The Extraordinary Renditions of Maher Arar and Abdullah Almalki

Ryerson University Digital Commons @ Ryerson

Theses and dissertations

1-1-2009 The extraordinary renditions of Maher Arar and Abdullah Almalki : Orientalism, Islamophobia, and the erosion of citizenship and human rights Ian Geriant Lane Ryerson University

Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.ryerson.ca/dissertations Part of the Political Theory Commons

Recommended Citation Lane, Ian Geriant, "The extraordinary renditions of Maher Arar and Abdullah Almalki : Orientalism, Islamophobia, and the erosion of citizenship and human rights" (2009). Theses and dissertations. Paper 579.

This Major Research Paper is brought to you for free and open access by Digital Commons @ Ryerson. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Ryerson. For more information, please contact [email protected]. r

THE EXTRAORDINARYRENDITIONSOF MAHER ARARAND ABDULLAH ALMALKI:ORIENTALISM,ISLAMOPHOBIA,AND THEEROSIONOF

CITIZENSHIPAND HUMAN RIGHTS

IanGeraintLane,BA,UniversityofPrinceEdwardIsland,2008

A MajorResearchPaper

presentedtoRyersonUniversity

inpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeof

MasterofArts

intheProgramof

ImmigrationandSettlementStudies

Toronto,Ontario,Canada,2009

IanG.Lane2009

RYBR98NUMWKWTYLIBRARY Author'sDeclaration

IherebydeclarethatIamthesoleauthorthis ofmajorresearchpaper.

IauthorizeRyersonUniversitytolendthispapertootherinstitutionsorindividualsfor thepurposeofscholarlyresearch.

Signature

IfurtherauthorizeRyersonUniversitytoreproducethispaperbyphotocopyingorby othermeans,intotalorinpart,attherequestofotherinstitutionsorindividualsfor the purposeofscholarlyresearch.

Signature

11 THEEXTRAORDINARYRENDITIONSOFMAHER ARAR AND ABDULLAH

ALMALKI:ORIENTALISM,ISLAMOPHOBIAAND THEEROSIONOF

CITIZENSHIPAND HUMAN RIGHTS

IanGeraintLane

MasterofArts,2009

ImmigrationandSettlementStudies

RyersonUniversity

ABSTRACT

Extraordinaryrenditionhasgainedsignificantnotorietyasaninhumanepracticeagainst

suspectedterroristsinthe"waronterror."Itisahighlycontroversialinitiativewhereby

manycriticscontendthatthepurposeofsuchrenditionsistosubjectthesuspectsto

aggressivemethodsofpersuasionsuchastortureandotherhumanrightsviolationsthat

areillegalinWesternliberaldemocracies.TheCIAimplementedtheextraordinary

renditionprogram,butotherWesternstateshaveparticipatedintherenderingofMuslims

totheCIA'sglobalwebofsecretprisons.Canadawasinvolvedwiththerenditionsof

twoMuslims-Canadians,MaherArarandAbdullahAlmalki.Thispaperwilldiscusstheir

respectiverenditionsandtheideologicalmachinationsthatfueltheextraordinary

renditionprogramusingEdwardSaid'stheoryofOrientalismanditsrelationshipwith

Islamophobia.A lexicaldiscourseanalysiswillbeintegratedintothepapertoevaluate

negativeMuslimidentityconstructioninCanadapost-9/11.

Keywords:MaherArar,AbdullahAlmalki,TheRoyalCanadianMountedPolice,

ExtraordinaryRendition,waronterror,Orientalism,Islamophobia,Muslims.

in Acknowledgements

IwouldliketothankDr.AnverSaloojeeforhisguidanceinthisresearchprojectandfor

hissupportthroughoutthedurationoftheISSprogramme.IwouldalsoliketothankDr.

TariqAmin-KhanforhisvaluablefeedbackonmyMRP.Iam especiallyappreciativeof

Mr.AbdullahAlmalkifordonatinghisvaluabletimetothisproject.Iamalsogratefulfor

thesupportIreceivedfrommyfamilyandmy extendedfamilyduringmy studies.

Finally,IwishtoextendamassivethankyoutomywifeSusanforherunwavering

supportduringpast the yearandespeciallyintheresearchofthisproject.

IV TableofContents

Introduction 1

Methodology 7

TheoreticalFramework

Orientalism 10

Islamophobia 14

LiteratureReview 20

HumanRightsConcerns 26

DiscourseAnalysis 35

CanadianNewsprintReportage 39

PhaseOne 40

PhaseTwo 44

PhaseThree 47

PhaseFour:Arar 49

CaseStudies:MaherArarandAbdullahAlmalki 54

Conclusion 70

Bibliography 73 September11markedadecisivebreakinrespectforhumanrights.Inthenameofa

"justwar"againstterrorism,manyinfringementsweresuddenlypermitted.The

defendersofcivillibertieshavegoodreasontobeworried.Thegeneraltrendofour societytowardsincreasingrespectfortheindividualandindividualfreedomshasbeen broughttoabrutalhalt.Andthereiseveryindicationthatwearenowdriftingtowards

whatappearslikemoreandmoreaparanoidpolicestate.

IgnacioRamonet,LeMondeDiplomatique

LJ Atitscore,thismajorresearchpaperwillexaminetheextraordinaryrenditionprogram

andtheideologiesthatfuelitsexistence.Thispaperwillspecificallyinvestigatetwo

naturalizedMuslim-Canadians:MaherArarandAbdullahAlmalki,eachofwhomwere

wrongfullyincarceratedinSyriaduetotheexplicitinvolvementofUnitedStates

intelligenceandimmigrationagenciesinconjunctionwiththedirectcooperationofthe

RoyalCanadianMountedPolice(RCMP)andtheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceService

(CSIS).Accordingly,itisimportanttoconsiderhowthesecaseshaveaffectedthe

settlementexperiencesoftherespectiveindividualsaswellastheMuslim-Canadian

communityingeneral,whichhasbecomeincreasinglymarginalizedwithgreater

emphasistosecuritizationpoliciesandovertnegativeidentityconstructionbythemedia

inCanadaafterSeptember11,2001.Moreover,thisresearchpaperwillevaluatehow

Canada'sinvolvementwithprovidingintelligenceonArarandAlmalkitoU.S.

authorities,withnosafeguardsastotheirtreatment,affectsCanada'sabilitytoprotect

rightsassociatedwithcitizenship.

Thisexaminationandanalysisofextraordinaryrendition,theviolationof

citizenshipandhumanrightshappensinaliberaldemocraticsocietywhereitappearsthat

boththestateandthedominantsectionofthepopulaceiscomplicitintheseactions.To

getasenseofhowthishappens,thisresearchemploysEdwardSaid'stheoryof

Orientalism,andattemptstogetabetterunderstandingofthephenomenonof

IslamophobiaaswellasadeeperunderstandingofhowMuslimshavebeenmadethe

"other"sinceSeptember11,2001.

Thisresearchpaperwillbedividedintofourmainchapters.Thefirstchapterwill

identifythetheoreticallensinwhichthe researchwillbeevaluated.SinceSeptember11, 2001,theWesternworldhastargetedMuslimsastheprimary"enemycombatants"inthe

"waronterror"(Grey,2006,p. 15).Therefore,EdwardSaid'stheoryofOrientalism,

whichsharesasymbioticrelationshipwiththeemergingformofracismknownas

Islamophobia,willbeemployedtosituateMuslimspost-9/11asthe"other."

Islamophobiaisaformofreligiousracialprofilingthathasincreaseddramaticallysince

September11byWesterninstitutionsthathaveovertlytargetedMuslimsandArabsas

potentialthreatsliberaldemocracies(Fekete,2004).Thetermanditsramificationswill

beaddressedinasubsectionofthispaper.Thesecondchapterwillreviewliteratureon

theextraordinaryrenditionprogramanditsinfringementofinternationallawsandhuman

rights.Thisliteraturereviewwillprovideacontextualunderstandingoftheprogramand

linkitsconnectiontothefirstchapteronracismdirectedatMuslimsfromtheOrientalism

andIslamophobiatheoreticallens.A lexicaldiscourseanalysisinvestigatingMuslim

identitypoliticsintheimmediateaftermathof9/11fromCanada'stwonational

newspapers,theGlobeand MailandtheNationalPost,willcomprisethethirdchapterof

thepapertoillustratetheincreasedmarginalizationofMuslims.Thefourthchapterwill

involvecasestudyexaminationsoftwoCanadian-Muslims:MaherArarandAbdullah

AlmalkiwhowererenderedtoSyriain2002.Thissectionwillinterprettheinternational f

law andhumanrightsconcernsthatthepaperdiscussesin theliteraturereview.

IthasbecomeapparentthattheSeptember11,2001terroristattacksintheUnited

Statesinducedamajorripple effectthathaveforcedWesternnationstoadopt

increasinglystringentpolicies.Foreignaffairsrelationships,defencestrategies,and

securitypolicieshavebeendramaticallyalteredtoensuretheprotectionofstates'

individualself-interests,andthesafetyoftheirrespectivecitizens.Inaddition,Western governmentsattitudespertainingtoimmigrationhavebeenaffectedbygrowingsecurity

concerns,whichhavemanifestedingreaterrestrictionstomigrantsofcertainfaithsand

countriesoforigin.IntheaftermathoftheSeptember11attacks,ArabMuslimmigrants

haveparticularlybeensubjectedtoracialprofilingatvariousportsofentrythroughout

theworldduetotheirperceivedassociationwithactsofterrorism.Consequently,the

UnitedStateshasledthechargeagainstIslamwithits"waronterror",whichhas

replacedtheColdWarintheheartsandmindsofpeopleacrosstheglobe(Welch,2006).

Ineffect,the Islamicworldhasbeenreducedtothetwenty-firstcentury'sracial"other"

fromaEurocentricperspective,butthisisnotanewphenomenon,as the scholarwho

begantopopularizethenotionofa"civilizationalclash"andMuslimsasthe"other,"

claimsthatthedivisionbetweenIslamicandWesternstateshasbeeninplacefor

centuries(Huntington,1996).

The9/11attackswereunequivocallyorchestratedbytheIslamistextremist

terroristcellalQaeda,ledbyOsamabinLaden(Grey,2006;Lewis,2003).However,

insteadoffocusingitsmightonalQaeda,AmericanPresidentGeorgeW.Bushandhis

HawkishadministrationinturnviewedtheentireIslamicworldasrepresentativeofal

Qaeda'scorefundamentalistvalues.AccordingtoBernardLewis,theAmerican

inferenceissomewhatlogicalas"mostMuslimsarenotfundamentalists,most

fundamentalistsarenotterrorists,butmostpresent-dayterroristsareMuslimsand

proudlyidentifythemselvesassuch"(2003,p.137).Consequently,theBush

AdministrationspecificallytargetedArabsandMuslimsastheprimary"enemy

combatants"inthe"WaronTerror"(McCoy,2006,p.171).Bush'sflirtationwiththe

ideaofananti-MuslimcrusadehasledtotheWestdistinguishingbetween"good" Muslimsfrom"bad"Muslims,buttheendresultisunmistakable:"Islammust be

quarantinedandthedevilexorcizedfromitbyaMuslimcivilwar"(Mamdani,2004,p.

24).America'svengeancehasbeenexactedinmilitaryinvasions,psychological

onslaughts,andreligiousposturing.However,theUnitedStatesimmensepoliticaland

economicinfluencehasforcedotherdevelopednationstocomplywithitswitch-hunt.

FormerU.S.SecretaryofStateCondoleezaRicewarnedEuropeanheadsofstatethat

weretheytochallengeAmericananti-terroristtactics,theircriticismscoulddamage

effortstoprotecttheirowncitizensfromattacks(DimentoandGeis,2006,p.61).

Consequently,in2003,nationssuchastheUnitedKingdomandAustraliaeagerly

joinedthe"coalitionofthe willing,"whichinvadedIraq,whiletraditionalallyand

neighbourCanadareluctantlyjoinedinitspartialparticipationthroughits"peace

making"missioninAfghanistan(Ljunggren,2003).However,Canadaisnotentirely

absolvedfromparticipatingincertaincontentiousaspectsoftheproxybattleagainst

terrorism.TheRCMP andCSISknowinglysurrenderedvitalinformationonCanadian-

MuslimssuspectedofhavinglinkswithalQaedatotheU.S.FederalBureauof

Investigation(FBI)andtheCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)(Whitaker,2008).Asa

result,MaherArarandAbdullahAlmalkibecamevictimsofthe"waronterror"and

subsequentlyheldintheCIA'swebofsecretprisons,knownas"BlackSites"throughout

theworld(AmnestyInternational,2006).Ithasbecomeabundantlyclearthatvarious

institutionsintheUnitedStatesandCanadaabusedArar'sandAlmalki'sbasichuman

rightsandcitizenshipprivilegeswiththeirillegalconfinements.

Recently,theCIA'ssecretprisonshavebecomehotlydebatedsubjectsinthe

mainstreammediawiththeemergenceoftortureclaimsatfacilitieslikeGuantanomo Bay,Cuba;AbuGhraib,Iraq;BagramAirForceBaseandthe"DarkPrison"in

Afghanistan(Worthington,2007;Sadat, 2006).However,ithasalsobecomeapparent

thattheprisonsrepresentsignificantcomponentsofthehighlycontentiousCIAprogram

knownasextraordinaryrendition.

