Peters

Reid Method: Developing Probable Comparison Questions

Robert Peters

Numerous noteworthy developments in The critical role of PLCs comes with polygraph testing occurred during the considerable difficulties. The function of PLCs preceding 90 years. It would not be is counterintuitive. On the surface, many unreasonable to assert that the most individuals do not find the explanation of the significant of those innovations is the operative role of the PLC to be logical (Iacono, development of the Probable Lie Comparison 2009). Critics of polygraph testing have Question (PLC) by John Reid in 1947. A ridiculed the assertion that a truthful subject number of comparison question test (CQT) would generate greater physiological response formats have been generated around the PLC. to stimuli that often appear to be of Although an exact determination is not substantially less importance than the possible, it appears that PLC examination relevant questions (RQ). Polygraph critics also formats are the most widely used polygraph ridicule the claim that a subject who is lying testing technique around the world. PLCs to both RQs and PLCs will generate provide the basis for a systematic diagnostic distinctively more consistent and intense assessment (test data analysis) of polygraph physiological responses to RQs than to the physiological data. Systematic diagnosis PLCs. Critics also point out that PLCs can provided the foundation for examination create the impression that the examiner is reliability. The PLC paved the way for another inappropriately expanding the scope of the historic development, Cleve Backster’s examination beyond the designated relevant conception of numerical analysis of test data. issue. Whatever the difficulty in explaining PLC techniques established that the the PLC functionality, the task of developing consistency and intensity of physiological appropriate PLCs is much more complex and response to individual test questions (stimuli) challenging. In the process of administering are an accurate measurement of an an examination polygraph examiners perform examinee’s emotional and cognitive attention. multiple difficult tasks. None of the (It was Reid’s belief that the consistency of examiner’s responsibilities are more physiological response was of greater demanding, complicated, or important than importance than the intensity of a response developing appropriate PLCs. for diagnosing truth and .) For many years polygraph examiners referred to Proponents of the DLC cite two the subject’s emotional and cognitive focus as disadvantages of the PLC as reasons for “psychological set.” Recently, it was suggested utilizing DLCs in place of the PLCs (Blalock, that “differential salience” (Senter, Nelson, Handler, & Shaw, 2012). First, DLC Weatherman, Krapohl, & Horvath, 2010) is a proponents cite the difficulty of developing a more appropriate term to explain the valid PLC. Secondly, it is claimed that DLC variations in physiological response resulting development is more standardized and from emotions and cognitive activity. therefore less likely to disrupt the examination Regardless of terminology refinements, it is procedures. There is some substance to each the comparison question that provides of these objections. Developing appropriate foundation for accurately distinguishing PLCs does require exceptional analytical, between liars and truth tellers. The PLC also interviewing, listening, and discernment skills. provided the pathway for the development of However, administering polygraph Directed Lie Comparison Questions (DLC). examinations is not an automated technical Therefore comparison questions are process. It is a technical diagnostic procedure indispensable to effectiveness of many if not that requires specialized skills and numerous most polygraph examinations. decisions by the examiner that lead to the final assessment of truth or deception. The same is true of many activities. A doctor of

