tape is ideally 1cm. It is used for measuring girths of different parts of body and skeleton which involves curvature.

Flexible Steel tape Source: www.wellpromo.com

Manipulations

Tapes are used to measure circumferences or curved surface. Take care not to twist the tape and avoid using tape for small circumferences i.e. strong curvature.

Verificator: It is also called Gauge and is used to verify the accuracy of the various anthropometric instrument/calipers. There are nine brass rods with different lengths varying from 10 to 250 mm.

Weighing machine: Standard weighing machine with a graduation of 500 grams, portable for field purpose and stationary weighing are used. The zero error should be adjusted with the knob provided. Weight of the subject with minimum clothing is preferred and adjustment for the worn clothes should be made.

Weighing machine Source: www.medical-equipments.co.in

Manipulations

Always take the weight of the subject with minimum clothing and bare foot. Take into account the weight of the clothes of the subject while recording the weight. Also correct the zero error of the before taking weight.

Significance of landmarks and planes

Anthropologists have expressed number of measurements for describing the morphology of man. These measurements are based on anatomical landmarks and 10 have been in use for long time. Anthropometry may seem to be simple but taking accurate measurement requires rigorous training and strict adherence to specified . . Anthropometry techniques, The anthropometric sites and descriptions are the basic standard specifications for any study. In anthropometry landmarks are very important. Anthropometric description is always in reference to the anatomical position as the body can assume a variety of postures. The precise location of the landmarks and position of various reference points for the rationale of taking body measurements can be best understood by first getting familiar with different planes and axis of the body.

Anthropometric measurements are taken according to certain laid down standard procedures. This helps in reducing any variation while taking measurement and also the values of variables are comparable with other studies. The oldest classical standard procedure for taking measurement was given by Martin and Saller in 1959. Later during the iast quarter of the 20th century many recommendations were given regarding techniques of taking measurements. The most important protocol was suggested by Tanner, Jurman and Heirnaux under the aegis ofInternational Biological Programme/Human Adaptability section (IBP/HA) in1969. This is widely used in innumerable studies all over the world.

There are certain positions in the human body which hold importance while taking measurements. Frankfort horizontal plane is one of them. Frankfort Horizontal plane was established in 1984 at the World Congress on in Frankfurt, Germany. This plane is used to orient a human skull or head such that the plane is horizontal. Eye-ear plane, Franlifort horizontal plane is its other names. It is a horizontal plane which is characterized in profile by a line which is the lowest point on the margin of the orbit of the eye (lower margin of the left orbit) and the highest point on the margin or the audit,?ry meatus (External auditory canal).

Source: www.crime-scene-investigator.net

Eye-ear Plane

11 Source: www.depts.washington.edu Practiculs The head of the subject should rest without any strain in the eye-ear plane or F-H plane i.e. tragion and right orbitale must lie in the same plane. All measurements except those concerning mid sagittal plane should be taken on the right side of the body because it is easier to work with instruments with right hand. Some researchers have recommended all measurements except those involving, the mid-sagittal plane should be taken on left side of the body in order to avoid any occupational exaggeration or deformity.

Let us get familiar with planes/axis considered while taking measurements. •• 1

Sagittal plane or antero-posterior plane- is the plane which is parallel to the vertical plane and divides the whole body into two parts, right and left. This plane which divides the body precisely into left and right halves' is called mid-sagittal plane .

. Source: www.cn.wikipedia.org

Mid-Sagittal plane is vertical plane which passes through the body in such a way that it is parallel to the median plane. Median plane is a plane which passes longitudinally through the middle of the body from front to back in such a way that it divides the body into right and left halves. This figure shows the different planes of human body.

Median/Midsagittal Plane Frontal/Coronal Plane Transverse Plane 12 Source: www.christianalcantara.bJogspot.com Frontal plane: The plane which is at right angle to the sagittal plane and dividing Anthropometry the body into front and rear parts is the frontal plane.

Transverse plane: This plane is at right angles to the sagittal and transverse planes dividing the body into upper and lower art.

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Different planes Source: www.philipmelillo.com

A little about the various axis considered while taking measurements. Lateral axis: Any resulting line which comes from the intersection of frontal and transverse plane is called lateral axis.