ExtraordinaryrenditionswerefirstdevelopedbytheClintonAdministrationin

1995asamethodtocaptureIslamistmilitantsandsendthemtothirdpartycountrieslike

Egyptwheretheywouldbetorturedandpunishedfortheir dissent(Worthington,2007,p.

215;Mayer,2005).TheBushAdministrationinheritedtheextraordinaryrendition

program,butincreaseditsuseexponentiallyintheimmediateaftermathof9/11.Sixdays

aftertheSeptember11attacks,PresidentBushgavetheCIAbroadauthorizationto

disruptterroristactivity,includingpermissiontokill,capture,anddetainmembersofal

Qaedaanywhereintheworld(Priest,2005).However,thebreadthofthesearchforal

Qaedaoperativesexpandedtoincludethosewithsuspectedtiestotheterroristcell.Inan

advancedcommunicationage,thiscametoincludemanyMuslimmenandwomenlike

ArarandAlmalkiwhoemergedasinnocentvictimsofthe"war onterror."Nevertheless,

itisimportanttoconsiderthatArarandAlmalkiweredeemedexceptionalpersonsof

interestbyintelligenceagenciesinheightened a nationalsecurityage.Theconcernwith

theArarandAlmalkicasesisthatthestate'sroletoprotectitscitizensoverrodethe

protectionofcertainindividuals'rights,whichisproblematic.

Extraordinaryrenditionhasgainedsignificantnotorietyasaninhumanepractice

andanaffronttointernationallawandbasichumanrightsthe in"waronterror."Itis

clearthattheprogramcircumventsinternationalconventionsandchallengesaspectsof

theAmericanConstitutionandCanada'sCharterofRightsand Freedoms.Moreover,the program'sethosisimbeddedinIslamophobia.Asaresult,ArabMuslimshavebecome

thede-factorenderedtargetswhilebeingsimultaneouslyconstructedastheracially

inferior"Other".Therefore,extraordinaryrenditionmustbe examinedusingEdward

Said'stheoryofOrientalismalongwithahumanrightsframework.Moreover,itis

importanttoconsiderhowthebinaryconstructionand/ordeconstructionofthe"other"

workswithinthecontextofidentitypolitics,governmentpolicies,andnotionsof

institutionalracism. Methodology

Themethodologicalcomponentofmypaperwillinvolvetwoparts.Thefirst

methodologicalpartinvolvesadiscourseanalysisoftwoCanadiannationalnewspapers'

coverageofMuslimsintheimmediateaftermathofSeptember11,2001.Thisdiscourse

analysiswillspecificallylookatarticlespublishedintheGlobeandMailandthe

NationalPost,fromSeptember12,2001toNovember1,2002,whichistheapproximate

datewhentheCanadianpublicbecameawarethatMaherArarwasrenderedbythe

UnitedStatestoSyria(McCoy,2006).Itisimportanttoexaminehowtheprintmedia's

reportageusingadverselanguagecannegativelyconstructvisibleminorityidentities,as

thisnodoubthasseriousramificationsfor ethnicminoritygroups'settlementexperiences

inCanada,andinthisparticularcase,Muslims.

Thesecondmethodologicalcomponentofthemajorresearchpaperwill

investigatespecificrenditioncasestudiesofMaherArarandAbdullahAlmalki,which

willbesupportedthroughtheinvolvementofakeyinformantinterview.Qualitative

analyseswillbeconductedinregardstoMaherArarandAbdullahAlmalki,whowere

heldcaptiveinSyriain2002.Thereisasignificantamountofmaterialpertainingto

Arar'srendition; therefore,secondarysourceswillbeevaluatedinhiscasestudy.

However,AbdullahAlmalkihasgraciouslyprovidedhisconsenttobeakeyinformant

forthisresearch;therefore,theresearchpertainingtoAlmalkiwilldrawfromsecondary

sourcesandhisinterview.Almalki'sparticipationinthisresearchwillshednewlighton

MuslimsettlementexperiencesinCanadapost-9/11.

Nevertheless,thesamplesizeforthekeyinformantinterviewisextremelysmall,

whichisinpartduetothelimitedavailabilityandwillingnessofrenderedvictimsto participateinresearchprojectsofthisnature.Moreover,thesecondaryliteratureofthe

specificcasestudysubjectsdrawsfrompreviousinterviews;therefore,furtherinterviews

mayberepetitiousinnature.Regardless,itisimportanttoconsiderthedynamicofthe

keyinformantinterviewwith AbdullahAlmalki.Hisinterrogationandtortureexperience

inSyriaundoubtedlyshapeshisperceptionsandexperiences.Moreover,theresearcher's

opinionsandpositionmayaffecttheresearchbasedontheirexperiences,whichinturn

mayimpactthekeyinformant.Therefore,theinterviewwillbeconductedinsemi-

structuredformattoallowforvariablesinthequestionsandresponses. j

ItisclearthatthecircumstancesofArar'sandAlmalki'srenditionsareunique; \

however,theyeachpresentsomestartlingsimilarities.Bothhavehadpublicinquiriesthat j

i havefoundtheminnocentoftheirsuspectedterroristconnections.Theinquirieshavealso {

concludedthatCanadianofficialscarelesslysurrenderedinformationtoAmerican \

agenciesthatledtotheirrespectivetorturesinSyria(ArarCommission,2006). \

Therefore,itwillbeimportanttodiscernfromtheinquiriesthehumanrightsand ?

internationallegalviolationsthatoccurredwiththeirrenderings.Moreover,whatwasthe j

I roleofthestateintheirrespectivecases?Moreimportantly,asArabMuslimimmigrants, \

howhavetheirrespectiveexperiencesaffectedtheirsettlementexperiencesinCanada, :|

andwhathavebeentheeffectsonthegreaterCanadian-Muslimcommunity? J

However,itisimportanttonotethattheextraordinaryrenditioncasesinvolving

MaherArarandAbdullahAlmalkiareonlyillustrativeoftendenciesofinstitutionalized

racismandIslamophobia,andmaynotbeentirelyrepresentativeofwidespread

IslomophobicracismdirectedatallCanadian-Muslims.Thepublicinquiriesconducted

byJusticesDennisO'ConnorandFrankIacobuccihavediscussedtheconfirmed renditionsoffourMuslim-Canadians:Arar,Almalki,AhmadAbou-Elmaati,and

MuayyedNureddin.Furthermore,recentreportshavesurfacedpertainingtoother

Canadian-Muslims,namelyOmarKhadr,BenamarBenatta,andAbousfianAbdelrazik,

thathavebeenprecariouslydetainedduetotheirsuspectedtieswithalQaeda.

Nevertheless,thenumberofconfirmedrenditioncasesofMuslims-Canadiansissmall;

therefore,itisimportanttoconsidertheextentinwhichgeneralizationscanbeinferred

basedonthelimitednumberofcasesinCanada.Consequently,both ArarandAlmalki

mustbedeemedasexceptionalcasestoavoidlarger generalizations;however,the

impactsoftheircaseshavehadseriousramificationsfortheCanadian-Muslim

community,whichwillbeaddressedlaterinthepaper. TheoreticalFramework:Orientalism

Historically,discoursesaroundracehaveworkedtoproduceideologiespertainingtothe

constructionofthe"other"(Holt,2000).Fromcolonialism'sinitialstageswhereslavery

wasemployedtoconquerperceived"uncivilized"racesforthebenefitofEuropean

expansion,individualsfromthe"other"categoryhaverepresentedasignificant

marginalizedsocialfragment.Interestglobal inexpansionencouragedEuropeanstogain

andsubsequentlymaintainpowerbyconstructingahierarchicalsystemwhere"race

becametheframeworkofrankedcategoriessegmentingthehumanpopulation"(Sanjek,

1994,p.l).Throughsystemsofracialclassification,subjugatedindividualswereconfined

toparticularidentitiesthatmaintainedtheirinferiorrankintheengineeredsocialorder

(OmiandWinant,1994).Despiteeffortstoeradicateideasthatencouragebothbiological

andculturalinferiority,racecontinuestoinfluencethe"socialorderingofperceptions

andpoliciesinthepervasiveracismthathasplaguedtheglobefollowingthe1500s"

(Sanjek,1994,p.1).Currently,theideasaroundraceandracismhavebecomeprominent

in thedivisionbetweenArabianIslamicnationsandEurocentricsocietiesinthepost-

September11,2001era.

Giventhattheextraordinaryrenditionprogramtargetsspecificethno-religiousJ

menandwomenofMiddleEasternorigins,itisimpossibletoignoreEdwardSaid's f

seminaltheoryofOrientalism.SaiddiscussesEurope'sconstructionofMiddleEastern

identitiesasthesupposedlyinferior"other."AccordingtoSaid,"Orientalismisastyleof

thoughtbaseduponanontologicalandepistemologicaldistinctionmadebetweenthe

'Orient'andthe'Occident.'Thusaverylargemasswriters of haveacceptedthebasic

distinctionbetweenEastandWestasthestartingpointfor elaboratetheoriesconcerning

10 theOrient"(Said,1978,pp.2-3).Moreover,Orientalismcanserveasa"collectivenotion

identifying'us'Europeansas againstall'those'non-Europeans,andindeeditcanbe

arguedthatthemajorcomponentinEuropeancultureispreciselywhatmadethatculture

hegemonicbothinandoutside Europe:theideaofEuropeanidentityasasuperioronein

comparisonwithallnon-Europeanpeoplesandcultures"(Said,1978,p.7).Said's

discussionwaslargelysituatedinEurope'scolonialexpansionphase;however,the

theorycanbeinterpolatedinacontemporaryframeworkwhenexaminingthedivision

betweenIslamicandChristianstatesintheearlytwenty-firstcentury.

ItisimportanttoconsiderthatOrientalismreflectsanideologythatismoreabout

Europeanidentityincomparisontoothergroups,whichismanifestedthroughthenotion

thatinordertodefineself,onemustfirstdefinetheother.Eurocentricidentitiesthus

becomethereferencepointonwhichtocompareandconstructallotheridentities.In

essence,theemergingnotionofwhiteness,anditsvariousattributessuchasprivilege,is

perceivedasthestandardthatisusedincomparisontoallotherraces.Therefore,

constructingtheOrientsaysmoreaboutEuropeans'senseofidentitythanitdoesabout

Afro-Asiaticcultures.Asaresult,thiscanbeconstruedasgeneralizingothercultures

basedontheuniversalizingofEuropeanculturetoall"non-Europeans."European

culture,whichisperceivedasthedominantculturegroup,exercisesthispervasive

structuringofuniversalismtoreinforcespecificideologiesinordertolegitimate

economic,political,andsocialhierarchiesthatimpactracialdivisions,whichclearly

illustratestheirprivilegeincomparisontootherraces(Teelucksingh,RacialDiscourse,

January20,2009).

11 TheextraordinaryrenditionprogramisalmostexclusivelyappliedtoMuslimsin

anefforttodemonizeandpaintMuslimmenandboysaspotential"terrorists"or"enemy

combatants,"whichisimbeddedinthenotionofthe"other."Moreover,itisimportantto

considerthattheimplementationoftheprogrambytheUnitedStates,anditsWestern

allies,servestoprojecttheideaofwhitenessintheformofIslamophobia.Inobserving

thesedevelopments,onecaninvoketheideasofSaidtoidentifythetreatmentof

Muslimsinthepost-9/11periodasOrientalistinnature.Therefore,theextraordinary

renditionprogramcanthusbeinterpretedasaformofnewOrientalism,asEurocentric

nationsliketheUnitedStatesandCanadahavejustifiedtheimplementationofthe

program,whichviewsMuslimsasenemiesandfostersthe"us"versus"them"ideology,

drawingtheirideologicalwellspringfromSamuelHuntington'sworkonthenewpost

ColdWarthreattothehegemonyoftheUnitedStates(Huntington,1996).Saidargued,

"TheOrientalwaslinkedthustotheelementsinWesternsociety(delinquents,theinsane,

women,thepoor)havingincommonanidentitybestdescribedaslamentablyalien...

SincetheOrientalwasamemberofasubjectrace,hehadtobesubjected:itwasthat

simple"(Said,2007,p.47).Said'sideascanbeeintheircontemporaryapplication

throughtheutterancesofUnitedStatesPresidentGeorgeW.Bush,whoina2003speech

outlinedhisadministration'sviewofwhatcanonlybeconsideredasthe"Orient":

Eventsduringthepasttwoyearshavesetbeforeustheclearestofdivides:

betweenthosewhoseekorder,andthosewhospreadchaos;betweenthose

whoworkforpeacefulchange,andthosewhoadoptthemethodsof

gangsters;betweenthosewhohonortherightsofman,andthosewho

deliberatelytakethelivesofmenandwomenandchildrenwithoutmercyor

shame.Betweenthesealternativesthereisnoneutralground(Hanson,

2009).