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anesthesiology once commented that he or a set of standard PLC questions. The enjoyed assisting a particular plastic surgeon practice of selecting PLCs from homogenized more than other surgeons who practiced at lists increases the probability that PLC his hospital. He described the plastic surgeon development will become mundane and that as an artist, who used a scalpel in place of a the PLC will fail to carry the appropriate paintbrush. Administering a polygraph exam emotional weight. The Reid Technique can be similar. An examiner lacking aptitude requires that each PLC be developed for the in the development of PLCs, has not achieved particular exam and subject. the full competency in the skills of the profession. Although the formation of the actual Reid PLC occurs near the end of the pretest A large polygraph screening program interview, the Reid method of PLC provided a process for subjects to initiate development begins prior to the start of the formal complaints regarding the examination. examination session. PLC development begins PLC development generated a significant with the examiner’s assessment of the case percentage of those complaints. Scrutiny facts. Based on analysis of the background revealed that almost always, it was the information, the Reid examiner postulates the examiner’s failure to utilize the appropriate probable motivation for the incident under question development methods that caused investigation. Often, the motivation of the the subject to complain. The examiner’s offender is self-evident. Thefts, embezzlement, shortcomings generated resentment and angst insurance fraud, robbery, counterfeiting, tax that were unnecessary. Those emotions then , fraudulent expense claims, and developed into a formal complaint about the similar acts of dishonesty are almost always examiner and/or the exam process. motivated by greed and willingness to steal Polygraph examiners proficient in the Reid and cheat for financial gain. Therefore PLCs Polygraph Examination Technique, seldom that address stealing, dishonesty and cheating encounter such difficulties, or effectively are almost always appropriate in such cases. resolve such PLC related issues when they initially occur. In other instances, a perpetrator’s motivation is not so easily discerned. Arson is Reid defines the PLC as a question an offense that results from a variety of regarding a past act of wrongdoing of the motivations. The author tested a number of same general nature as the relevant incident business owners regarding fires that occurred under investigation, to which the subject will in buildings that their enterprise occupied. In probably lie or be doubtful as to accuracy of a number of those cases, the business owner the answer. The Reid Examination Technique attempted to destroy inventory or equipment does not use PLCs that address future actions that could not be sold or generate income. or opinions. Just as such topics are not The business owner’s motivation for suitable relevant issues, the Reid Technique destroying the assets was to obtain fraudulent excludes such topics from use as PLCs. The insurance payments to compensate for PLC should address an issue that is as broad business failures. In those cases, the PLCs in scope as possible. The Reid Technique addressed topics of cheating, theft, and uses words such as “ever,” “anything,” and general dishonesty. The author also “anyone” to expand the range of the question. conducted a number of exams regarding Qualifying statements (time bars, etc…) that arsons and bombings that appeared intended exclude the relevant exam issue from the to maim or kill members of criminal scope of the PLC are not employed by the Reid motorcycle gangs. The suspect perpetrators, Examination Method. The Reid Technique of members of a rival motorcycle gang, did not PLC development is based on the belief that stand to gain financially from destruction of PLC development is a complex process. The buildings and vehicles destroyed by the procedure requires thorough analysis, arsons and bombings. The perpetrators effective listening, and adept interviewing. carried out the arsons and bombings due to The Reid Technique rejects the notion of animosity, resentment, and a desire for routinely selecting PLCs from a prearranged revenge against the opposing gang. PLCs in menu or inventory of PLC questions. The Reid those instances concentrated on acts of Technique does not utilize a homogenized list revenge and hatred that were intended to

