DOCSLIB.ORG

Overview of the U. S. Flight Safety Process for Space Nuclear Power

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Overview of the U. S. Flight Safety Process for Space Nuclear Power VOL 22-4 TECHNICAL PROGRESS REVIEW JUL • AUG 1981 423 General Safety Considerations Edited by J. R. Buchanan Overview of the U. S. Flight Safety Process for Space Nuclear Power By Gary L. Bennett* Abstract: The two current types of nuclear power sources used launch an orbiter and atmospheric probe to Jupiter and in U. S. spacecraft are described along with the jligh t safety the International Solar Polar Mission (ISPM) which will philosophies governing their use. In the case of radioisotope obtain scientific data on the sun and solar wind from thermoelectric generators, the design philosophy consists of containment, immobilization, and recovery of the nuclear high heliographic latitwdes. 2 materials. For reactors, the emphasis is on maintaining a As stated in a 1978 working paper submitted by subcritical configuration in all credible accident environments. the United States to the United Nations Committee on To document the safety activities, a safety analysis report is the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: prepared for each mission. These reports, which are based on Since its inception, the U. S. space nuclear the probabilistic risk assessment methodology pioneered by the power program has placed great emphasis on safety space nuclear safety community, are subjected to an inter­ of people and protection of the environment. A agency safety review before a recommendation is made to approve the laundh of a nuclear-powered spacecraft. continuing primary objective has been to avoid undue risks by designing systems to safely contain the nuclear fuel under normal and potential acci­ The recent spectacular flights by Jupiter and Saturn of dent conditions. the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) spacecraft Voyager and Pioneer have also marked additional milestones in the continuing success­ *Gary L. Bennett is Chief of the Safety and Isotope Fuels ful and safe use of nuclear electric power in outer Branch in the Department of Energy Space and Terrestrial space. Since 1961, the United States has launched 22 Systems Division. He obtained the Ph.D. degree in physics from Washington State University in 1970. He has also worked NASA and military spacecraft having all or part of on several nuclear reactor safety research programs at the their power requirements supplied by nuclear power Idaho National Engineering Laboratory and the Nuclear sources. Twenty-one of these spacecraft were powered Regulatory Commission. He has worked on the nuclear rocket by radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) and program at the National Aeronautics and Space Administr<t­ one by a nuclear reactor. Table 1 summarizes the space tion's Lewis Research Center and was the government flight safety manager for the nuclear power sources used on the nuclear power sources launched by the United States USAF LES 819 communications satellites and the NASA to date. Electric-power output per individual nuclear Voyager spacecraft. In 1980 and 1981, he served as a member power source has ranged from 2.7 W(e) for SNAP-3A of the U.S. delegation to the United Nations Working Group to 500 W(e) for SNAP-lOA. The history of these on the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space and has sources has shown that they can be safely and reliably served as an adviser to the U.S. delegation to the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of the United Nations Committee on built and launched to meet a variety of mission the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. He has written a number of 1 objectives. Future missions committed to nuclear papers on nuclear safety and the use of nuclear electric power power include NASA's Galileo mission which will in outer space, and one novel (The Star Sailors). NUCLEAR SAFETY, Vol. 22, No. 4, July-August 1981 • 1 424 GENERAL SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS Table 1 Summary of Space Nuclear Power Sources Launched by the United States (1961-1980) Power source* Spacecraft Mission type Launch date Status SNAP-3A Transit 4A Navigational June 29, 1961 Successfully achieved orbit SNAP-3A Transit 4B Navigational Nov. 15, 1961 Successfully achieved orbit SNAP-9A Transit-5BN-1 Navigational Sept. 28, 1963 Successfully achieved orbit SNAP-9A Transit-5BN-2 Navigational Dec. 5,1963 Successfully achieved orbit SNAP-9A Transit-5BN-3 Navigational Apr. 21, 1964 Mission aborted; burned up on reentry SNAP-lOA Snapshot Experimental Apr. 3, 1965 Successfully achieved orbit SNAP-19B2 Nimbus-B-1 Meteorological May 18, 1968 Mission aborted; heat