12 Consequently,sinceSeptember11,2001,Westerngovernmentsandinfluential

institutionssuchasthenewsprintmediahaveincreasinglycometoviewMiddleEastern

Muslimmenandwomenasarchaicradicalsavagesthatposesignificantthreatsto

democraticstates.Asaresult,theeconomic,political,andmilitarypowerthatthe

WesternworldpossesshasgravelyinfluencedthemannerinwhichtheMiddleEastis

currentlyviewed,whichhasenabledEurocentrismtoperpetuateandboldlyimplement

gruesomeprogramslikeextraordinaryrendition.Asaresult,ArabMuslimsinparticular

areconfrontedwithcomplexmobilityandsettlementchallengesinWesternstates,as

theyareconsistentlyportrayedinaccordancewithSaid'sdefinitionofthe"other."

13 Islamophobia

ThedivisionbetweenIslamandChristendomisnotanewphenomenonthataroseatthe

endoftheColdWar,assomehavesuggested.Europeanshavetraditionallyviewedthe

IslamicworldasbarbaricanduncivilizedsincetheCrusadesbetweentheeleventhand

thirteenthcenturies(Lewis,2003,pp.47-50;Huntington,1996,209-212). pp. Mahmood

Mamdani(2004,p.25)citeshistorianTomazMastnakwhoargues,"WhenChristian

societybecameconsciousofitselfthroughmobilizationforholywar...anessential

momentinthearticulationofself-awarenessoftheChristiancommonwealthwasthe

constructionoftheMuslimenemy."Moreover,"theperceptionofIslamasnotonlyan

historicalbutacontinuingthreattoChristendomisattributabletostereotypesthatsuggest

thattheArab/Muslimexistsinamannerdevoidofspace,time,andhistory;thathe/sheis

effectivelyde-historicized,andunchangingandwithoutprogress"(Muscati,2002,p.

135).However,constructingtheIslamicworldinthetwenty-firstcenturyasthe"other"

canbeidentifiedwithintheemergingtermIslamophobia,anidentificationofMuslimsas

the"other"inWesternstatessinceSeptember11,2001.

WesternmediahavetakenthenotionofIslamophobiaandincreaseditsreportage

onIslaminnegativefashion.Therefore,theproliferationofIslamophobiahasledtothe

perpetuationofinstitutionalracismtowardsMuslimsandArabsinWesternstates.

SivanandanarguesthatIslamophobiaisaformofzeno-racismthatcombinedwith

institutionalracismcreatesarecipeforconflagration(Sivanadan,2006).Itisimportantto

notethatalthoughIslamophobiaandracismareinterconnected,thereareimportant

differences.Islamophobiaistheracialprofilingofanindividualbasedontheirreligion,

whereasracismisbasedonprejudiceagainstone'sphenotypicalcharacteristics.

14 Nevertheless,thisnotionofintersectionalitywherebyraceandreligionmeettoproducea

kindofextremeprofilingthathasledtoprogramslikeextraordinaryrendition.The

proliferationofIslamophobicrhetorichasledtothedemonizationofMuslimsandArabs,

whichmakessuccessfulintegrationfortherespectivegroupstenuousinWestern

societies.

Whatmakestheextraordinaryrenditionprogramanevenmorecontentioustopic

isitssymbioticrelationshipwithIslamophobia.ThereasoningthatfuelstheWest's

justificationfortheextraordinaryrenditionprogramisfearofIslamanditsMuslim

followers.Consequently,thetermIslamophobiahasbeenusedtodescribeWestern

sentimentstowardsIslam.IslamophobiahasbeendescribedasafearorhatredofIslam

anditsadherentsthattranslatesintoindividual,ideological,andsystematicformsof

oppressionanddiscrimination(Zine,2006,p.239).Naturally,sinceSeptember11,2001

thetermhasbeenemployedwithgreaterfrequencywherebyithasbecomepartofthe

vernacular.IneffectitservesasatermfortheWesttoconstructaracial"other,"which

oncemoreiscongruentwithEdwardSaid'sOrientalismtheory.

AccordingtoSheridan(2006,p.317)"thefirstknownprintedusageoftheword

IslamophobiaappearedinapublishedperiodicalintheUnitedStatesinFebruary1991.

Thetermisfunctionallysimilartoxenophobiaandoffersausefulshorthandwayof

referringtoadreadorhatredofIslamandthereforeafearordislikeofMuslims."

Islamophobia'slinkwithxenophobiaisanimportantconsiderationinthediscourse.

Gardner,Karakaolus,andLuchtenberg(2008,p.121)usethetermIslamophobiatorefer

toanirrationaldistrust,fearorrejectionoftheMuslimreligion,andthosewhoare

perceivedasMuslim.TheyinferthatIslamophobiaisasubcategoryofxenophobiaand

15 closelyrelatedtoanti-Semitismasanotherrejectionofanethno-religiousgroup.This

wasparticularlyevidentwiththeincreasednumberofhate crimesdirectedatMuslims,

andthoseperceivedtobeMuslimsfollowing9/11wherebytheattackswerepredicated

onphenotypicalorbiologicalcharacteristics.Consequently,thegrowthinIslamophobia

hasbeenjustifiedthroughtheracialprofilingofmenwithMiddleEasternfeatures,which

isnotonlylegaltoday,itisfullyembracedbymanyasanacceptablepricetopayfor

national security(Elia,2006,p.156).

Sheridan(2006,p.319)alsocitestheseminalworkconductedbyAllenand

Nielsenin2002wherebytheyproposethattheperceivedincreaseinxenophobiaandfear

ofMuslimsnotedthroughoutmanypartsoftheEuropeanUnionrepresentedan

intensificationofpre-existingsentiment,whichexacerbatedlatentfeelingsoffearand

vulnerabilityandaperceivedthreatofthe"enemywithin."Iftheextraordinaryrendition

programisundeniablylinkedwithIslamophobia,thenonecaninferthatWesternnations

whorenderMuslimsareinfactguiltyofxenophobictendencies.

TheconstructionoftheIslamicworldasthe "other"isvitallyimportantfor

understandingIslamophobia.Isitrighttolargelypersecuteanentirereligioussectbased

onthecrimesofafewradicalmembers?Thisleadstogeneralizationsofethno-religious

groups,whichperpetuatetheirmarginalization.TheideologybehindIslamophobiahas

ledtoalarmismthatisconcernedwiththeIslamicthreat,whichIslamposestothenon-

Muslimworld.Non-Muslimsimplificationinvolvesmanyobviousissueswhereby

terrorismisseenasanactivitypracticedby mostMuslims,butcanbealsobeconstrued

asbelievingthatmostterroristsareMuslims(Halliday,1999,p.892).Theattacknowis

againstnotIslamasafaithbutMuslimsasapeople,thelattergroupingtogetherall,

16 especiallyimmigrants,whomightbecoveredbytheterm.Equally,theIslamophobic

attackisagainststates,whichmayorhavebeenamongthemostsecularintheworld,

suchasIraq.Therefore,Islamophobialeadstonegativestereotypingwherebytheenemy

isnotafaithor a culture,butapeople(Halliday,1999,p.898).

TheproliferationofthetermIslamophobiacanbeattributedtotheWest's

sensationalmediarepresentationsofIslam."Thesilencemaintainedbythemedia

regardingMuslimsuntiltheyareperceivedasathreatmeansthatMuslimsbecome

visibleasapeopleonlywhentheyrepresentthreatsasMuslims"(Gottschalkand

Greenberg,2008,p.143).ThishasledtothewrongfulassumptionthatIslamis

monolithicandthatallMuslimshaveterroristleanings.Thisiscompoundedwhenthe

mediaincorrectlyrepresentsMuslims.AccordingtoformerUnitedNationsSecretary-

GeneralKofiAnnan(December7,2004),Islamhasbeendistortedandtakenoutof

context,withparticularactsorpracticesbeingtakentorepresentortosymbolizearich

andcomplexfaith,whichisobviously problematic.Thisisparticularlyevidentin

Westernmotionpictures."WheneverMuslimsarerepresented,theyinvariablyappeared

intheroleofvillains—andalwaysasforeigners—Arabs,notArabAmericans.This

uniquedistancingisbestunderstoodwhenonethinksofotherreligiousminoritiesinthe

UnitedStateswho,whilerecognizedasminorities,arenotnecessarilyperceivedas

foreigners"(Elia,2006,p.156).

Tocompoundthematter,theUnitedStatesandotherWesterncountriesare

currentlywitnessingagrowthinthenumberofMuslimresidents,butunfortunatelythey

arealsoexperiencingincreasedIslamophobictendencies.Gardneretal.citeanAustralian

newspaperarticlethatclearlydemonizesMuslimsintheaftermathof9/11."Unlike

17 Mohammed,Christdidnotslaughterunbelievers,executewomenwhosangrudesongs

abouthim,cutoffthelimbsofapostates,sleepwithawomanwhosefamilyhehadjust

killed,havesexwithanine-year-old,urgethemurderofJews,authorizethebeatingof

wives...andpromiseheavenabovealltothosewhomadewaroninfidels"(2008,p.

125).Thisreportwasnodoubtextremeinnatureandaclearmisrepresentationof

Mohamed,butthisnegativementalityhasbeensupportedthroughouttheworld,which {

hasledtohumanrightsconcernssuchasracialprofilingatbordercrossingsandportsof j

entry.Moreover,ithasbecomeclearthatthemediahasaroleinnegativelyconstructing j

racialidentities,whichdemonizesMuslimsandfurthersthenotionof"us"versus"them." •

Somescholarshavearguedthatthemediaisineffectperpetuatingnegative i

stereotypesoftheIslamicworld,whichleadstoracialprofiling.Racial profilingissaid to j

existwhenmembersofcertainracialorethnicgroupsbecomesubjecttogreaterlevelsof

criminaljusticesurveillancethanothers.Therefore,itistypicallydefinedasaracial J

disparityinpolicestopandsearchpractices,racialdifferencesincustomssearchesat s

t airportsandbordercrossings,increasedpolicepatrolsinracialminorityneighbourhoods, \

andundercoveractivitiesorstingoperationswhichselectivelytargetparticularethnic

groups(WortleyandTanner,2005).Thispremisecanalsoleadonetoincludethe

extraordinaryrenditionprogramasapreventativeparadigmthatseekstolimitthe

movementsofMuslims,whichispredicatedonthefearoffurtherattackslikeSeptember

11.Asaresult,theincreaseinIslamophobiahasledtoanincreaseinsecuritymeasures

andtheracialprofilingofMuslims.

Nevertheless,thediscourserelatingtotheextraordinaryrenditionprogramrarely

discussesitsrootsinIslamophobia.Moreover,thediscussionrevolvesaroundWestern

18 perceptionsofMuslims,butomitsMuslims'perceptionoftheWest.Muslims'thoughts

andsentimentstowardstheWesthavebeendisplacedfromthenarrative,orinmany

casescompletelyabsent.ThediscourseconcentratesonMuslimsasthespecifictargetsin

the"waronterror",butfailstoexaminehowovertIslamophobicprogramslike

extraordinaryrenditionaffectMuslimsettlementexperiences.Moreover,itisimportant

toconsiderthehowMuslimcommunitiesinWesternstatescopeandadapttothe

increasedsecuritizationandracialprofilingdirectedatthem.

19 LiteratureReview

TheColdWarwasanideologicalconflictstagedbetweentheworld'stwomostdominant

militarypowers.Yet,"astheColdWardissolved,theSovietmenacewasreplacedwith

theputativethreatofIslam"(Welch,2006,p. 58).AfterSeptember112001,theworld

hasexperiencedanincreaseddivisionbetweentwoofthemostreactionaryreligious

faiths.Consequently,someChristiansandMuslimshaveadoptedintensemeasuresinan

attempttogainretributionforrealandperceivedcrimesagainsttheirrespective

followers.IntheWest,theeventsofSeptember11catalyzedthetransitionfromborder

securitytonationalsecurity,resultinginwidespreadeffortstoidentifythreats.Thisshift

inperceptionthatallspacesarevulnerableisevidencedintheclaimthatborders,air

cargo,ports,andrailwaysareopentoexploitationbyterroristsandorganizedcriminals.

(Kruger,Mulder,andKorenic,2004,p.82).Ineffect,thevulnerabilitythatSeptember11

inducedactedasacatharticeventthatpushedliberaldemocraticsocietiestoadopt

regressiveandconservativepoliciesthatservetoevadebasichumanrightsbytargeting

certainethno-religiousgroups."Nationalsecurityisonceagaincentrestageandonce

againinneedofcreativerethinkingabouthowtoreconcilesecuritywithrespectfor

humanrightsandcivilliberties"(Whitaker,2008,p.38).

Furthermore,ithasbecomeapparentthattheUnitedStates,forinstance,has

selectivelyignoreditsrecentpastwiththeterroristtransgressionsoftheUnabomber(Ted

Kaczynski),TimothyMcVeigh,andtheWashingtonSniper(JohnAllenMuhammad)and

focuseditsattentiononMiddleEasternMuslimsasthesolitarythreattothenation.

Consequently,theWesthasraciallyconstructedArabsandMuslimsas"enemy

combatants"thatthreatenChristianityandtheliberaldemocraticstatesthatsupportthe

20 religion(Worthington,2007,p.215).OnSeptember17,2001presidentBushaddressed

theU.S.ArmedForcesatthePentagonclaimingthatthenewenemyinthe"Waron

Terror"wassufficientlybarbaricto justifyhuntingthemdown(Bowker,2005,p.183).