Longitudinal axis: The intersection of frontal and sagittal planes represents longitudinal axis.

Sagittal axis: The intersection of sagittal and transverse planes represents the sagittal axis or antero-posterior,

For each measurement taken certain precautions need to be followed which would be mentioned after each measurement in the following units.

Standard positions

A

13 Source: www.keywordpicture.com Practicals The subject is oriented to a standing position with head and eyes directed forward, upper limbs hanging by the sides with the palms forward, thumbs pointing away from the sides with fingers pointing directly downward, and the feet together with the toes pointing directly forward.

Positions while taking somatometric measurements

Standing position

Source: www.phenxtoolkit.org

Sitting position

14 Applications of anthropometry Anthropometry

Anthropometry characterizes the classic and conventional of physical anthropology. It deals with the measurement of man. The number and type of measurement is clearly dependent on the nature of the problem. Human growth and development under the umbrella of physical anthropology have improved upon their techniques to meet the challenges of medical research through anthropometry. Variations in anthropometric dimensions among different population groups attributed to genetic basis occur in body proportions and distribution of fat patterning. Fat patterning, several circumferences, gross fat content, ratio of stature and weight are important criterion of health and nutritional status. These mentioned parameter play a vital role in monitoring the growth status of children and youth which serve as a pointer to nutritional and health conditions of social inequalities in society. The anthropometric changes have been witnessed overtime reflecting the secular trends which divulge the increase or decrease in size, maturity etc.

Anthropometric data is of immense importance ill public health. Identification of significant growth retardation in children by using indicators like height, weight and arm circumference would categorize individuals at high risk of rrorbidity and mortality. We all are also familiar that any aspect of our physiological function is reliant on morphology and it is evaluated by measurements which is anthropometry in man. Anthropometry contributes significant role for studies of chronic diseases endemic to developed countries including cardio-vascular disease, cancer, diabetes and obesity. Anthropometry has a role to play in ascertaining the protein- content of the patient viz-a viz his normal range, monitoring the alterations and its rate in protein-energy balance over a given span of time and also project complexities due to malnutrition (obesity or undernutrition), resulting in the occurrence of some morbid event. Measurement of height, weight and other dimensions give an idea of child's growth; the distance curve and velocity curve provide vital information regarding the rate of human growth and development and final size attained. Adult stature can also be predicted using skeletal age, parental height and growth velocity proceeding few years. Body size, frame, fat patterning and body composition; all indicators of health are considered as long term pointer of life patterns, hence as an over all measures of health and disease risk. The collective results of measured body with weight, girtns, circumferences and skinfold thickness can ascertain the amount and rate of change over time in protein energy content of the individual. And comparing the patients' measurement with that of healthy reference group facilitates in determining his threat of complication. Intermittent anthropometric measurement during the course of nutrition support programme offers valuable information of changes in body composition. Anthropometric measurements together with standard nutritional assessment indices endeavor to foretell complications of malnutrition.

You must have observed that in any sports event individuals with similar body physique outclass. When analyzed for somatotype distribution on somatotochart, they tend to crowd together narrowly in a particular area of the somatochart; which implies that certain somatotype is preferred in particular sport. Once the role of physical structure to sports performance was substantiated, Olympics or World games were the places used to hunt for suitable physique. Hence, probables most suitable for any given sport can be identified and encouraged, though physique is not the only factor for success. Physique as we have earlier learnt can be best studied using anthropometric measurements. Anthropometric techniques aids in recognizing the age changes in physical structures' and its association with functional features and motor abilities; and the longitudinal studies facilitates in sorting out the individual variations in these features. These studies also help in understanding the individual trends in development of physique over the years, opening path for talent search.