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injure, maim, or kill other persons, animals, of superiors, belief that one is more capable or and/or destroy property. In another case, a smarter than others, failure to keep a firefighter was tested regarding a series of promise, bragging, exaggerating personal arsons that destroyed large dairy barns and accomplishments, belief that the rules do not cattle housed therein. Analysis of the case apply, submitting to negative influence of facts, which included the firefighter’s role in others. battling the fires, concluded that if the firefighter did set the arsons, his motivation The revelation of proprietary was personal aggrandizement. Therefore PLCs information to a competitor or confidential that addressed issues of self-important or information to foreign government is often of accomplishments were motivated by greed. Media reports indicate appropriate. Some arson is a simple act of that executives who revealed insider vandalism caused by a disgruntled, often motivation received substantial payments for intoxicated, individual. PLCs in such cases the sensitive information they provided to should address issues of , animosity, stock traders. In such cases, issues of greed, and disregard for others. Anecdotal accounts cheating, stealing, and fraudulent activities indicate that some arson cause the arsonist to are appropriate topics for PLCs. become sexually aroused. It is not unreasonable for examiners to consider the Some government spies are motivated use of sexual topics for PLCs if there is some by political ideology. The belief that the evidence that the arsonist was sexually policies of their government are misguided motivated. When the analysis of case facts serves as motivation/justification for their indicates the act in question was motivated by violation of the security procedures they sexual impulses, PLCs should address agreed to uphold. According to media reports unusual and bizarre sexual activities. Anna Montes, a United States Government employee (Defense Intelligence Agency), who It should be noted that PLCs focused spied for the Cuban Intelligence Service, had on sexual behaviors are not appropriate in all an allegiance to the government of Cuba. Her exams involving sexual activity. The author loyalty to Cuba and dislike of the U.S. policies administered a number of examinations to inspired her to provide classified information individuals claiming to be the victim of sexual to the Cuban intelligence service. PLCs that assaults. If the reports of sexual assault are address a disregard for security policies, false, the subjects’ motivation have nothing to failure to keep promises, and maintain oaths do with sexual stimuli. False reports of sexual of loyalty to others should be consider as PLC assault are most likely motivated by revenge, issues for such exams. animosity, efforts to extort money, or conceal embarrassing behavior. Therefore PLCs for Many compromises of proprietary or the victims of sexual assault should address restricted information are not the result of any issues of revenge, lying, and false accusations. specific motivation. Rather, plain careless- They do not address sexual topics. ness and/or disregard for security regulations that can be inconvenient, annoying, or appear There are several motivations for the to be uncalled-for can result in the improper improper revelation of privileged or restricted revelation of information. In such cases PLCs information. Most professional media addressing careless behavior, laziness, and organizations in the United States do not pay unwillingness to accept personal responsibil- sources for information. So when restricted or ity are appropriate. privileged information is provided to the media, it often results from one of the When a review of case facts is following motivations; an attempt to disrupt or completed and the perpetrator’s likely prevent implementation of management poli- motivations determined, the Reid examiner cies, self-aggrandizement by demonstrating will have identified several activities that may access to important information, or be suitable PLC topics. The Reid examiner will acquiescence to persuasive efforts of the then review specific information regarding the media representative. In exams addressing subject(s) for leads on PLC issues. In some such activity, Reid examiners consider PLC circumstances, extensive personal information topics such as; failure to accept the direction on the subject will be available to the

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examiner. The Reid examiner takes full concern that some matters would reflect badly advantage of the background information by on the subject or their organization. A PLC carefully analyzing the information for addressing whether the subject had ever been appropriate PLC topics. uncooperative with authorities or ever suggested that others might lie might be very An investigator’s report of a personal suitable PLC topics. interview of the subject can often be very helpful in providing PLC topics. Transcripts of Some cases entail testing a number of a subject’s deposition or courtroom testimony individuals, such as co-workers or members of should be thoroughly reviewed in preparation an organization. In such cases, it is not for the exam. In addition to preparing for uncommon that one subject will provide discussion of the relevant issue, Reid personal information regarding another examiners will attempt to identify PLC issues subject who is yet to be tested. Often that in a subject’s sworn statements. Time and information can be a basis for excellent for again, careful reviews will identify statements PLC topics. In one such case, a number of of questionable accuracy that were made police officers were tested regarding the under oath. Generally, subjects will be disappearance of valuable jewelry from their reluctant to acknowledge an inaccurate department’s evidence room. Two of the initial statement made under oath, regardless of the officers to undergo polygraph testing made fact the topic may be rather insignificant in comments to the examiner that proved the context of the issue under investigation. valuable in a subsequent exam. The officers Therefore, such items can be a productive indicated that the examiner might have starting point for development of a PLC. difficulty testing the police captain responsible for administering the department’s evidence Occasionally, investigators will room. The officers stated that if the captain surreptitiously monitor a subject’s telephone was responsible for the disappearance of the conversations, emails, instant messaging, or jewelry he would not admit to it. According to documents on the subject’s computer. The the officers, the captain had “never Reid examiner will scrutinize those materials, acknowledged doing anything inappropriate or not just for information related to the relevant ever making the slightest mistake.” The exam issue, but for potential PLC topics as examiner made note of these comments. For well. The subject may have indicated in the captain’s exam, he developed PLCs emails or instant messaging that he/she addressing whether, during his years of police strongly believes a co-worker is responsible for work, the captain had ever been careless or the incident under investigation (e.g. theft, inattentive to activities for which he was destruction of property, leak of restricted responsible. As the other officers predicted, information to the media, etc…). The subject’s the captain adamantly denied ever being communications may cite specific examples of mistaken, ever overlooking minor details, or the colleague’s behavior and statements that that his management actions were anything generated the suspicion. Yet, when but perfect. Due to the captain’s adamant questioned by investigators, the subject did of even minor oversights, the examiner not provide any information regarding easily developed PLCs on these topics. questionable behaviors or suspicion of others. Polygraph testing indicated the captain had no PLCs focused on withholding knowledge of involvement in the theft of jewelry. Later a suspicious activities, being less than 100% non-sworn employee of the city admitted to thorough in responding to all the theft of the missing jewelry and items the investigator’s questions, or having any doubts department had yet to realize were missing regarding the honesty of coworkers can be from the evidence room. very appropriate beginnings for PLC topics. In another case, a psychologist who The author worked on a number cases had interviewed and examined the personality in which investigators monitored subjects’ traits of the subject, informed the examiner telephone conversations. One subject was that the subject was exceptionally vain and heard urging colleagues to be less than candid narcissistic. The psychologist advised the with investigators about matters unrelated to examiner, that being complimentary of the the relevant issue. The subject expressed subject would ensure an amicable pretest