Asaresult,inordertoprotectthevariousbordercrossingstheUnitedStateshas

deployedtheextraordinaryrenditionprogramasameasuretopreventanotherSeptember

11(Grey,2006;Fischer,2008).Yet,itisimportanttoaskiftheactionsoftheUnited

Statesaretrulyinthebestinterestsofitscitizensasthejudicialandconstitutional

implicationsofsuchprogramsareseverelyproblematic."Thepracticeofextraordinary

renditionraisesfundamentalquestionsaboutprioritiesandmeans-endconsiderations.

Thereare,forinstance,theissuesofwhetheranend,inthisinstancethepresumed

protectionofthepublic,issufficientovercome toobjectionstothemeans,the

kidnappingsandthetorture"(DimentoandGeis,2006,p.36).

Therearedebatesonwhentheextraordinaryrenditionprogramwasfirst

developed.AccordingtolawscholarsDimentoandGeis(2006,p.39),"Extraordinary

renditionwasemployedunderpresidentRonaldReaganasatactictoallowU.S.law

enforcementagenciestodealwithwantedpersonsinso-calledlawlessstatessuchas

Lebanon."However,asignificantcontingentarguesthattheprogramwasdeveloped

duringBillClinton'spresidencyinthemid-1990s(Grey,2004;Mayer2005;

Worthington,2007).AccordingtoMichaelScheuer,aformerhigh-rankingCIAofficer

duringClinton'stenure,themotivationbehindthedevelopmentoftheprogramwas

inevitable."Wewereturningintovoyeurs.We knewwherethesepeoplewere,butwe

couldn'tcapturethembecausewehadnowheretotakethem.Theagencyrealizedthatwe

21 hadtocomeupwithathirdparty...TheobviouschoicewasEgypt,thelargestrecipient

ofU.S.foreignaidafterIsrael"(Mayer,2005;Pither,2008).

EgyptandotherMiddleEasternnationssuchasJordanandSyriasoonbecame

eager,albeitunlikely,partnerswiththeCIAtherebyintroducingtheextraordinary

renditionprogramastightly a controlledprojecttoapprehendIslamistmilitantswith

outstandingarrestwarrants.AndyWorthington(2007,p.148)definestheextraordinary

renditionprogramafter9/11asapreventativeoperationagainstterrorismwherebythe

"CIArenderssupposedlyhighvalueterroristsubjectstoitsownsecretglobalnetworkof

prisons,ortoothercountries,wheretheycouldbeinterrogatedbyproxytorturerswithout

theCIAoperativeshavingtolifta finger."RobertBaer,former a CIAcaseofficerinthe

MiddleEast,explainedinaninterviewwiththeManchesterGuardianhowtheprogram

worked."Wepickupasuspectorwearrangeforoneof ourpartnercountriestodoit.

Thenthesuspectisplacedonciviliantransporttoathirdcountrywhere,let'smakeno

bonesaboutit,theyusetorture.Ifyouwantagoodinterrogation,yousendsomeoneto

Jordan.Ifyouwantthemtobekilled,yousendthemtoEgyptor Syria"(Pither,2008,p.

101).addition, In anotherformerCIAoperativeexplainstheprograminevencruder

terms:"Wedon'tkicktheshitoutofthem.We sendthemtoothercountriessotheycan

kicktheshitoutofthem"(Worthington,p.216).Theeventsof9/11providedtheUnited

Statesandotherliberaldemocraciesthatteeteredonconservatismwiththeimpetusto

implementprogramssuchasextraordinaryrendition,whichclearlycircumventhuman

rightstreaties,topreventimminentthreats.However,thedefianceofinternationaland

domesticlawexemplifiesanEurocentrismandanOrientalistunderstandingofMuslims

andIslamthatitproducesajustificationfortheunfairglobaltargetingofArabsand

22 Muslims.

Nevertheless,theextraordinaryrenditionprogramwasconsideredasmalloperation

undertheClintonAdministration.Oncemore,MichaelScheuerinatestimonybeforea

subcommitteeoninternationalrelationsdescribinghisroleintheinitialstagesofthe

programstated:

IauthoreditandthenranandmanageditagainstalQaedaleadersandother

SunniIslamistsfromAugust,1995,untilJune,1999.Thepurposewastotake

menoffthestreetwhowereplanningorhadbeeninvolvedinattacksonthe

UnitedStatesoritsalliesandtoseizehardcopyorelectronicdocumentsin

theirpossessionwhenarrested.However,interrogationwasneveragoal

underPresidentClinton"(Lobel,2008,p.1419).

Itwas deemedextraordinarybecauseitwasonlyusedinexceptionalcircumstances;

however,thischangeddramaticallyafter9/11.Theprogramwasoriginallycarriedouton

alimitedbasis,butafterSeptember11,whenPresidentBushdeclaredaglobalwaron

terrorism,theprogramexpandedbeyondrecognition.Whatbeganasaprogramaimedat

asmall,discretesetofsuspectscametoincludeawideandill-definedpopulationthatthe

administrationterms"illegalenemycombatants"(Meyer,2005,p.2).Accordingto

BritishjournalistStephenGrey,"After9/11,atrickleofrenditionsbecameaflow,and

becamethefoundationofawholesystemtotackleworldterrorism"(Grey,2004,p.23).

TheevolutionoftheprogramclungtothecommondenominatorthatinterpretedIslamas

theharbingerofterrorismandthedefiant"Other".Therefore,theescalationofthe

programwasalsological,asthesurveillanceofpotentialterroristsnotonlyonanational

scale,butalsoaglobalscalewasfarmoretenableinanadvancedtechnological

communicationage.

Regardless,theextraordinaryrenditionprogramhasemergedasahighly

contentiousinitiative,ascriticscontendthatthesolepurposeofsuchrenditionsisto

PROPHBYOF 23 subjectthesuspectstoaggressiveinterrogationsareillegal thatinAmerica,which

includetortureandinhumaneconfinements(Mayer,2005,p.l).Itisevidentthatthe"war

onterror"hasadoptedextrememeasuresthatclearlyconstitutehumanrightsviolations.

Asaresult,thetermrenditionhasbeenusedasaeuphemismforkidnapping(Welch,

2006,p.167.Essentially,renditionshavebeensanctionedbytheWhiteHouse,which

allowstheCIAbroadauthoritytoactwithoutcase-by-caseapprovalfromother

governmentdepartments(Welch,p.167).Moreover,theCIA'sautonomyandsecrecyis

highlyproblematic,whichhasledtoincreasinghumanrightsconcerns,asasignificant

proliferationin thenumberofrenditioncaseshasbeenexperiencedpost-9/11.

Priorto9/11theUnitedStatesrendered23Muslimmalesfromvariouscountriesto

theU.S.,Egypt,andSaudiArabia between1993-2001(Grey,2006,pp.269-271)."Since

September11,2001,theUnitedStatesgovernmenthasreportedlytransferredmorethan

100suspectedterroriststocountriesthatroutinelytortureprisoners"(Lobel,2008,p.479;

Grey,2006,p.39).Giventhesecretnatureoftheprogram,theseestimatesarereducedto

conservativeguesses,asitisdifficulttoknowtheexactnumberofrenderedvictims.

However,in2005,theCIAhadreportedlyoperated307renditionflightsinEuropesince

9/11(Fisher,2001,p.1425).Inaddition,HumanRightsgroupshaveestimatedthat

12,000-15,000allegedterroristsuspectshavebeenincarceratedinthe"waronterror"

(Sadat,2006,p.309).Oncemore,itisdifficulttoascertaintheveracityofsuchreports,

butitisclearthattheUnitedStateshasusedprisonsandinterrogationfacilitiesinthe

MiddleEastinitsglobalbattleagainstterror.

However,itisimportanttoconsiderwhatwasthereasoningbehindtheUnited

States'motivationforsendingsuspectedterroriststoMiddleEasternnations,whichis

24 largelyabsentfromtheliterature.Onequestionimmediatelybecomesapparentwhen

lookingatextraordinaryrenditioncasesundertheBushadministration.Whywouldthe

UnitedStatessendsuspectedterroriststoSyriaorJordanforinstance,whichthe

administrationclaimedwerestatesponsorsofterrorismandwidelyknowntopractice

torture,andnottoallynationslikeCanadaortheUnitedKingdom?Forinstancewhen

lookingatCanadianrenderedsubjectMaherArar,HumanRightsWatch(June7,2005)

stated,"Notwithstandingtheabsoluteprohibitiononsendingpersonstoplaceswhere

theyatriskoftortureofill-treatment,theUnitedStatesdeliveredMaherArartothe

custodyofagovernment[Syria]thatPresidentGeorgeW.Bushwouldlatercriticizefor

leavingitspeoplealegacyoftortureandoppression."

AccordingtoIsmaelandMeasor(2003,p.106)thementalitythatfuelstheUnited

States'logictodictatethetermsits ofextraordinaryrenditioncasescanbefoundin

Orientalism.

"Said'sOrientalismhasprovidedanunparalleledtoolfortheanalysisofglobal

culturalandpoliticalinteractions,specificallythosewhichexistbetweenEurope

andtheformerlycolonizedterritoriesofthe AfricaandAsia.Presentedinthe

formofadiscourse,theinherentnucleusofSaid'sargumentisthattoknow

somethingistohavepoweroverit.Moreso,powerrelationshipsturnthis

relationshiparound,andallowthepowerfultoestablishthetermsandparameters

bywhichtheyknowtheworld."

Basedonthisargument,theUnitedStatesknewexactlywhatwouldtranspiretosubjects

renderedtoMiddleEasternnations:namelytorture.TheUnitedStatesisarguablythe

mostpowerfulnationintheworldandfunctionsasanextensionofEuropeanimperial

ideologies;therefore,itspowerallowsthenationtodictatehowsuspectedterroristswill

becapturedandwheretheywillbetortured,whichisinherentintheformofmanifest

Orientalism.

25 ItisabundantlyclearthatafterSeptember11,renditionsbecameasignificanttool

inthe"waronterror,"enablingtheCIAtokidnap,renderandfacilitatethetortureof

largenumbersofsuspectedenemycombatantswithcompleteimpunity(Worthington,

2007,p.216).Thegrowingdiscoursesontheprogram;however,donotdenotethe

institutionalracismthatisimbeddedintheprogram.Evidently,ArabandMuslimmen

aretheprimarytargets,andmanyhavebeenrenderedtotheCIA'ssecretprisonsaround

theglobe.Obviously,theterm"illegalenemycombatant"isafluidtermunderUnited

Statesinterpretation,whichhasledtothewidespreadjustificationfortargetingyoung

Muslimmen.The"waronterror"clearlyactsan asextensionoflong-standing

Eurocentricideologies,whichallowsfortheimplementationofsuchcontentious

programsdespiteclearhumanrightsviolations.

HumanRightsConcerns I

The"waronterror"hasproducedseriousramificationsforArabsandMuslims i

throughouttheworld.TheUnitedStateshasjustifiedtheproliferationofrenditioncases !

asanintegralmethodtocombatterrorism,thustheyareviewedasnecessarystepsby

electedofficialswhosesworndutyistoprotecttheircitizens.However,thecostof

securingandprotectingnationsisclearlyjustifiedthroughtheviolationofhumanrights

ofthosewhoarecategorizedaspotentialthreats,asifafewencompassthewhole.Once

more,thefoundationforthisideologyisbasedonSaid'stheory,butthisconsiderationis

largelyabsentfromtheliterature.Nevertheless,foracountrylikeCanada,whichextols

thevirtuesoftheircivilliberties,itisduplicitousthattheyarequick so inremovingthe

humanlibertiesofnon-memberslikeBenamarBenatta1andevencircumventingthe

wholefttheUnitedStatestoclaimpoliticalasyluminCanadain 1BenamarBenattaisanAlgerian-Muslim

earlySeptember2001.Afterthe9/11attacks,CanadianimmigrationofficialhandedBenattaovertoUnited

26 —If

citizenshiprightsofitsstatememberssuchasMaherArarandAbdullahAlmalki.Yet,

thereisgrowingconcernabouttheproliferationofextraordinaryrenditions,asbytheir

verynature,renditionsandtorturehavetobecarriedoutinsecrecyunderthedirectionof

questionablehumanrightsviolatornations.

Thevictimsofextraordinaryrenditionaresenttonotoriouslybrutalprisons

throughouttheworld."Detaineesaresenttocountriesthathaveterriblereputations

regardingtortureandthattortureisapplied:Syria,Egypt,Pakistan,Uzbekistan,Jordan,

andSaudiaArabiaareonlysomeofthedestinations(Rapley,2007,p.250)."These

prisonsarecommonlyreferredtoas"BlackSites."

AmnestyInternationalhasreceivedpersistentreportsthattheUSA operates,

orhasoperated,secretdetentioncentresinAfghanistan,GuantanamoBayin

Cuba,Iraq,Jordan,Pakistan,Thailand,Uzbekistan,andotherunknown

locationsinEuropeandelsewhere,includingontheBritishIndianOcean

territoryofDiegoGarcia.TheUS StateDepartment,theFederalBureauof

Investigation(FBI)andtheCIAhavealldeclinedtocommentonthese

reports.TheUK governmenthasdeniedallegationsofsuchdetention

centresonDiegoGarcia(AmnestyInternational).