source retrieved SNAP-19B3 Nimbus III Meteorological Apr. 14, 1969 Successfully achieved orbit SNA}'-27 Apollo 12 Lunar Nov. 14, 1969 SuccessfuiJy placed on lunar surface SNAP-27 Apollo 13 Lunar Apr. 11, 1970 Mission aborted on way to moon; heat source returned to South Pacific Ocean SNAP-27 Apollo 14 Lunar Jan. 31, 1971 Successfully placed on lunar surface SNAP-27 Apollo 15 Lunar July 26, 1971 Successfully placed on lunar surface SNAP-19 Pioneer 10 Planetary Mar. 2, 1972 Successfully operated to Jupiter and beyond SNAP-27 Apollo 16 Lunar Apr. 16, 1972 Successfully placed on lunar surface Transit-RTG "Transit" Navigational Sept. 2, 1972 Successfully achieved orbit (TRIAD-Ol-1X) SNAP-27 Apollo 17 Lunar Dec. 7,1972 Successfully placed on lunar surface SNAP-19 Pioneer 11 Planetary Apr. 5, 1973 Successfully operated to Jupiter and Saturn and beyond SNAP-19 Viking 1 Mars Aug. 20, 1975 Successfully landed on Mars SNAP-19 Viking 2 Mars Sept. 9, 1975 Successfully landed on Mars MHW LES 8/9t Communications Mar. 14, 1976 Successfully achieved orbit MHW Voyager 2 Planetary Aug. 20, 1977 Successfully operated to Jupiter and Saturn and beyond MHW Voyager 1 Planetary Sept. 5, 1977 Successfully operated to Jupiter and Saturn and beyond *SNAP-lOA was powered by a nuclear reactor; the remainder were "powered by radioisotope thermoelectric generators. t LES = Lincoln experimental satellite. This article presents a brief overview of the U. S. RATIONALE FOR USING NUCLEAR philosophy in regard to space nuclear safety and the ELECTRIC POWER IN SPACE VEHICLES current flight safety review process. When the development risks and potential benefits Since its inception the U.S. program for the safe can be meaningfully identified in advance, cost­ use of nuclear power in outer space has involved benefit analyses are conducted before a major nuclear hundreds of scientists and engineers in several govern­ electric-power appHcation in outer space is undertaken. men tal agencies and private organizations. Space does These analyses include mission requirements; environ­ not permit the identification of individual contribu­ mental, health, and safety requirements; and other tors; however, the principal Department of :$nergy specific requirements (such as reliability, longevity, and (DOE)-supported organizations that have participated survivability) and consider nonnuclear as well as in the flight safety program in the past or are currently nuclear alternatives. 3 The benefits to be derived from participating are Los Alamos National Laboratory, the use of nuclear electric-power sources in space can Applied Physics Laboratory (Johns Hopkins Oniver­ be seen in the following conditions: 1 sity), NUS Corporation, Sandia National Laboratories, l . Lifetime: Nuclear power is the principal alterna­ General Electric Co~pany , Teledyne Energy s ystems, tive for spacecraft which must operate for a long and TRW, Inc. · : period of time. NUCLEAR SAFETY, Vol. 22, No. 4, Julv-August 1981 GENERAL SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS 425 2. Environment: Nuclear power sources are less device that directly converts the heat associated with vulnerable to external radiation damage (e .g., in the the decay of a radioisotope to electricity by means of Van Allen radiation belts) and to other potentially the Seebeck effect. Thus there are only two functional hostile environments [e.g., meteoroids, Martian dust parts of an RTG: a thermoelectric converter and a heat storms, and extreme temperatures (such as experienced source. For all U. S. space missions to date, the heat on the lunar and Martian surfaces)]. sources have been fueled with the radioisotope 2 3 8 Pu. 3. Self-sufficiency: Nuclear power sources enable This radioisotope has an appropriately long half-life the spacecraft to be more autonomous. In addition, (about 87.8 yr), which permits long operational life­ RTGs can be operated on the launch pad for systems times to be considered. Plutonium-238 decays pri­ checkouts prior to launch or from the orbiting space marily by emitting alpha particles, which are com­ shuttle. pletely absorbed in the heat source to produce the 4. Operational reliability: Nuclear power sources in heat; hence no special radiation shielding for these spacecraft have exhibited extremely high reliability. alpha particles is required. The principal safety objec­ They provide a compact source of electrical energy tive associated with the use· of 2 3 8 Pu is to keep it with a good power-to-mass ratio. The small exposed contained to prevent ingestion by humans and conse­ area of nuclear power sources can reduce the overall quent exposure of the unprotected internal organs'and size of the spacecraft, simplify attitude control, and bones to radiation. reduce structural interactions. A