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interview. Despite the fact that the subject responsibility to protect the privacy of fellow had previously undergone a harsh employees. Such PLCs can be suitable in interrogation by a colleague of the examiner, exams addressing the compromise of the psychologist’s advice proved to be correct. restricted information, leaking legally The psychologist further indicated that the protected information, or any exam in which subject would be very unlikely to acknowledge personal ethics are at issue. any personal flaws or miscues. The subject was being tested regarding his claim of Police officers and some government observing a meeting between several parties officials are required to prepare numerous who should not have been in contact or even reports in which it would be unethical and/or been acquainted. Utilizing the analysis of the unlawful to include any information that was psychologist, the examiner developed a PLC not completely accurate. Due to the sheer addressing whether the subject had ever volume of reports that some officials prepare exaggerated or embellished statements to and the nature of some information contained enhance what others thought of him. Another in reports achieving complete accuracy is PLC addressed whether the subject was ever challenging. It will often be impossible for an mistaken in his observations or under- official to say with complete certainty that standing of an event. Both PLCs proved to be he/she has never generated a report that very effective. contained some false or inaccurate information. This point can often be Unfortunately, the examiner often developed into effective PLCs. Members of the receives only limited background information professions such as medical doctors, lawyers, regarding a subject. Even in the absence of accountants, psychologists, and military specific contextual information on the subject, officers work in an environment that the Reid Polygraph Technique will assess presumes strict adherence to very demanding generalities of the subject’s background in an standards of professional ethics and behavior. effort to identify issues that may be the basis As a result of the volume of activities in which of PLC development. Some stereotypical such professionals engage, it is often possible attributes often contain partial truths and to develop PLCs that focus on the missteps elements for PLC development. and cutting corners.

Individuals who work in a large office Because professional standards are an environment often form into cliques, engage in important aspect of their self-image, gossip, and circulate innuendos concerning professionals are usually reluctant to admit other employees. For examinations regarding such errors or carelessness. For example, due the improper compromise of proprietary to the myriad rules and regulations of information, revelation of personnel files, title/loan process it can be relatively simple to trading of insider financial information or develop effective PLCs around the issue of similar issues, the work environment can a whether all ethical/legal notices and warnings fruitful source of PLC topics. The occurrence were made in every real-estate transaction. of office gossip, the spreading of disparaging PLCs that address whether the subject always information, and failure to keep personal honored the privacy of clients can be useful secrets provides excellent themes for PLC for professional subjects such as accountants, development. First line supervisors, lawyers, psychologists, and even polygraph individuals who work in a human resource examiners. Business and government department, administrative assistants, personnel who regularly submit claims for personal secretaries, and those who work in reimbursement of work related expenses are financial services often possess considerable natural targets for PLCs regarding false or personal/private information. Individuals in inflated expense claims. those positions have an ethical obligation to safeguard that privileged information. Yet The Reid Examination Technique human nature often results in failure to focuses the initial stages of the pretest maintain personal information with complete interview solely on discussion of the secrecy. Excellent PLCs can often be examination relevant issue. No attempt is developed around the issue of whether the made to develop PLCs during the initial stages subject ever failed in his/her ethical of the pretest interview. Once the initial