Regardless,onecanarguethatthetwomostnotoriousprisonsaretheAmerican

institutionsatGuantanomoBayinCubaandAbuGhraibinIraq.Guantanomohas

recentlycomeunderextremepublicscrutiny,butitsinfamywasprecededbythe

atrocioushumanrightsviolationsofMuslimprisonersthatoccurredatthehands'of

AmericansoldiersatAbuGhraib.

InMay2004,theAmericanmedialaunchedadamningcampaignthatillustrated

theatrocitiesperpetratedatAbuGhraibbyAmericansoldiers."Agencyofficers

conductedharsh,unsupervisedinterrogationsatthatprisonandothers.Newspaperreports

Statesofficials.Hewasheldagainsthiswilldespitehisinnocenceforfiveyears. http://benamarbenatta.com/.

27 inSeptember2004disclosedthattheagencyhadhiddenatleasttwodozendetainees

fromRedCrossinspectors"(Fischer,p.1420).Forthefirsttimegruesomeimagesand

videoswereprovidedfortheworldtosee(Welch,2006,p.111).TheNewYorker

vividlydescribedsomeofthetorturemethodsconductedbytheAmericansoldierson

Muslimprisoners:

Breakingchemicallightsandpouringthephosphoricliquidondetainees;

pouringcoldwateronnakeddetainees;beatingdetaineeswithabroom

handleandachair;threateningmaledetaineeswithrape;allowingamilitary

policeguardtostitchthewoundofadetaineewhowasinjuredafterbeing

slammedagainstthewallinhiscell;sodomizingadetaineewithachemical

lightandperhapsabroomstick,andusingmilitaryworkingdogstofrighten

andintimidatedetaineeswiththreatsofattack,andinoneinstance actually

bitingadetainee(Hersh,2004).

Allofthesetorturemethodsarecruelandhumiliating,butforMuslimprisonerstheyare

virtualreligiousdeathsentences.Naturally,theAbuGhraibreportsandtheirexplicit

associationwiththeextraordinaryrenditionprogramsentShockwavesthroughoutthe

world."TheCIArenditions,togetherwithAbuGhraibandGuantanomoBay,

unfortunatelyhavetarnishedtheimageoftheUnitedStatesinthefightagainstterrorism,

amongMuslimsandnon-Muslims"(Saunders,2007).However,thenegativepublicity

thattheUnitedStatesgarnereddidnotdetertheirresolveforimplementingextreme

measuresintheir"waronterror."ItisabundantlyclearthattheAmericanpoliticians

viewedthestate'sroletoprotectitscitizensofgreaterimportancethantheviolationofa

fewexceptionalindividuals.

TheUnitedStatesandmanyothercountriessignedtheUnitedNations(UN)

ConventionAgainstTortureandOtherCruel,InhumanorDegradingTreatmentor

Punishment(Winkler,2007,p.50).Infact,theUnitedStateswasavocalchampionfor

28 theTortureConvention.In1999,inareporttotheUN,theU.S.StateDepartmentstated,

"TortureisprohibitedbylawthroughouttheUnitedStates.Itiscategoricallydenounced

asamatterofpolicyandasatoolofstateauthority(Goldstone,2006,p.344).However,

CIAinterrogatorsintheoverseas"BlackSites"haveignoredinternationalanddomestic

regulationsthroughtheimplementationofits"EnhancedInterrogationTechniques,"

whichareprohibitedbytheUN ConventionandbyU.S.militarylaw.Theyinclude

tacticssuchas"waterboarding,"inwhichaprisonerismadetobelieveheorsheis

drowning(Priest,2005).ThisisindirectviolationoftheInternationalHumanitarianlaw

outlinedintheGenevaConvention,whichdescribesstates'responsibilitiespertainingto

torture."InternationalHumanitarianLawprohibitstortureorill-treatmentofcombatants

andcivilians,inallcircumstancesofinternationalandnon-internationalarmedconflict...

Thelawsofwarprohibittortureofill-treatmentinallcircumstances,including

refoulementtosuchabuse"(HumanRightsWatch,2005,pp.16-17).

Nevertheless,theCIAjustifiedtheuseoftorturetopreventanotherSeptember11,

butmajorpolicy concernsexistforsuchatrociousbehaviour."Thepracticeof

extraordinaryrenditionraisessignificantpolicyissuesregardinglegallyacceptable

governmentbehaviour.[It]alsoprovidesa contextforconsiderationofnationalvalues

andthemannerinwhichsuchvaluesshouldbetakenintoaccountindeterminingpublic

policy"(DimentoandGeis,2006,p.36).addition, In "Theatrocitiesthatoccurredin

prisonslikeAbuGhraibweretheproductofdecisionsthatbeganattheverytop,when

theBushadministrationdecidedthatSept.11hadwipedoutitsresponsibilitytoabideby

therules,includingtheGenevaConventionsandtheAmericanConstitution"(McCoy,

2006,p.172).Moreover,inAugust2002,theHumanRightsWatchdeclaredthatU.S.

29 authoritiesdeliberatelytrampledconstitutionalrightsafterSeptember11inacrackdown

thatsawimmigrantsjailedwithoutcause,triedinsecret,andphysicallyabused.It

accusedtheBushadministrationofdisplaying"astunningdisregardforthedemocratic

principlesofpublictransparencyandaccountability"initsresponsetotheterrorist

attacks."Thecountryhaswitnessedapersistent,deliberateandunwarrantederosionof

basicrights againstabusivegovernmentalpower"(Khan,16October2002).

After9/11,theBushadministration'srhetoricreiteratedtheneedtohavethe

terroristsbroughttojustice(Lendman,2008).Itisimportanttonotethattherendered

subjectswereconceivablyviewedasvalidthreats.Presumably,governmentswouldnot

capture,detain,andinterrogateindividualsunlesstheywereconsideredexceptional

threats.However,theextraordinaryrenditionprogramalsohasjudicialramifications.The

harshandaggressivemethodsusedinextraordinaryrenditionwouldunderminepotential

prosecutionsbecausea courtwouldexcludeconfessionsorevidencethathad been

illegallycoerced(Fischer,p.1416).Moreover,intelligenceofficershavearguedthat

informationextractedfromphysicalandpsychologicaltortureareoftencompromised,as

thevictimswillconfesstoanythinginordertoendtheirtorture(McCoy,2006,pp.13-

14).

Nevertheless,thereissignificantsupportfortheuseoftortureafter9/11.Kent

Roach(2003,p.101)citesaJanuary2002editorialintheNationalPostclaiming,

"Tortureisalwayswrong.Yetitisinevitablethattorturemaysometimesoccurinnations

whosecommitmenttohumanrightshasbeenunderstandablyvitiatedbyregular

encounterswithsuicidebombers.Whetherwedeportterrorsuspectstosuchnationsisa

difficultandoftenagonizingdecisionthatmustbemadeonacase-by-casebasis."

30 Moreover,AlanDershowitz(2002,p.135)arguesthattortureshouldbejudicially

approvedandcontrolledincasesinwhichasuspectedterroristwithholdsinformationthat

couldpreventanotherSeptember11.Healsosuggeststhatjudicialwarrantsauthorizing

torturewouldbeconsistentwiththeAmericanBillofRights.However,thisreasoningis

tremendouslyflawed.

ThemagisterialreportoftheAssociationtheBar ofoftheCityofNewYork

andtheCenterforHumanRightsattheNewYorkUniversitySchoolof

Lawconcludedthatthelegalandpoliticalevidenceclearlysupportsthe

positionthatbothdomesticandinternationallawprohibitthepracticeof

ExtraordinaryRendition.Farfrombeinganacceptabletoolinthe"Waron

Terror,"ExtraordinaryRenditionsareillegalandconstituteaperversionof

justicethatmustbeexposedandbroughttoanend(DimentoandGeis,

2006,pp.58-59).

Regardless,itisimportanttomakethedistinctionthattheUnitedStatesisnot

autonomousisitsparticipationintheextraordinaryrenditionprogram.Numerous

Westernnationshaverenderednationalstotheprogram.Australia,WesternEuropean

countries,andCanadaarejustsomeexamplesofnationsthathavecontributedtoMuslim

renditions(AmnestyInternational).Forinstance,Canadianintelligenceofficialsprovided

sensitiveinformationtotheFBIandSyriangovernmentthatledtothecaptureand

subsequenttortureofMaherArarandAbdullahAlmalki,bothSyrian-bornCanadian

citizens(O'Connor,2006;Iacobucci,2008).ArarandAlmalkiarejusttwoexamplesof

theWesternworld'scooperationintheextraordinaryrenditionprogram.Onecanassume

that therecountless areotherexamples.AccordingtoArar(2007,p. 12),now "I

understandhowfragileourhumanrightsandfreedomsare,andhoweasilytheycanbe

takenfromusbytheverysamegovernmentsandinstitutionsthathavesworntoprotect

us."

31 Arar'sstatementleadstosignificantquestionsthathavebeenraisedinthehuman

rightsdiscoursethataddressesindividualhumanrightsandtheirintersectionalitywith

societies'collectiverights.Ineffect,therootoftheconcernsurroundstheroleofthestate

inprotectingsocietyasawholebythreateningtherightsofafewcitizensversus

maintainingallindividualrights.AccordingtoBritishScholarConorGearty,

Therewillalwaysbearadical tensionbetweenhumanrightsasaguarantee

ofindividuatedrightsontheonehandandasasystemofoverarchingvalues

ontheother.Thepressuresinherentinseekingtospeakbothspecifically

andgenerallyatthesametimeareworkedthroughinthiscomplexinter

relationshipbetweendemocracyandhumanrights,betweenacommunity

dedicatedtothesuccessofallandthehumanrightsimpulsetoinsistthat

eachofthis'all'shouldbeindividuallyesteemed(Gearty,2006,pp.156-

157).

GeartyarguesthatthisbalancehasbeenincreasinglychallengedinWesternstates

withthegrowingthreatofterrorismwiththe9/11 attacksintheUnitedStates,the

7/7attacksinLondon,the andMadridbombingsin2004.Consequently,"Anxiety

aboutterrorismhasgrippedpublicdiscourseexactlyatthesametimeas[human

rights]hasatlastbeensecuringcentrestage.The twoarestrongrivalsforthesame

publicspace.However,terrorismsince9/11haslauncheddraconianattacksonthe

basicDNA ofhumanrights- dignity,legalityanddemocracy"(Gearty,2006,pp.

106-107).Therefore,thethreatofterrorismhasincreasedthetensionbetween

"specialrights"andtherightsof"ordinarypeople,"whichhasresultedincallsto

rebalancehumanrightssoastode-prioritizetherightsofprotectedgroupsand

terroristsinordertoprioritizepublicsecurity(McGhee,2008,p.138).

Westernstates'responsestoterrorismcanalsobeconstruedasregressive

throughtheuse ofseveralquestionabletactics.The"waronterror"haslaunched

physicalandmentalonslaughtsonMiddleEasternnationsthathaveplacedhuman

32 rightsinperilousstatus.ShereneRazackarguesthattheracistmachinations

inherentlylinkedinthe"waronterror"havebeentransferredtoWesternstatesas

well.

Itmayseemnotentirelysurprisingthattherehasbeensuchastrong

resurgenceofanoldOrientalismandanimmediateintensificationof

surveillance,detention,andthesuspensionofrightsforthosewhoare

Muslim-looking.AsWesterngovernmentshaveargued,thesearetimesof

emergencyandadeadlythreatconfrontsthenation,athreatthatwarrants

thesuspensionofrights.Thethreatexplains,ifnotexcuses,theriseinanti-

Muslimracism(Razack,2008,pp.5-6).

Canada,whichisoftenregardedasprogressive a multiculturalstateisnotimmunefrom

Razack'scharges.Forinstance,after9/11,securitycertificateshave beenissuedforfive

ArabMuslims,eachofwhohavebeendetained,servedextendedperiodsinsolitary

confinement,andhavebeenheldwithoutchargeindefinitely(Krugeretal.,2004).The

impetusforprovidingsecurity the certificatesinconjunctionwiththeArarandAlmalki

renditioncasesareexamplesthatservetoquestiontheveracityofnationalsecurity

measuresthatmaythreatenCanada'shumanrightsrecords.

Ultimately,themovetonationalsecurityisembracedbysocietyaswhole, a but

victimsofhumanrightsviolationsaredisplacedfromthediscourse."Nationalsecurity

measuresadoptedpost-9/11havecreatedheightenedlevelsofinsecurityamongcertain

individualsandgroupsathomeandabroad,preciselybecausemanyoftheactionstaken

havecomeupagainstrespectforhumanrights,internationallaw,treaties,and

conventions"(Dobrowolskyet.al,2009,p.22).Moreover,althoughnationalsecurity

maybeenhanced,itisatthecostofencroachmentsupontherightsofallcitizensandthe

increasedinsecurityofparticulargroupsofcitizens(Rollings-Magnusson,2009,p.215).