nuclear power source Figure 1 shows the two most recent RTGs : the can also be used to supply heat directly to selected multihundred-watt (MHW) and general-purpose heat spacecraft components without introducing electro­ source (GPHS) RTGs. The MHW RTG provided the magnetic interference. electric power for the NASA spacecraft Voyager (see Fig. 2). The GPHS RTGs are being designed and built TYPES OF NUCLEAR POWER to provide electric power for Galileo and the ISPM. SOURCES USED IN SPACECRAFT Figure 3 is a cutaway drawing showing the key parts of the GPHS. As in the MHW heat source, the fuel Two types of nuclear power sources have been used 38 e Pu02 ) is contained in a modular form, with each to generate electricity for spacecraft: RTGs and nu­ module multiply encased to ensure its survival under a clear reactors.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Nuclear Power Systems for Space Applications
    Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Master Program in Computational Physics Nuclear Power Systems for Space Applications Department of Nuclear and Elementary Particles Physics Laboratory of Atomic and Nuclear Physics Professor: Christos Eleftheriadis Dimitrios Chatzipanagiotidis Acknowledgments The presented work is for my thesis in master degree in Computational Physics at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. This effort combines my two favorite fields of interest, Nuclear Physics and Space Physics. Firstly, I want to thanks my supervisor, Professor Christos Eleftheriadis, who help and support me all those years from my bachelor degree until now for my thesis with his unique way of teaching and explain Nuclear Physics. Also, I want to thanks Professor Pavel Tsvetkov of Texas A&M University Engineering as he offered to help and guide me for my thesis about RTG. Finally, I would like to thanks my family and my friends for supporting me in my life all these years. Dimitrios Chatzipanagiotidis, Thessaloniki, October 2019 Abstract As the solar energy for space applications put some significant limitations about missions be- yond Jupiter and planetary surface rovers, the use of nuclear energy is the future of space explo- ration. Plutonium 238 is the most desirable fuel for Radioisotopes Thermoelectric Generators (RTG) but is limited on the planet and the production is a highly cost procedure. New techniques of Plutonium 238 production are developed in order to enable new space missions. Other radio- isotopes can be used instead of Plutonium 238, like Strontium 90, but the shielding considera- tions or the half-life make them undesirable for space applications. Although Plutonium 238 offer great designs of power sources still we have some limitations about the amount of power that can be produces by those devices and the profile of a space mission.
    [Show full text]
  • On Fusion Driven Systems (FDS) for Transmutation
    R-08-126 On fusion driven systems (FDS) for transmutation O Ågren Uppsala University, Ångström laboratory, division of electricity V E Moiseenko Institute of Plasma Physics, National Science Center Kharkov Institute of Physics and Technology K Noack Forschungszentrum Dresden-Rossendorf October 2008 Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co Box 250, SE-101 24 Stockholm Tel +46 8 459 84 00 CM Gruppen AB, Bromma, 2008 ISSN 1402-3091 Tänd ett lager: SKB Rapport R-08-126 P, R eller TR. On fusion driven systems (FDS) for transmutation O Ågren Uppsala University, Ångström laboratory, division of electricity V E Moiseenko Institute of Plasma Physics, National Science Center Kharkov Institute of Physics and Technology K Noack Forschungszentrum Dresden-Rossendorf October 2008 This report concerns a study which was conducted for SKB. The conclusions and viewpoints presented in the report are those of the authors and do not necessarily coincide with those of the client. A pdf version of this document can be downloaded from www.skb.se. Summary This SKB report gives a brief description of ongoing activities on fusion driven systems (FDS) for transmutation of the long-lived radioactive isotopes in the spent nuclear waste from fission reactors. Driven subcritical systems appears to be the only option for efficient minor actinide burning. Driven systems offer a possibility to increase reactor safety margins. A comparatively simple fusion device could be sufficient for a fusion-fission machine, and transmutation may become the first industrial application of fusion. Some alternative schemes to create strong fusion neutron fluxes are presented. 3 Sammanfattning Denna rapport för SKB ger en övergripande beskrivning av pågående aktiviteter kring fusionsdrivna system (FDS) för transmutation av långlivade radioaktiva isotoper i kärnavfallet från fissionskraftverk.