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subject suitability information is gathered, the comment for discussion at a latter point. Reid pretest discussion is focused solely on When the time for development of PLCs discussion of the relevant examination issue. arrived, the examiner referred to the subject’s However, prior the start of the exam the initial anger. A PLC addressing whether the examiner will prepare a list (written or mental) subject had ever done anything in his life that of potential PLC issues developed from the might give others reason to believe he was review of the case facts, the subject’s dishonest or unethical was developed. background information. Which topics eventually are developed into PLCs will be As previously mentioned, the Reid dependent on the results of the pretest Technique does not initiate the actual interview. Although, pre-exam preparation for development of the PLC with the subject until selecting appropriate PLC topics is very the relevant issue has been thoroughly important, the critical juncture in the reviewed with the subject. However, it is not development of PLCs occurs during the pretest at all uncommon that subjects will make interview. statements during the discussion of the relevant issue that provide the basis for From the moment the subject is first excellent PLCs. Reid examiners are alert to encountered, the Reid examiner is alert for these openings and make either mental or potential PLC topics. The examiner is written notes of those occurrences. The attentive for statements associated with items examiner may return to the subject’s on the list of potential PLC issues that the comments when it is appropriate to begin examiner developed in preparation for the developing the PLCs. exam. It is very possible that the subject will reveal a suitable topic for a PLC, before Subjects may make comments such as he/she is even seated in the examination “You will probably never encounter a person as room. A subject may greet the examiner by honest as I am,” or “I simply do not believe in demonstrating aggravation with being tested. lying or cheating, it is not the type of person I A statement that indicates the subject is am,” or “I have never violated any security offended that his/her truthfulness or personal rules during my entire career,” or “I am a very integrity would be questioned often provides religious person and would never violate the the perfect basis for a PLC topic. If the teachings of my church,” or “Ask anyone in the relevant issue of the exam deals with the workplace, they will tell you I am the most deliberate revelation of restricted information honest person there,” or “These accusations or violation of professional ethics, a subject are the result of jealousy and desire for might comment that it is very offensive for revenge,” or “I have never lied about another someone to even consider that the subject person.” Whenever subjects make claims of would violate his/her ethical obligation. Some absolute unfailing behavior they have opened subjects might comment that he/she is the doorway for potential PLC issues. Some offended that anyone would think that he/she subjects will identify potential PLC issues by would have done something to harm or injure making statements that minimize past another person. A subject may greet the behaviors. Examples of such statements are examiner with observations of skepticism or “I may not be perfect, but I would never lie criticism of polygraph testing. Such about situation like this,” or “I have done some statements can often be developed into PLCs bad things, but I would never endanger regarding arrogance and feigning expertise or someone’s life,” or “I am not the best person knowledge that one does not possess. around, but you are talking about an entirely different things than I would ever do,” or “I When conducting an examination in would tell you if I did this. I have screwed up in an industrial espionage case, the author my life, but I always acknowledge my encountered a subject that was extremely mistakes.” The Reid examiner will set aside irate when greeted by the examiner. Once the such statements until review of the relevant examiner calmed the subject, it was exam issues is complete. established that the subject felt he was being singled out for testing because of his personal Only after the discussion of the lifestyle, which was unrelated to the relevant issue has made the subject’s position workplace. The examiner made note of that regarding all aspects of the matter under