33 Asaresult,programslikeextraordinaryrendition,whicharedesignedtoensurenational

security,servetofurtherignitethehumanrightsdebatepost-9/11.

34 DiscourseAnalysis

Traditionally,themediaactsastheprincipalconduitofcommunicationinallsocieties.

Whetherthedisseminationofmaterialisprovidedthroughprint,radio,television,orthe

Internet,themediaisthefirstsourcethatexposesthegeneralpopulacetocurrentissues.

Inthedigitalage,massmediaconsumptionhasproliferatedanditsinfluencehasgrown

enormously.Itcanbe arguedthatgreateraccesstoawiderangeofsourceshasdiluted

themedia'sintegrityandaccountability;nevertheless,ithasretaineditsabilityto

solidify,sustain,andevencreateconsensuspublicthoughtpatternsthatechothe

dominantculture'sbeliefsandideologies.Asaresult,"Themediarepresentoneofthe

mostimportantvehiclesforreproducingthecollectivebeliefsystemofthedominant

cultureandthecorevaluesofsociety"(Henry,1999,p.135).Forinstance,theprint

mediahassignificantinfluenceinconstructingvisibleminoritiesidentities.Positive

representationscanbeconstructed,butnegativestereotypesmayalsobeperpetuated

throughprintmedia'sinstitutionalculturaldominance.

Theeventsof9/11sparkedanintensemediamaelstromacrosstheglobe,but

especiallyincountrieswheremassmediaformsthebackboneofcommunication

delivery.InCanada,themediawaspredominantlycriticalofMuslimsafter9/11,which

ineffectresultedinfurtheringthenotionofthe"other."Withitscloseproximitytothe

UnitedStates,theCanadiannewsprintmediaechoedmuchoftherhetoricthatoriginated

inAmerica.Questionswererampantaboutwhowasresponsiblefortheattacks,which

quicklyledtotheinferencethattheIslamicworld,astheperceivedfoeofWestern

democraticstates,wastobeblamed.

Almostimmediatelyaftertheassaults,withvirtuallynoproof,theNorthAmerica

mediapointedanaccusingfingeratArabsandMuslims.SomeAmericanofficials

35 blamedIraq'sSaddamHussein,theusualvillainformorethanadecade;others

blamedArabsand Muslimsingeneral.Theexplanationsbyexperts,tonesofthe

announcersandrepetitionsofbiasedreportingsetthestageforArabsandMuslims

tofeelbesieged(Salloum,2002,p.147).

TheCanadiannewsprintmediapublishedsensationalreportsonIslamthathaddamaging

effectson CanadianMuslims.However,mediaproductionandreadershipconsumption

mustbequestionedas"theblendofthexenophobicfearsofthe'other',andthatof

terrorism,providedmediaconsumersinCanadawithaclearpathtotheconclusionthat

Islamwasafaithinwhichactsofunspeakableviolencewereacceptableandthat

terrorismwasendemictoMuslimandArabculture"(IsmaelandMeasor,2003,p.102).•

ThiswasespeciallyprevalentafterSeptember11andthe2006arrestsofthe"Toronto

17."

Thediscourseispredominantlycriticalofmedia(mis)representationsandcallsfor

moretransparencyandtheinclusionofminorityvoicesinthereportageofsuchsensitive

topics(HenryandTator,2002,pp.7-8).However,negativeidentityconstructionhas

beeninstitutionallyimbeddedintheCanadianprintmediasincecolonialismwhereby

immigrantsandvisibleminoritieshavebeenportrayedasdeviantalienswhothreatenthe

purityofthenation'sdualcultureidentity(HenryandTator,2002,p.41;Mahtani,2001,

p.2).Therefore,thenewsprintmediahaslongestablisheditsinstitutionaland

Eurocentricculturaldominancebyconstructingvisibleminoritiesasthe"other."

Consequently,thereportageonimmigrantsandvisibleminoritiesislimitedandgenerally

framedindeleteriousfashiontosupportthesupposedsuperiorityofEuropean-Canadians,

whichwasparticularlythecaseafterSeptember11,2001.

Theunder-representationofarangeofculturalgroupsinCanadianmediahas

beensuggestiveoftheirunimportanceortheirnon-existence.Despitetheculturally

36 diversenatureofCanadiansociety,thatverydiversityisregularlyabsentfrommedia

representations(Mahtani,2002,p.101).Evidently,thishasmadethetransitioninto

Canadiansocietytenuousformostnewcomers,astheyarelargelyremovedfromtheprint

media'snarrative.However,whendangerouseventseven orsensationalallegations

associatedwithimmigrantsorvisibleminoritiesoccursuchasthe1999Chineseboat

smugglingscandalandtheterroristattacksintheUnitedStatesonSeptember11,2001,

themediaisquicktocastimmigrantsandvisibleminoritygroupsinanegativefashion.

ThishasbeenespeciallyprevalentinCanadawiththereportageonMuslimsinthe

newsprintmediapost-9/11.

TheoverallstigmatizationthatMuslims havereceivedsincetheSeptember11,

2001attackshavefuellednegativestereotypicalidentityconstructions.Asaresult,this

racializedissuehasemergedasahotlydebatedtopicinacademicforums,butislargely

absentinthemainstreammedia.Consequently,thepowerofmediaconstructionmay

showthatethnicminoritiestendtoappearasthecauses,ratherthanvictims the of

problems(SmithandLey,2008).The9/11attackswereperpetratedbyasmallnumberof

IslamicfundamentaliststhatthelargerMuslimcommunityrenounces,butthemediahas

groupedallMuslimstogetherwiththecommondenominatoridentityofterrorist

(LewingtonandPeritz,2001),asthesensationalistcoveragemadeinthepublicdiscourse

withinCanadaequatesIslamwithterrorismandtheprofessionoftheIslamicfaithas

fundamentalism(IsmaelandMeasor,2003).Still,themythmakingwhichfuelsthe

hostileaurasurroundingMuslimsisrarelyquestioned,andthemediaisseldomheld

accountableforstigmatizingtheiridentities.Moreover,thepublicconsumesthemedia's

stereotypicalgeneralizationsascredibleandaccurate,whichisproblematic.

37 EvenwiththeemergenceoftheInternet,theauthoritythatprintmediacommands

isstillundeniable.Theprintmedia'spowerisgenerallysymbolicandpersuasive,inthe

sensethatithasthepotentialtocontrolthemindsofsomereaders,butnotdirectlytheir

actions(vanDijk,1995a).IfpublishedreportsarecriticalofMuslimsthenonecaninfer

thatthepublicwillformitsopinionsbasedonthesereports.Suchsusceptibilityhelpsthe

mediamanipulateandpromoteagendasthatareconducivetotheirinstitutionalself-

interests.TuenvanDijkstates,"Manipulationasaformofmediapowerenactmentis

usuallyevaluatedinnegativeterms,becausemediatedinformationisbiasedorconcealed

insuchawaythattheknowledgeandbeliefsoftheaudiencearechangedinadirection

thatisnotnecessarilyinitsbestinterest"(1995a,p.11).Theprintmediaisinthe

businessofsellingasmanypublicationsaspossible,therefore,sensationalreports,

whetheraccurateornot,willsellmoreissues.Asaresult,newspapersandjournalists

employspecificlanguagetoattractreaders,whichraisesquestionspertainingtothe

mediaandpublic'srespectiveaccountabilityinthe productionandconsumptionof such

stereotypicalreports.

Publicaccountabilityhasbeenedgedoutoftheprocess,astheCanadianmediais

increasinglyimmunetopublicreviewprocesses,industryorgovernmentombudsmen,

andcivilsocietyorganizations(IsmaelandMeasor,2003,p.102).HenryandTator

specificallyfoundthatafterSeptember11,2001, "Arabswererepeatedlyportrayedas

bloodthirstyterrorists.Theyweredepictedincartoonsasignorant,cruel,andbackward"

(2002,p.42).Asaresult,thecumulativeeffectofconstantstereotypingand

misrepresentationservesto createapolarizationbetween"us"and"them"andnegatively

portraysMuslimsas"barbaricmonolithicterrorists."Thischapterwillinvestigatethe

38 Canadiannewsprintmedia'sreportageonMuslimsintheimmediateaftermathof

September11,2001.Usingalexicaldiscourseanalysis,Canada'stwonational

newspapers,theGlobeandMailandtheNationalPostwillbeevaluatedtoascertainthe

depictionsofMuslimsinCanada.

NegativeMuslimidentityconstructionisnotisolatedtotheprintmedia.For

instance,HollywoodfilmslikePaulHaggis'CrashandEdwardZwick'sTheSiegehave

portrayedMuslimsasviolentnon-communicativefundamentaliststhatthreatenAmerican

societies.A 2007reportintheManchesterGuardianexaminedasmallnumberof

Hollywoodfilmsandconcludedthat,"PopularfilmsrangingfromHollywood

blockbusterstochildren'scartoonsdepicting are "crudeandexaggerated"stereotypesof

MuslimsandperpetuatingIslamophobia"(Ward,2007,January25).Thestereotypical

imagesarealsofoundontelevisionprogramssuchas24.However,includingfilm,

television,andradiodepictionsofMuslimswouldexpandthisdiscourseanalysis.Asa

result,thetwoCanadiandailynationalnewspaperswillbeexaminedtoprovideamore

controlledsamplesizetoevaluateMuslimrepresentationspost-9/11.

CanadianNewsprintReportage

TherewerefourdistinctphasesintheGlobeandMailandtheNationalPost'sreportage

onMuslimsintheyearafterSeptember11,2001.Thefirstphaseoccurredinthe

immediateaftermathof9/11wherethenewspaperswerecriticaloftheattacksandthe

presumedIslamicterroristsinvolved,whichineffectpromotedthe ideaofMuslimsbeing

the"other."Thesecondphaseoccurredattheendof2001whenOsamabinLaden

releasedvideotapeprofessinghispleasureinregardstotheoutcomesofthe attacksthat

heorchestrated.Oncemore,thenewsprintmedialatchedontothisandfocusedits

39 attentiononMuslimextremistscellsandtheirthreattoWesternliberaldemocracies.The

thirddistinctphaseoccurredoneyearaftertheSeptember11attacksandservedasa

recapitulationoftheeventsandthecollectiveeffectsontheworld.Thereportageinthis

phaseemergedasmoretemperedthanthereportageayearearlier.Thefourthphase

occurredalittleoverayearafter9/11whenthemediabecameawarethatMaherArar,a

Syrian-Canadianhadbecomeavictimoftheextraordinaryrenditionprogram.

PhaseOne

BoththeGlobeandMailandNationalPostreportedextensivelyontheSeptember11

attacks,butCanada'stwonationalnewspapersapproachedthetopicfromdifferent

perspectives.TheGlobe,althoughcriticaloftheMuslimterrorists,wasquicktoprovidea

voicetoconcernedMuslimleadersinCanadawhoexpressedworrythatCanadianswould

notdifferentiatebetweenmilitant extremistsandordinary Muslims.Anarticlecitedthe

CanadianarmoftheIslamicSocietyofNorthAmericathatstated,"AllCanadianMuslim

residentsstronglycondemnwhatareapparentlyviciousandcowardlyattacksagainst

innocenthumanbeings"(Gadd,2001,September12).Inaddition,aSeptember14,2001

articlepublishedintheGlobecitedtheglobalMuslimcommunitycondemningthe

attacks."Muslimscholarsandspiritualleadersaroundtheworldrespondedsimilarly,

withcategoricalstatementsthatcriminalterroristactsaresinsthathavenoplaceor

endorsementinIslamandcouldnotbecommittedbyanytrueMuslim"(Elmasry,2001).

TheGlobe'sattempttoabatetheriseofhatecrimesaimedatMuslimswasstarkly

contrastedbythereportspublishedintheNationalPost.

StewartBellimmediatelysettheovertlyconservativetonethattheNationalPost

adoptedafter9/11."Throughnegligenceindifference, and theCanadiangovernmenthas

40 permittedvirtuallyeverymajorterroristorganizationtooperatewithinitsborders...

Canada'svulnerabilitytoinfiltrationbyterroristsisdeeplyentrenched.Itsrefugeelaws

areprobablythemostlaxintheWesternworld"(Bell,2001,September13).George

Jonas(2001a,October15)followedBell'sleadbysuggestingtohisreadershipthat,"We

haveto fearourneighborsdownthestreet...adegreeofethnicorreligiousprofilingis

unavoidable...Though fewofourneighborsareterrorists,somearesympathizers."The

laymeninferencethatJonasissuggestingcouldonlyhavedeleteriouseffectson

Canadian-Muslims.Themessageisclearlydivisivebyforwardingthe"us"versus"them"

ethos,whichcompromisesthemulticulturalfabricthatCanadaclingstoforitsidentity

whileinconjunctionthreateningthepossibilityforMuslimssocialinclusion.His

suggestionthat"somearesympathizers"couldonlyservetosparkmoreanxietyaimedat

Canadian-Muslims,whichnaturallymanifestinviolenthatecrimesdirectedatvisible

minoritygroups.