    [Show full text]
  • Design and Development of Subcritical Reactor by Using Aqueous Fuel for 99Mo Production
    Proceedings of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences: Pakistan Academy of Sciences A. Physical and Computational Sciences 55 (1): 21–26 (2018) Copyright © Pakistan Academy of Sciences ISSN: 2518-4245 (print), 2518-4253 (online) Research Article Design and Development of Subcritical Reactor by Using Aqueous Fuel for 99Mo Production Syarip*, Tegas Sutondo, Edi Trijono Budisantoso, and Endang Susiantini Research Centre for Accelerator Science and Technology (CAST), National Nuclear Energy Agency (BATAN), Jalan Babarsari, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia Abstract: A non-critical reactor system for 99Mo production has been designed and will be developed at the Centre for Accelerator Science and Technology (CAST), National Nuclear Energy Agency (BATAN). The system is called subcritical aqueous reactor “assembly” for 99Mo production (SAMOP) which is fueled with uranyl nitrate and driven by external neutron source from a neutron generator. The design characteristics of criticality analysis, safety aspect, and calculation of 99Mo specific activities, choice and estimation of technology for 99Mo separation from the irradi- ated uranyl nitrate are presented in this paper. The analysis result showed that the SAMOP system using low enriched –1 uranyl nitrate UO2(NO3)2 of 300 g U L has an effective neutron multiplication factor of 0.98 to 0.99 with an average 10 –2 neutron flux of 10 n cm s . The total volumes of UO2(NO3)2 and uranium content in the core are 23 L and 3.8 kg, respectively. The SAMOP system using low enriched uranyl nitrate with total volume of 23 L and 3.8 kg uranium content may produce 111 GBq/batch (3 000 mCi/batch) of 99Mo.
    [Show full text]
  • Reactor Kinetics and Operation
    Reactor Kinetics and Operation Course No: N03-002 Credit: 3 PDH Gilbert Gedeon, P.E. Continuing Education and Development, Inc. 22 Stonewall Court Woodcliff Lake, NJ 07677 P: (877) 322-5800 [email protected] Department of Energy Fundamentals Handbook NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND REACTOR THEORY Module 4 Reactor Theory (Reactor Operations) Reactor Theory (Reactor Operations) DOE-HDBK-1019/2-93 TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ................................................ ii LIST OF TABLES ................................................. iii REFERENCES ................................................... iv OBJECTIVES .................................................... v SUBCRITICAL MULTIPLICATION .................................... 1 Subcritical Multiplication Factor ................................... 1 Effect of Reactivity Changes on Subcritical Multiplication ................. 3 Use of 1/M Plots ............................................. 6 Summary .................................................. 9 REACTOR KINETICS ............................................. 10 Reactor Period (τ) ........................................... 11 Effective Delayed Neutron Fraction ................................ 11 Effective Delayed Neutron Precursor Decay Constant ................... 13 Prompt Criticality ............................................ 15 Stable Period Equation ........................................ 16 Reactor Startup Rate (SUR) ..................................... 17 Doubling Time .............................................
    [Show full text]
  • Concept of an Accelerator-Driven Advanced Nuclear Energy System
    Article Concept of an Accelerator-Driven Advanced Nuclear Energy System Xuesong Yan, Lei Yang *, Xunchao Zhang and Wenlong Zhan Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China; [email protected] (X.Y.); [email protected] (X.Z.); [email protected] (W.Z.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-931-4969-187 Academic Editor: Hiroshi Sekimoto Received: 24 March 2017; Accepted: 10 May 2017; Published: 7 July 2017 Abstract: The utilization of clean energy is a matter of primary importance for sustainable development as well as a vital approach for solving worldwide energy-related issues. If the low utilization rate of nuclear fuel, nuclear proliferation, and insufficient nuclear safety can be solved, nuclear fission energy could be used as a sustainable and low-carbon clean energy form for thousands of years, providing steady and base-load electrical resources. To address these challenges, we propose an accelerator-driven advanced nuclear energy system (ADANES), consisting of a burner system and a fuel recycle system. In ADANES, the ideal utilization rate of nuclear fuel will be >95%, and the final disposal of nuclear waste will be minimized. The design of a high-temperature ceramic reactor makes the burner system safer. Part of fission products (FPs) are removed during the simple reprocessing in the fuel recycle system, significantly reducing the risks of nuclear proliferation of nuclear technology and materials. The ADANES concept integrates nuclear waste transmutation, nuclear fuel breeding, and safety power production, with an ideal closed loop operation of nuclear fission energy, constituting a major innovation of great potential interest for future energy applications.