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investigation perfectly clear, does the Reid Examiner: “How are they?” Technique begin development of the PLCs. The Reid Examination Technique does not Subject: “Well people you might think are provide the subject any explanation for honest, taken advantage of situations when addressing the PLC topic. Nor is an they can to benefit themselves.” explanation offered for making a PLC question part of the exam question list. It is Examiner: “Give me an example.” exceedingly rare that a subject will raise any objection to or even question the introduction Subject: “When people claim expenses, such of a PLC topic into the exam. This is especially as car mileage, for work related activities, true if the examiner uses one of the subject’s many of them will exaggerate their claim.” prior statements to initiate the PLC development. For example, the examiner may Examiner: “I take it, that you have never done begin the discussion by saying “George you such a thing?” told me that I will probably never test a person as honest as you. That is a very interesting Subject: “That’s right?” statement. I want to discuss that with you.” On the rare occasions when an examinee does Examiner: “So Arlene, if I ask you on the question the discussion of a PLC topic, the polygraph test whether you ever took Reid examiner will say that he/she is advantage of any situation to benefit yourself, checking to determine if there is an outside or you would answer, “no.” Is that correct?” related issue that might adversely interfere with the examination. In extremely rare Subject: “Well I guess I would.” cases, in which the subject is very resistant to the inclusion of the PLC questions in the Examiner: “That is very commendable Arlene. exam, the examiner will simply explain the You can be very proud of that. That is purpose of the PLC (Reid & Inbau, 1977). important to demonstrate the type of person Such an occurrence is most likely to arise you are. So on the test I will ask, “In your when the subject is involved in or entire life did you get anything that was knowledgeable of the legal profession. Those not coming to you?” And you will answer situations are exceedingly rare. “No.” Is that correct?”

As the discussion of the PLC topics Subject: “Well yes, I guess I would say “no.” begins, the Reid examiner will initiate to use the information developed prior to this point Examiner: “Good, I am going to ask you that in planning for the PLC development. If the on the test.” examiner identified a pretest statement(s) for PLC development, that statement(s) will be Occasionally, there will examinations introduced into the discussion at this point. that address incidents in which the motive of the perpetrator appears to be virtuous or of Examiner: “Arlene (subject), earlier you said principled intent. Such a situation requires an that I will probably never test another person adjustment to developing appropriate PLCs. as honest as you. I did understand you There was a case in which a confidential correctly, right?” internal memorandum of professional medical association was surreptitiously provided to a Subject: “Yes, I said that. I think I am more U.S. Senator. The professional association honest that most people.” opposed legislation that senator was sponsoring. The association’s plan for Examiner: “Arlene you are to be defeating the legislation was set forth in a congratulated. I have no reason to doubt what memorandum for internal distribution only. you say. I am curious as to how you concluded Shortly after the memorandum was that you are more honest than most. Is there completed, it came into the possession of the some particular event or activity?” senator who sponsored the legislation. It appeared that the person, who provided the Subject: “Well I just know how most people memorandum to the senator, believed the are.” proposed legislation to be a good public policy.

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A number of employees of the professional member of the medical profession, as an organization were administered polygraph employee of the association you agreed to exams regarding whether they provided the abide by the organization’s ethics and rules. internal memorandum to the senator. The You made it clear you were not involvement in personnel tested fell into two categories; (1) the compromise of the memorandum we executives on the memorandum distribution discussed. “Was there any time in the past list and (2) administrative personnel when you failed to adhere by the associations responsible for preparing, distributing, and standards and work rules.” archiving the memorandum. The examiner was provided minimal information regarding Subject: “Well don’t recall doing anything.” the examinees’ backgrounds. In this case the examiner began PLC development with the Examiner: “That’s commendable. I realize probable motive of the perpetrator and then there are quite a few work rules and policies at used the standards of the organization and the association. Apparently, you feel confident the medical profession as the basis for PLCs. that you have never broken any of the workplace rules.” Examiner: “It appears that person who provided this memo to Senator ______was Subject: “Yes, I think that is true.” acting with the best of intentions. The person probably believes the senator’s legislation is Examiner: “Which rule or policy do you find good for the country and thinks the the most difficult?” association’s opposition is a bad thing.” Subject: “I don’t think any are real difficult.” Subject: “Yeah, that makes sense.” Examiner: “That is remarkable and good to Examiner: “Whoever compromised the hear. In the time I spent around your office I memorandum did a bad thing for a good noticed that the lunch period here is just ½ reason. Has that ever happened to you? Did hour. That seems pretty tight, especially if you you ever do something wrong for what you need to go out for lunch. But you don’t have believed was a good reason? Did you lie to any issue with that if I understand you.” protect someone, or steal to help someone, or help someone cheat because they were a good Subject: “Yes, I think that is true.” person?” Examiner: “Great! As I said before this Subject: “I don’t think so.” incident really boils down to an ethical matter. As you are aware, one thing that makes this Examiner: “Now this is important, so I want memorandum incident so bad is that respecting you to be sure about your answer.” privacy of patients and everyone may be the most significant ethical criteria of the medical Subject: “I cannot remember ever doing profession.” something like that.” Subject: “I guess that is right.” Examiner: “That is impressive. I am going to ask you that on the test. ‘Did you ever do Examiner: “Since you came to work here, have anything wrong because you believed it you invaded anyone’s privacy or shared was the right thing to do?’ And you are personal information about one co-worker with going to answer, ‘No’, right?” others?”