Nevertheless,inNovember2001,Jonascontinuedhisargumentthatterrorismhad

reachednationssuchasCanadabysuggesting,"SomecommentatorsonthePalestinian

sideoftheMiddleEastconflicttrytoobscurethethreatofmilitantIslam,whosefifth

columnsoftheo-fasciststormtroopershaveinfiltratedWesterndemocracies"(Jonas,

2001b,November27).FellowPostwriterJonathanKaywhowroteundertheheadline,A

healthydoseofbigotry,echoedthissentiment,"Weshouldnotpretendthataneffective

fightagainstterrorism[inCanada]canbewagedinatrulycolor-blindfashion.Thefact

is,thosewhoplottheannihilationofourcivilizationareofonereligionand,almost

withoutexception,onerace"(Kay,2001,October18).Kay'sstatementishighly

evocativeandisdeeplyracist.Forinstance,ithasrobbedpeopleoftheiridentitywhether

41 asArabs,Bosnians,orIndonesian— allwhohappentobeMuslims.Moreover,Kay's

racismliesinhowidentitiesarehomogenizedsothatamonolith"other"canbe

presented.Inaddition,reportssuchasJonas'andKay'sforwardthenotionsthatCanada,

andarguablyitscitizens,mustaddressthepercolatingissueofIslamicextremismnot

onlyabroadbutalsodomestically.Withtangibleexamplesofincreasedviolenceagainst

Muslimspost-9/11,theseassertionspresenteddangerousreprisalstowardsMuslim

communitiesandfurtherdistancedtheirhopeforsocialinclusion.

Nevertheless,otherPostjournalistssupportedtheideasforwardedbyJonasand

Kay,namelyAndrewCoyne,whocontinuedtheNationalPost'sovertrhetoric."Ifthe

WestisseriousaboutconfrontingIslamicterrorism— iftheenormityof[the]attackshas

atlastconvinceduswehavenootherchoice— thenitmustalsorealizethattheterrorists

willfightback.TherewillbeCanadianskilled,andonoursoil"(Coyne,2001,September

16).ThearticlesuggeststhatCanadiansmustgotowarbecausehundredsofCanadians

wereconceivablykilledinthe9/11attacks.HeproposesgoingtowaragainstIslam

withoutanyregardorcompunction.Oncemore,thisisadangerousproposition,assome

CanadiansmayseethisacalltoriseupinarmsagainstIslam,butnotintheMiddleEast,

thewarcouldconceivablyoccurinthestreets,schools,andotherpublicplacesin

Canada.

Infact,Muslimsweretargetedinastaggeringincreaseinhatecrimes.TheGlobe

publishedseveralreportsonattacksonCanadian-Muslims."Actsstabbing, of vandalism,

andphysicalattackshavebeenreportedbyfrightenedMuslimstomanycommunityand

spiritualleaders...AnelderlywomaninKansas woreherheadscarf,orhijab,inpublic

thisweek— andwasassaultedasshesatinherwheelchair.InMontreal,amosquewas

42 r

fire-bombed"(Elmasry,2001,September14).TheGlobealsoreportedonSeptember15

that,"Alarmandconcern[increased]withthegrowingnumberofanti-Muslimincidents

documentedinthelastfewdays...[Suchas]attacksonmosquesinMontreal,Oshawa,

andSt.Catharines,aswellasdeaththreatsandotherverbalabuselevelledatindividuals"

(LewingtonandPeritz,2001).Oncemore,theGlobereportedanincreaseinhatecrimes

directedatMuslims,whichwasnoticeablyabsentfromthePost'scoverage."Hate-

motivatedcrimeshaveskyrocketedinCanadasincetheterroristattacksNew inYorkand

Washingtonlastweek.Thisishappeninginlockstepwithawaveofsimilarincidentsin

theUnitedStatesandBritain,"(Mitchell,2001,September21)whichputCanada's

multiculturalfoundationintoquestion."CanadianMuslimsshouldnotsufferforbeing

Muslims...Torontoispraisedasamulticulturalcity,yetallofasuddenyoufeelvery

isolated"(LewingtonandPeritz,2001,September15).

Nevertheless,despitetheGlobeandMail'scleardeparturefromtheNational

Post'sreportage,theGlobeisnotentirelyabsolvedfromcontributingtothenegative

identityconstructionofMuslims."Thisisashowofpowerandstrength.Itisashowof

cold-heartedbrutalityperpetratedbyfanaticswhohavediscardedallpretenceof

humanityormorality.Nomatterwhattheirforeignpoliticalcause,theircampaignhas

nowlostallinternationalsupportandlegitimacy"(Editorial,2001,September12).

Although,thereportattemptstocallstheperpetrators"fanatics,"thisisahighly

evocativeresponseandservestoreduceMuslimstoaprimitivestatethatlacksanyform

ofreasoning.FreedomofspeechiscelebratedinCanada,butreportsofthisnaturemay

haveseriousdamagingeffectsonthelargerIslamiccommunitythatwasclearly,and

wrongfullyassociatedwiththe9/11terrorists.

43 Furthermore,aSeptember25,2001articlepublishedintheGlobecitedauthorIan

Burumawhocomparedtheanti-SemitismofIslamicextremistswiththatoftheNazisin

WW II."NaziandMuslimextremistdemonsoverlap.WorldJewryhassurvivedthelast

worldwarasagreatSatan.ItsheadquartershasshiftedfromMoscowtoNewYork"

(Gee,2001).Thereisacaveatattheendofthearticlestatingexpertsclaimthattheanti-

SemitismspoutedbytheextremistsisnottypicalofmainstreamIslam.However,once

morethelanguageisconcerninginitssuggestivenature.Although,thearticleattemptsto

beinformative,itisaprecariouspiecewherebytheconsumingpublicmayconstrue

Muslimswith Nazis.Oncemore,itisimportanttoconsiderhowthenewsprintmedia's

reportageaffectedMuslims'settlementexperiencesandtheiroverallsocialinclusionin

Canadafollowing theof9/11. events

PhaseTwo

TheinitialstageofreportagebytheNationalPostlargelycastigatedtheIslamicworldfor

the9/11attacksandineffectconstructedMuslimsidentitiesasamonolithicfollowing

intentontheannihilationofliberaldemocraticstates.EdwardSaidhasbeenaleading

criticofWesternmedia'sdangeroushegemonicstereotypingofIslam."Giventhe

tendencytoreduceIslamtoahandfulofrules,stereotypes,andgeneralizationsabout

faith,itsfounder,andallofitspeople,thenthereinforcementofeverynegativefact

associatedwithIslam-itsviolence,primitiveness,atavism,threateningqualities-is

perpetuated"(Said,1981,p.xvi).Nevertheless,asnewinformationonthe9/11attacks

surfacedattheendof2001,thePostincreaseditsnegativereportageonIslamandits

followers.BarbaraAmiel(2001)wrote,

"IslamitselfissplitbetweenIslamasreligion a thatcanbeessentially

peaceful--endorsingthequalitiesofcharityandmercy— andmilitantIslam

44 (Islamism),whichisintolerantandexpansionist.MilitantIslamwantstobe

thedominantforceintheworld.ItscrusadehasMuslimsfightingChristians

inIndonesia,SudanandPakistan.Islamismhasbeenonthemoveallright,

butithasn'tachancenow,becauseitfinallywokeupAmerica."

AmielwassuggestingthatAmerica'sloomingeradicationofIslamismwasacceptable

andshouldbefullyendorsed,butthismayhaveledtovigilante behavior,as citizens

wouldmovetoeliminateIslamismontheirownaccord.

A December18,2001reportintheGlobeandMailreporteda Christian Pastor,

MarkHarding,whodeliveredhighlyracializedpamphletsrelatingtoMuslims.According

tothearticle,HardingclaimedthatMuslims,"sound peacefulandtrytoactpeaceful,but

underneaththeir falsesheep'sclothingare ragingwolves,seekingwhomtheymaydevour

--andTorontoisdefinitelyontheirhitlist"(Makin,2001).Itwouldnotbeprudentto

suggestthatHarding'sbeliefswererepresentativeofthepublic'soverallperceptionsof

Muslim;however,Harding'sviewswerenotentirelyuncommon.Moreviolentcrimes

suchasmurderswerecommittedintheUnitedStates;however,hatecrimesandracial

profilingexperiencedanincreaseinCanada(Welch,2006;Razack,2004).

TheNationalPostagainwashighlycriticalofIslamism,butofferedfewcaveats

toqualifytheirpositionintermsofthelargerMuslimcommunity.

OsamabinLadenandhisilk,thesuicidebomberswhopreyoninnocent

Israelicitizensoutshoppingor lunchingattheirlocalpizzeria,andfire-

breathingimamsfromMissouritoMindanao,refertousassatanic.We are

infidels,butitisalsoobviousthatweprosper.Thiscombinationisvitalin

makingusIslamism'senemy,asthebrilliantPrincetonscholar,Bernard

Lewis,haspointedout.ItisbecausetheWestoffersauniversalistic

challengetothewould-bedominanceofIslamismthatal-Qaedaandlike-

mindedgroupshateusandseekourdestruction(Gurdon,2001December

24)

ThesuggestionthattheviolenttendenciesofIslamicextremismaremotivatedbythecore

valuesofliberaldemocraticsocietiessuchasuniversalfreedomandcapitalismis

45 irresponsible.Thereportsimplyinvestigatestheextremists'reactions,butdoesnot

adequatelyexaminecausalfactorssuchasendlessinvasionsandWesternImperialismin

MiddleEasternnations.

OnDecember27,the NationalPostpublishedthetranscriptofOsamabinLaden's

addressto the world.

Threemonthsaftertheblessedattacksagainsttheinternationalinfidels,

againstthemaininfidelAmerica,andafteralmosttwomonthshavepassed

sincethestartoftheviciousCrusadeagainstIslam,wewouldliketotalk

aboutsomeofthefactsthattheseeventshaverevealed.Theseeventshave

revealedalotofveryimportantissuestoMuslims.Itisveryclearthatthe

Westingeneral,spearheadedbyAmerica,holdsanindescribableamountof

CrusaderloathingforIslam,andthatthosewhohavelivedallthesemonths

undertheconstantbombingbydifferenttypesofU.S.planesknowthisfora

fact(Anonymous,2001).

OncemorethePostwascriticalof Canada'srolewhileconsistentlyconstructingMuslims

innegativefashion.

However,incounterpoint,theGlobeandMailcontinueditslargelyunbiased

coverageMuslims of attheendof2001.WhenbinLaden'svideofootagewasreleased

theGlobequestionedpresidentBush'sjudgementofthevideoandtheveracityofits

authenticity.

TheBushadministrationreleasedthehour-longtape,convincedithasthe

smokinggunthatwillbolstershakysupportintheMuslimworldforthewar

inAfghanistananditsrelentlesspursuitofMr.binLaden'sal-Qaeda

terroristnetwork...Manypeoplegreetedthevideotapewithindifference,

scepticismoroutrightdisbelief.SinceSept.11,Muslimcommentatorshave

calledontheUnitedStatestoproduceproofofMr.binLaden'sinvolvement

intheattacks(McKenna,2001,December15).

ThiswasacleardeparturefromthecoveragethattheNationalPostundertook,whichis

evidencedbyMcKennaaddressingOsamabinLadenasMisterbinLaden.Presumably,

46 T

thisisrepresentativeoftheGlobe's,andperhapsCanada'scommonlawheritage,which

clearlystatesthatcriminalsuspectsareinnocentuntilprovenguilty.

DavidHirstonDecember9,2001wroteasimilararticleintheGlobethatechoed

thecriticalmessagethatwasclearlyidentifiableinMcKenna'sreportinvestigatingbin

Laden."...ThoughhisaddresswascouchedintheimageryofuncompromisingIslamism,

hedidnotbelabourhisdoctrinesandbeliefs.Thosebeliefshaveonlyalimitedappealto

theArabpeople.Infact— asMr.binLadenknows— agreatmanyofthempineforthose

idealsofdemocracyandfreedomthattheU.S.standsfor."ItisapparentthattheGlobe

andMail'scoverageremainedobjective,whereas,theNationalPostpresentedovert

condemnationsoftheIslamicworldandofCanada'sresponseto9/11.

PhaseThree

ThereportingtrajectorythatCanada'stwonationalnewspapersfollowedweresimilarin

September2002.BoththeGlobeandMail andtheNationalPostreflectedonhowthe

worldhadchangedafter9/11.Thereportagewasmuchmoretemperedincomparison

thantheinitialphase.Forinstance,thePost,whichwashighlyvocalinitscondemnation

ofIslam,publishedanarticlethatcalledforpeacetobeembraced." ItIsnowtimeto

moveonandcomeupwithcreativesolutionstotheconflictsthathaveplaguedour

world.Peaceatthemomentisfragileandweallneedtoriseaboveourself-interestifwe

aretopreserveit.Forthosewhocherishandespousefreedomanddemocracy,itis

imperativethatwechampionitforallofhumanity"(Shahid,2002,September28).

ShahidwasthepresidentoftheMississaugachapterof"MuslimsAgainstTerrorism,"but

thereportinthePostwasacleardeparturefromitsearlierreportage.Infact,Shahid's

47 articlemirroredtheGlobeandMail'sapproachforprovidingMuslim-Canadianswitha

voiceinamajornewspaper.