    [Show full text]
  • Arbitrarily Large Neutron Amplification in Subcritical Nuclear Reactors
    Arbitrarily large neutron amplification in subcritical nuclear reactors Antoine Tilloy Max-Planck-Institut f¨urQuantenoptik, Hans-Kopfermann-Straße 1, 85748 Garching, Germany In a subcritical reactor, each neutron produces only keff < 1 neutron per generation (asymptotically and on average), and thus the neutron population decreases exponentially in the absence of external source. The chain reaction is thus easy to stop, making such reactors inherently stable. Interestingly, and contrary to common wisdom, there is no relation between keff, the external source intensity, and the output power of the reactor. In this paper, I present various possible strategies to exploit this fact, and apply them to the design of a rudimentary multi-layer system that allows to reach an arbitrarily large number of fissions per source neutron, while keeping keff < 1 fixed (I used keff = 0.97). The behavior of the amplifier is verified with simple Monte-Carlo transport simulations. The proposal admittedly brings complications and subtleties that need to be studied further, but, if developed, could allow to drive subcritical reactors with faint neutron sources, e.g. radioisotope based. Introduction – Subcritical nuclear reactors are a se- which is defined as: rious candidate for the incineration of minor actinides def. keff = lim ki , (2) produced by current light water reactors. With an asymp- i→+∞ totic neutron multiplication keff < 1, they allow an in- which is the asymptotic multiplication. Only keff governs trinsically stable operation without the need for delayed the long time reactor kinematics and is thus relevant to neutrons, and can thus operate which much higher minor assess criticality. We see that, in principle, there is no actinide content than more standard critical reactors.
    [Show full text]
  • Subcritical Reactivity Measurements at Angra 1 Nuclear Power Plant
    2011 International Nuclear Atlantic Conference - INAC 2011 Belo Horizonte,MG, Brazil, October 24-28, 2011 ASSOCIAÇÃO BRASILEIRA DE ENERGIA NUCLEAR - ABEN ISBN: 978-85-99141-04-5 SUBCRITICAL REACTIVITY MEASUREMENTS AT ANGRA 1 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT Renato Yoichi Ribeiro Kuramoto 1 and Anselmo Ferreira Miranda 1 1 Eletrobrás Eletronuclear - Central Nuclear Almirante Álvaro Alberto Física de Reatores de Angra 1 BR 101 Sul - Rodovia Governador Mário Covas, km 517 (Rio Santos) CEP: 23 948-000 – Itaorna 4° Distrito de Angra dos Reis – RJ [email protected] [email protected] ABSTRACT In order to speed up the Angra 1 NPP Physics Tests, this work intends to develop a digital reactivity meter combined with a methodology of the modified Neutron Source Multiplication (NSM) method with correction factors for subcriticality measurements at Angra 1 NPP. In the first part of this work, we have applied the Modified Neutron Source Multiplication (MNSM) Method with fundamental mode extraction[1], in order to improve the monitoring of the subcriticality at Angra 1 NPP during the criticality approach. In the second part, we developed a preliminary subcritical reactivity meter algorithm based on the Point-Reactor Inverse Kinetic model with six delayed neutron groups and external neutron source. The source strength was obtained through the Least Squares Inverse Kinetics Method (LSIKM) . 1. INTRODUCTION Reactor physics tests are carried out at the startup after Angra 1 Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) refueling. Before and during the tests, there are two important items related to reactivity measurements. The first item is related to the subcritical measurements during the criticality approach.