Increased muscularity determined by somatotyping has greater susceptibility to premature coronary heart disease. Waist-Hip ratio is found to be a good indicator 15 Practicals of stroke and ischemic heart disease. Same way diabetes, psychological problems, hypertension have shown their predictability using anthropometric measures. Anthropometry has a role to play in cancer too. Since diet constitutes to be an important risk for cancer, anthropometry can help evaluate nutritional status of an individual. Body measure of a child is also a good predictor of his!her nutritional status. Nutritional anthropometry based on height, weight, skinfold thickness and upper arm circumference is an easy, safe and effective method of screening the children for their growth with a comment on their nutritional status. Have you ever observed that certain specific disease cause problems to specific type of physique? The reason could be that the physique could be predisposed to certain diseases. Adiposity and muscularity are important determinants of coronary artery disease. Similarly blood pressure, blood lipids, cancer etc have shown relationship with human physique.

Predisposition to various metabolic disorders can be adjudged using anthropometric measurements. These measurements enjoy creditability in epidemiological studies especially concerning cardiovascular risk estimation. Studies of blood pressure versus triceps skinfold and subscapular skinfold has revealed that risk of higher blood pressure is better ascertained with central adiposity. Anthropometric measures like stature, relative weight, muscularity, frame size, various weight !height indices, waist-hip ratio, skinfold thickness at various site and the overall distribution of subcutaneous fat, body index are reliable indicators for risk of developing metabolic disorders and various diseases. Anthropometric methods have provided . predictive and diagnostic information of several chromosomal abnormalities, e..g tuniers syndrome. They have not only offered discriminatory factors and typical character of these anomalies but also an understanding of the contributors of various chromosomes to growth. Physical fitness is crucial for upholding a reasonable level of health and physical activity is necessary to keep our body function properly. To maintain good health a good physical performance is an advantageous quality designated to be a positive health criterion while a low physical performance is taken as health risk factor. Anthropometric techniques are used to measure habitual physical activity patterns in individuals as well as population groups. Anthropometric data indicating variation in different ethnic populations as well as socio-economic groups have been beneficial to orthopedic and plastic surgeons as well as forensic scientists. Anthropometry techniques facilitate forensic anthropologist in identification of suspect be it in estimation of stature or gender or age determination.

The interest in measuring the human body dates back to ancient times. With the passage of time sophisticated instruments have come into existence. The body measurements hold significant positions. Body measurements are valuable in studying different groups. The variations in them divulge information and point towards factors responsible for such change. Comparison between the body measurements of normal and abnormal group reveals the differences and the effect of the abnormality of the body.

Human body measurements have huge relevance in vast arena as all the gadgets which we use apply these measurements to make it user friendly. Anthropometry plays a significant role in automobile industry in designing comfortable seats for passengers and drivers. Keeping in view the human arm and leg dimensions into considerations, the control panel for operational purpose is designed. Similarly, airplanes, space shuttles, fighter jets and other automobiles are designed using anthropometry taking the dimensions of the user. Likewise, the dimensions of head and face facilitates in the designing of helmets, oxygen masks, and respirators and other body dimensions are utilized for designing clothing, gloves for firefighters, military personnel and industry worker, prosthetic limbs, medical and surgical devices, scuba diving gear and many other including the garment and shoe industry which heavily depends on anthropometry for fitting and functional purpose. Left 16 hander have been benefited by anthropometty specially for designing scissors, pens, Anthropometry peelers, guitar, golf sticks, watches and many more things.

Skeletal frame of human body has immense capacity of not only carrying human body but additional weight of articles used everyday. Our sturdy bones and joints have the ability to support huge amount of soft tissues while a frail skeletal frame has constraint in putting on soft tissues. Various measures like width of the joints aids in estimating the skeletal frame size. Apart from this humerus bicondylar, femur bicondylar, shoulder and hip width, chest breadth, chest depth, wrist breadth and ankle breadth too are good measures of skeletal breadth. Obesity a global epidemic is determined using anthropometric measurements like height weight relation, waist - hip ratio and waist circumference.

It! Suggested Reading

Mukherji, D, Mukherjee, D.P. and Bharathi, P. 2009. Laboratory Manual for Biological Anthropology. New Delhi; Asian Books Pvt Ltd.

Singh, I. P. and Bhasin, M. K. 2004. A Manual of Biological Anthropology. New Delhi; Kamla-Raj-Enterprises,

Singh, S.P. and Mehta, P. 2009. Human Body Measuresements Concepts and Applications. New Delhi; PHI Learning Private Limited

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