Subject: “Yes, I will say ‘No’.” Subject: “No.”

Examiner: “Research shows that most people Examiner: “I didn’t think you would. Has respect the medical professions because the there ever been a time that you betrayed a ethics are very high. I am sure you would agree secret someone expected you to keep?” that the ethical standards of the medical profession and of this organization are very Subject: “I am not sure what you mean.” high. Even though you are not an actual

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Examiner: “Well, did anyone ever ask you to Examiner: “But to the best of your memory, keep a secret they shared with you, but you you were completely truthfully, right?” did not keep your promise? I am basically asking are you a reliable, dependable person.” Subject: “Yeah, I think that is right.”

Subject: “I believe I am.” Examiner: “Is that the first time you ever gave a legal statement?” Examiner: “That is good. So when I ask, ‘Did you ever betray a promise that you made?’ Subject: “Well, I appeared in court several you will answer, ‘No’, correct?” times on traffic tickets.”

Subject: “Well I guess I would.” Examiner: “Were you always truthful in what you said in those court appearances?” When the Subject has provided an official statement regarding the issue prior to Subject: “Well I explained my perspective.” the polygraph exam, whether in the form of court testimony, a disposition, or a statement Examiner: “That is good. Have you ever been to investigators, the statement can be the less than truthful in any legal statement? Were starting point for PLC development. you always truthful on any legal documents you signed or similar statements?” Examiner: “You gave a lengthy statement in the deposition. How long did it take for the Subject: “I can’t recall anytime I wasn’t.” attorney to complete the questioning?” Examiner: “That is good. I am going to ask Examinee: “I really don’t remember.” you that on the test. ‘Did you ever lie on any legal verbal or written legal statement?’ And Examiner: “It had to be several hours. Have you will answer, ‘No’.” you been able to review all your testimony?” When developing a PLC, it is important Subject: “No, not really.” to prevent the subject from making so many admissions that the subject believes he/she is Examiner: “Really, I am surprised your lawyer answering the PLC truthfully. The Reid did not have you read the record, just to Technique uses several furtive methods to double-check the accuracy.” discourage the subject from making admissions to PLC issues. Three Reid Subject: “Do you think there was something interview methods for discouraging wrong?” admissions to PLC issues are; (1) complimenting the examinee’s denials of the Examiner: “I really cannot judge that. It was PLC behavior as being impressive and a lengthy statement. The longer the statement important, (2) collecting extremely detailed is, the greater the chance for error. Was there information regarding any admitted behavior, any part where you lied?” (3) asking leading questions that assume the examinee has nothing to admit regarding the Subject: “No, I didn’t lie.” PLC issue.

Examiner: “Were you less that truthful in any Complimentary observations regarding answer?” the subject’s behavior is a powerful method of deterring admissions. In the process, it can Subject: “No, I don’t think so.” enhance rapport, while reducing likelihood of antagonizing the subject. If the subject states Examiner: “You sound somewhat unsure.” that he has lied to a superior on one occasion, the Reid examiner would the subject for Subject: “Well as you said, it was a long lying only once. The compliment will provide statement.” the message that additional admissions might remove the subject from the laudable