    [Show full text]
  • Egypt Simulation an Accelerator Driven Subcritical
    8th Conference on Nuclear and Particle Physics-(20-24)Nov .2011 –Hurghada – Egypt Simulation An Accelerator driven Subcritical Reactor core with thorium fuel Laia shirmohammadi and Ali pazirandeh Nuclear Engineering Department, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University ,Tehran ,Iran [email protected] Abstract: The main purpose of this work is simulation An Accelerator driven Subcritical core with Thorium as a new generation nuclear fuel. In this design core , A subcritical core coupled to an accelerator with proton beam (Ep=1GeV) is simulated by MCNPX code .Although the main purpose of ADS systems are transmutation and use MA (Minor Actinides) as a nuclear fuel but another use of these systems are use thorium fuel. This simulated core has two fuel assembly type : (Th-U) and (U-Pu) . Consequence , Neutronic parameters related to ADS core are calculated. It has shown that Thorium fuel is useable in this core and less nuclear waste ,Although Iran has not Thorium reserves but study on Thorium fuel cycle can open a new horizontal in use nuclear en ergy as a clean energy and without nuclear waste. Keywords: Accelerator-driven Subcritical systems- Thorium fuel cycle- MCNPX code 1-INTRODUCTION In recent years, with concern of less uranium reserves in the world , as a main nuclear fuel , some comprehensive studies on thorium element as a nuclear fuel are done. The Thorium-Uranium nuclear fuel cycle, in which the main fissile nucleus is Uranium 233 and fuel regeneration is ensured through neutron capture on Thorium 233 offers many potential advantages as compared to the better known uranium-plutonium fuel cycle (2007-S.David) 2-Thorium fuel The main nuclear reaction that can produce neutron from natural Thorium and Uranium-238 are: 232 233 t1 2 22.4m 233 t1 2 27d 233 90Th n 90Th 91 Pa 92U 1 238 239 t1 2 23.5m 239 t1 2 2.3m 239 92U n 92U 93 Np Pu 2 The thorium fuel has more advantages and useful because of more thorium reservation in earth.
    [Show full text]
  • Non-HEU Production Technologies for Molybdenum-99 and Technetium-99M No
    IAEA Nuclear Energy Series IAEA Nuclear No. NF-T-5.4No. for Molybdenum-99 and Technetium-99m Non-HEU Production Technologies IAEA Nuclear Energy Series No. NF-T-5.4 Basic Non-HEU Production Principles Technologies for Molybdenum-99 and Objectives Technetium-99m Guides Technical Reports INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY VIENNA ISBN 978–92–0–137710–4 ISSN 1995–7807 IAEA NUCLEAR ENERGY SERIES PUBLICATIONS STRUCTURE OF THE IAEA NUCLEAR ENERGY SERIES Under the terms of Articles III.A and VIII.C of its Statute, the IAEA is authorized to foster the exchange of scientific and technical information on the peaceful uses of atomic energy. The publications in the IAEA Nuclear Energy Series provide information in the areas of nuclear power, nuclear fuel cycle, radioactive waste management and decommissioning, and on general issues that are relevant to all of the above mentioned areas. The structure of the IAEA Nuclear Energy Series comprises three levels: 1 — Basic Principles and Objectives; 2 — Guides; and 3 — Technical Reports. The Nuclear Energy Basic Principles publication describes the rationale and vision for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Nuclear Energy Series Objectives publications explain the expectations to be met in various areas at different stages of implementation. Nuclear Energy Series Guides provide high level guidance on how to achieve the objectives related to the various topics and areas involving the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Nuclear Energy Series Technical Reports provide additional, more detailed, information on activities related to the various areas dealt with in the IAEA Nuclear Energy Series. The IAEA Nuclear Energy Series publications are coded as follows: NG — general; NP — nuclear power; NF — nuclear fuel; NW — radioactive waste management and decommissioning.
    [Show full text]
  • Part Twenty-Five Subcritical Multiplication and Reactor Startup
    22.05 Reactor Physics - Part Twenty-Five Subcritical Multiplication and Reactor Startup 1. Reference Material See pp. 357-363 of the article, “Light Water Reactor Control Systems,” in Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. 2. Reactor Physics and Operation Nuclear fission reactors operate by maintaining a precise neutron balance. The reactor is in a critical condition if the number of neutrons created by the fission process equals the number that are either lost by leakage or captured within the reactor's structural materials. Neutrons produced from fission are called "fast" because they are traveling at very high speeds. Uranium-235, which is the principal fuel in most reactors absorbs very few high- energy or fast neutrons. In contrast, it will absorb, in large quantity, those neutrons that are moving slowly. Such neutrons are referred to as being "thermal." Hence, in order for the fission process to be maintained, it is necessary that the fast neutrons produced from fission be slowed down or thermalized. The need for the efficient thermalization of fast neutrons drives both the design and the operation of nuclear reactors 3. Reactor Operating Regimes Reactor Operation is traditionally divided into three regimes. These are: a) Subcritical – Critical Subcritical Multiplication b) Critical – Point of Adding Heat Inhour Equation Dynamic Period Equation c) Point of Adding Heat – Hot Operating Temperature Feedback Doppler Effect Xenon Feedback 1 The same physical relations describe all three regimes. However, because different terms in those relations dominate during each regime, the equations often look different. We will cover certain aspects of all three regimes with emphasis on subcritical multiplication, the dynamic period equation, and feedback mechanisms.
    [Show full text]
  • An Accelerator-Driven Reactor for Meeting Future Energy Demand
    AN ACCELERATOR-DRIVEN REACTOR FOR MEETING FUTURE ENERGY DEMAND Hiroshi Takahashi, Y. Yang, and An Yu Brookhaven National Laboratory Upton, New York 11973 Tel: 1(516) 344-4099, Fax: (516)344-2613, 4255, E-mail: "[email protected]" Abstract Fissile fuel can be produced at a high rate using an accelerator-driven Pu-fueled subcritical fast reactor which avoids encountering a shortage of Pu during a high growth rate in the production of nuclear energy. Furthermore, the necessity of the early introduction of the fast reactor can be moderated. Subcritical operation provides flexible nuclear energy options along with high neutron economy for producing the fuel, for transmuting high-level waste such as minor actinides, and for efficiently converting excess and military Pu into proliferation-resistant fuel. 1. Introduction The necessity has been discussed of introducing the fast reactor as soon as possible to accommodate the increase in energy demand which is expected after the first half of the next century111. However, the fast reactor cannot meet this rapid growth in the demand for nuclear energy because it requires a high initial inventory of fissile material due to the poor neutron economy of its large flattened core. Eighteen years is required to produce an initial inventory (initial inventory doubling time) of 3.6 metric tons of fissile material for a 1 GWe fast reactor with a 1.2 breeding gain without taking into account the need to hold fuel for processing; this cannot meet more than a 4 % annual increase in energy demand. To transmute long-lived fission products and to attain a high breeding rate, it is most desirable to use a Pu-fueled fast reactor with a hard neutron energy spectrum, which has a high neutron economy.
    [Show full text]
  • Subcritical Nuclear Assembly
    ISSSD 2014 April 13 to 16th, 2014. Cusco, Peru SUBCRITICAL NUCLEAR ASSEMBLY Hector Rene Vega-Carrillo Unidad Academica de Estudios Nucleares Universidad Autonoma de Zacatecas C. Cipres 10, Fracc. La Peñuela 98068 Zacatecas, Zac. Mexico. E-mail: [email protected] Abstract A Subcritical Nuclear Assembly is a device where the nuclear-fission chain reaction is initiated and maintained using an external neutron source. It is a valuable educational and research tool where in a safe way many reactor parameters can be measured. Here, we have used the Wigner-Seitz method in the six-factor formula to calculate the effective multiplication factor of a subcritical nuclear reactor Nuclear Chicago model 9000. This reactor has approximately 2500 kg of natural uranium heterogeneously distributed in slugs. The reactor uses a 239PuBe neutron source that is located in the center of and hexagonal array. Using Monte Carlo methods, with the MCNP5 code, a three-dimensional model of the subcritical reactor was designed to estimate the effective multiplication factor, the neutron spectra, the total and thermal neutron fluences along the radial and axial axis. With the neutron spectra in two locations outside the reactor the ambient dose equivalent were estimated. Keywords: Subcritical Nuclear reactor; Monte Carlo 29 ISSSD 2014 April 13 to 16th, 2014. Cusco, Peru 1.- INTRODUCTION A nuclear reactor is a system where the nuclear fission chain reaction is started, maintained and controlled. An important parameter in the design of a nuclear reactor is the multiplicaton factor, k, that is the amount on neutrons in any generation-to-the amount of neutrons in the previous generation ratio.
    [Show full text]