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category. The examiner might follow up the the subject has not engaged in prior PLC praise with a leading question. activities are a valuable technique for preventing a subject from making admissions Examiner: “It is impressive that you have been to the issue of the PLC. so truthful with superiors. It will be important to demonstrate that you only lied that one time. Examiner: “Other than that six-pack of beer So I will ask, ‘Did you ever lie to a superior when you were a college student, you never more than that one time?.’ And your stole anything else, did you?” answer will be ‘No’, correct?” Examiner: “You never cheated at anything Collecting detailed information other than high school algebra test, did you?” regarding a PLC admission is a very effective method of discouraging further admissions to Examiner: “If I ask you during the test, ‘Other the issue. The subject will assume that than that six-pack of beer, did you ever steal similar extensive explanations will be required anything?’, you would say ‘No,’ correct?” of additional admissions. Therefore the subject will be disinclined to admit additional The Reid examiner does not disparage activities. a subject who makes an admission to deter further disclosures. Criticism can offend a Examiner: “So you stole a six pack beer in subject. Offended subjects are likely to college? become resentful, defensive, and alienated. Alienation can result in anger. Anger “What was the date of that theft?” introduces an additional emotion into the exam. That additional emotion can detract “Where did you steal the beer from?” from the subject’s focus on truth or deception and adversely impact the examination. “What is the address of that Seven-Eleven Antagonizing a subject also is likely to make a store?” posttest interrogation more difficult and interrogation success less probable. “What type of beer was it?” The development of appropriate and “What would have been the cost of the six-pack effective PLCs is critical to the success of the if you had purchased it?” examinations utilizing PLC testing techniques. The Reid Polygraph Examination Technique “How did you get the beer of the store without employs a distinct process to ensure that the being caught?” PLCs used for the collection of test data will support the validity of the examination “Where did you take the six-pack?” results. The development process begins by analyzing the case facts to determine the “Did you drink all the beer yourself?” probable motive for the behavior that will be the relevant issue of the exam. Once the “With whom did you share the beer?” apparent motive is established, the Reid examiner will develop a list of possible PLC The subject will simply not want to topics. That list will consist of past acts of answer similar detailed questions again wrongdoing that resulted from the same or regarding other thefts. Denying further thefts similar motivation as what instigated the will be the easiest option. relevant issue of the exam. The Reid examiner will then analyze the background information Leading statements/questions are also on the subject for indications of past behavior used by Reid examiners to suppress or statements by the subject that could be the admissions to PLC issues. Just as leading basis for PLC topics. Once the examination statements that assume the subject’s prior session begins, the Reid examiner listens misconduct by the subject are an effective intently to the statements of the subject for interview method of eliciting admissions on topics that can be used for PLCs. Reid relevant issues, the opposite is also true. examiners begin pretest discussion of PLC Leading statements/questions that assume topics only after the interviewing on the

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examination relevant issue(s) is completed. admission to discourage admissions. When possible, statements of the subject Similarly, leading questions/statements are made prior to or during the pretest interview used by the examiner to constrain admissions are used to introduce the PLC issue. Reid to the PLC topics and to establish an answer examiners do not criticize the subject to that is probably a lie or of dubious accuracy. suppress admissions to the PLC issue. Rather The Reid method of PLC development is time praise that assumes a very limited number of consuming, tedious, and requires past PLC actions is employed to discourage considerable analytic skill and proficient admissions. The subject is questioned in great interviewing. But examination validity will detailed question regarding any PLC diminish significantly absent those efforts.

75 Polygraph, 2012, 41(2) Reid Method: Developing PLC Questions

References

Blalock, B., Nelson, R., Handler, M. & Shaw, P. (2012). The empirical basis for the use of directed lie comparison questions in diagnostic & screening polygraph. APA Magazine, 45.

Iacona, W. G. (2009). Forensic lie detection. Journal of Forensic Psychology, 1.

Krapohl, D., & Sturm, S., (2002). Terminology reference for the science of psychophysiological detection of deception, Polygraph, 31.

Reid, J. E., & Inbau, F. E. (1977). Truth and Deception: The Polygraph Technique. Baltimore/London: Williams and Wilkins.

Senter, S., Weatherman, D., Krapohl, D., & Horvath, F. (2010). Psychological Set or Differential Salience: A proposal for reconciling theory and terminology in polygraph testing. Polygraph, 39.

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