Nevertheless,thePostdidcontinueitsnegativeidentityconstructionofMuslims.

HymieRubenstein(2002,September16)wroteadamningarticlethatconstructsMuslims

asapoordesperatepeople.

ThisisthemostdangerousfeatureofcontemporaryIslamicterrorism:

millionsofotherwisenon-violentbutterriblypoorandunhappyMuslimsin

dozensThird of Worldcountrieshavebeenenculturatedtobelievethatthe

allegedgreed,arrogance,andhedonismoftheWestare therootofallevil.

ThesepoorpeopleneedrichandcharismaticleaderslikeOsamabinLaden

toguidetheminJihad.Conversely,historyhasshownthatthebinLadensof

theworldcannot longsurvivewithouttheencouragementofthe

downtroddenmasses.

ThisreportdoeslittletodispelthenegativemythmakingthatsurroundedMuslimsayear

after9/11.ThesuggestionthatmillionsofMuslimsarelikealargeflockofsheep

awaitingSheppard a toguidethemremovesanyabilityforrationalthoughtfromthe

millionsofMuslimsinthedevelopingworld.ThisreportiscongruentwithhowSaid

describedtheEurocentricthoughtinrelationtotheOrientwherethemedia'sproduction

isnotbenign(Said,1981).

TheGlobeandMailrecapitulatedmuchofitsreportageonMuslimsfromthe

previousyear.Oncemore,theGlobeprovidedavoiceforMuslims-Canadiansthatsought

toidentifytheirconcernsandsentiments."...TheCouncilonAmerican-IslamicRelations

Canada(CAIR-CAN)releasedtheresultsofapollabouthowCanadianMuslimshave

faredthe inyearsincethatfatefulday.Ofnearly300respondents,60percentindicated

thattheyhadbeensubjecttosomeformofdiscriminationorbias,while80percent

indicatedtheyknewofsomeoneelsewhohadbeensubjecttothesame"(Khan,2002,

October14).Thereportalsodescribedpolicereportsthatdiscussedtheriseinhate

48 crimesdirectedatMuslimsandcomparedCanadianMuslimswithUkrainiansandPoles

duringWW IandinternedGermans,ItaliansandJapaneseduringtheWW II.Clearly,the

GlobecontinuedtoofferanobjectiveandcompassionateavenueforMuslimswhilethe

PostmaintaineditsconservativeandIslamophobicapproach,albeitwithamodicumof

temperedreportage.

PhaseFourArar

MaherAraremigratedwithhisfamilyfromSyriatoCanadain1989.Heenrolledat

McGillUniversityinMontrealandcompletedhisMastersdegreeintelecommunications

fromtheUniversityofQuebec'sInstitutnationaldelarecherchescientifique(Pither,pp.

50-60).Naturally,whenthemediawasnotifiedthatanaturalizedCanadiancitizenhad

beencapturedandsentSyria, to therewassignificantpublicoutcry;however,oncemore

thereportagebytheGlobeandMailandtheNationalPostdifferedsignificantly.

October12,2002,theGlobeandMailranthefirststorythatdiscussedArar's

capture.Thetitle,Canadiandeportationcausesfuror,summarizedthearticle'scontent.

ThereportcitedRiadSaloojeeoftheCouncilonAmerican-IslamicRelationsCanada,

whoargued,"Thisdeportationwasillegal,andithasplacedthelifeofaCanadiancitizen

atrisk.We aregravelyconcernedabouttheU.S.deportingaCanadiancitizenwithout

consultingtheCanadiangovernment."hiaddition,thearticledescribedArarasa

"respectfulCanadianengineer"andadevouthusbandandlovingfather,andhad

interviewedArar'swifeMonia(Cheney,2002,October12).However,oncemore,the

NationalPosttookadistinctlydifferentapproach.ThePost'sarticledescribedArarasa

"suspectedterrorist,"whichhasfarmoredubiousconnotations.Thearticlewasalso

extremelybriefandappearedasnothingmorethanamerepassingcaveat.

49 TwodayslatertheGlobeagainpublishedareportthatinterviewedSaloojee.

Saloojeeclaimed,"ThedetentionanddeportationofMaherArarisagravebreachofboth

internationalhuman-rightslawandMr.Arar'srightsasaCanadiancitizen"(Honey,

2002,October14).ThereportcitesBillGraham,theformerministryForeignAffairs,and

otherpoliticianswhovoicedtheirdeepconcernsforArar.ThePost,however,waslatein

itsreportage.ThefirstarticledescribingArar'speriloussituationdid notsurfaceuntila

fulltendaysafterithadbecomepubliclyawarethatarespectedMuslim-Canadian

engineerhadbeenforciblytakenhostageandsenttoSyria(Bell,2001a,October22).The

articleineffectdisplacedArarandhispredicamentfromthenarrativebyfocusingonthe

tenuousdiplomaticrelationshipbetweenCanadaandtheUnitedStates.Onecan only

assumethatthiswasabi-productofthePost'sovertviewstowardsMuslims,whichwas

previouslydiscussed,irrespectiveoftheircitizenship.

Thefollowingday,StewartBellcontinuedtoinvestigatediplomatic theposturing

bytheUnitedStatesandCanadainrelationtoArar.Thearticleservedasanexpansionon

thepreviousdaysreport;however,thelastsentenceemergesasproblematicinference.

"Muslimactivistshavecitedthecaseasprooftheyarebeingtreatedunfairlyinthepost-

Sept.11securitycrackdown"(Bell,2002b,October23).TheGlobehadpreviously

providedatangibleforumforMuslimleaderssuchasRiadSaloojeetovoicetheir

concernsoverArar'scase.However,Bellhasdescribed,presumablythesameMuslim

leaders,asactivists.Thewordchoiceisproblematicbecausethe publicgenerallywould

inferthatactivismleadstoprotestanddissent:imagesthatarenegativelyassociatedwith

Muslims.

50 TheGlobeandMailcontinueditssignificantattentionontheArarcase,butthe

Post'scoveragewaned.FromOctober12,2002toNovember1,2002,theNationalPost

publishedfourarticlesrelatingtoMaherArar,whereastheGlobeandMailpublished

eight.TheGlobe'sreportagecontinuedtoprovidevoicesforMuslimsandtodescribe

Arar'scharacterwhilealongside,outliningtheabusesto his citizenshipandhumanrights.

ThePostagainservedasadistinctcounterpointinitscoverageofArarbyattemptingto

situatetheeventsinadiplomaticarena,andlittleconsiderationwasgiventohischaracter

orthecircumstancesofhiscapture.

Itisapparentthattheprintmediapossesssignificantpowertoconstructnegative

identityrepresentations,whichhavedetrimentaleffectsonnewcomerandvisible

minoritygroup'ssuccessfulintegrationinCanada.MinelleMahtaniargues,"Canadian

mediacontinuetobroadcastnegativeandstereotypicalimagesthatservetodemean

minorityCanadians.Ethnicminoritiesdonotseethemselvesaccuratelyreflectedin

Canadianmedia,andthatmarginalizationperpetuatesfeelingsofexclusion"(Mahtani,

2001,p.100).Moreover,whenUBC professorDr.SuneraThobanidelivered a

controversialspeechonOctober1,2001ataconferencefortheCanadianAssociationof

SexualAssaultCentreinOttawa,shewaswidelycriticizedintheCanadianpress.Inher

speechThobanicitedpastU.S.foreignpolicymaneuversliketheCIAcoupd'etatin

Chilethatkilled30,000peopleandtheU.S.backedregimeinElSalvadorthatuseddeath

squadstokill75,000people(Thobani,2001).Ineffect,Thobani'sargumentwasseeking

toincreasetheCanadianpublic'scriticaldisseminationofmediareportspertainingto

U.S.foreignpolicy.Itwasacriticalspeechthatarguedthatitwasnotsurprisingthatthe

September11,2001attacksoccurred,astheUnitedStates'actionsdeveloping in

51 countrieshadcultivatedextremehatetowardsthenationbynumeroussubjugated

peoples.

However,themediaportrayedThobani,avisibleminorityimmigrant,asan

"enemy"whosevoicefostereddissent,whichechoedthedestructivesentiments

imbeddedinIslamicfundamentalism.The PrimeMinister,alltheleadersofthe

oppositionparties,editorialists,andmediacolumnistscastigatedThobaniforher

insensitivityandill-timedcomments.Shereceivedhatemail,deaththreats,andcallsfor

hertobefiredfromherpositionatUBC(Thobani,2003,p.403).Yet,Thobanihas

resolutelydefendedherspeechbyclarifyingherposition.

"I alsopointedoutthattheinstitutionalizationofracialprofilinginthewake

ofSeptember11,andthetargetingofimmigrantsandrefugeeswithinCanada

andtheUnitedStatesasathreattothenation'ssecurity,especiallyofthose

who"look"likeMuslims,inevitablyfollowedfromthislogic.Thewomen's

movementhadtodisruptthisracializeddiscourseandchallengethenotion

thattheWaronTerrorismwasareasonable,just,orrighteousresponse,and

insteadinsistuponnamingittheimperialistventurethatitwas"(Thobani,

2003,p.402).

ThiscertainlyraisesquestionssurroundingthefreedomofspeechinCanada.Regardless,

Thobani'sspeechandthemedia'ssubsequentresponsewereindicativeofthemedia's

powertoinfluenceitsaudiences'perceptionsofevents.

MichaelWelchhasidentifiedasignificantissuethatisrarelyconsideredwhen

evaluatingtheproductionandconsumptionofmediareportson MiddleEasternissues

associatedwithIslam."Oneofthemostobviouspitfallsinthemedia'scoverageofIslam

isthatreportersandmanyWesternself-appointedexpertsdonotread,speak,or

understandlanguagesindigenoustotheMiddleEast(Welch,2006,p.59).Oncemore,

theidentitypoliticsimbeddedinWesternmediareflectsSaid'stheoryofOrientalism

whereEurocentrismistheidentitystandardinwhichallotherracesarecompared.

52 Inaddition,nationalnewspapersliketheNationalPost,whichlargelyechoed

American-conservativereportsafter9/11,haveplacedmoreemphasisontheir

institutionalself-interestswhileinlarge part eliminatingobjectivity.BernardLewisraises

avalidpointthroughhisstatementthat,"Understandably,Muslimscomplainwhenthe

mediaspeakofterroristmovementsandactionsas"Islamic"andaskwhythemediado

notsimilarlyidentifyIrishandBasqueterroristandterrorismasChristian"(Lewis,2003,

p.137).Lewis'statementissomewhatironic,ashewasthepersonwhoinitiallycameup

withthe"clashofcivilizations"thesisthatSamuelHuntingtonlateradopted.The

NationalPostclearlyexerciseditsinstitutionalinfluenceinitsreportageonMuslims

post-9/11.TheGlobeandMailofferedamoretemperedapproach,butcannotbe

absolvedentirelyofcreatingnegativestereotypesassociatedwithMuslims.Nevertheless,

"byreductivelyportrayingdiverse[Muslim]societiesintothecaricatureofIslamic

Fundamentalism,andbyfrequentlyrepeatingtheOrientalistinsistencethatIslamisa

threattoglobalstability,theyhave,moredeeplypopularizedthemythologysurrounding

thethreatofthe"other"inthemindsofCanadians"(IsmaelandMeasor,2003,p.126).

53 CaseStudies-MaherArarandAbdullahAlmalki

MaherArarisarguablythemostrecognizedvictimoftheextraordinaryrendition

program.UponhisreturntoCanadainOctober2003,Ararlaunchedlawsuitsagainstthe

governmentsthatwereresponsibleforhisyearincarcerationinSyria,whichservedto

furtherthrusthisnameintothepublic'sconsciousness.However,Ararisamongagroup

ofCanadian-Muslimmaleswhosharedthehorrificexperiencesofextraordinary

rendition.AbdullahAlmalki,AhmadAbou-Elmaati,andMuayyedNureddinwerealso

heldcaptiveandtorturedforextendedperiodsinthe"WaronTerror."Thischapterwill

discussArarandAlmalki'srespectivecases,theimplicationsofCanadianofficials

involvementoncitizenshipprotectionrights,andMuslimsettlementconcerns.

MaherArar

MaherArarimmigratedtoCanadain1987fromSyriaandreceivedhisCanadian

citizenshipin1991.Heattendedschool highinMontrealandeventuallyobtaineda

BachelorsdegreeinengineeringfromMcGillUniversity.Hewouldlatergo ontoobtain

aMastersdegreeintelecommunicationsfromtheUniversityofQuebec.InDecember

1997,ArarandhisyoungfamilymovedfromMontrealtoOttawaandin1999,hebegan

workingforahightechfirmcalledTheMathWorksinBoston,whichinvolved

significant73travelwithintheUnitedStates.In2001,hedecidedtoreturntoOttawato

beginhisowntelecommunicationsconsultingcompany.(TestimonyofMaherArar,

October17,2007).

AccordingtoArar'swifeDr.MoniaMazigh,businesswasslowforherhusband,as

thehigh-tech bubbleofthelate1990shadburstandthesectorwassuffering.InJuly

2002,ArarandhisfamilywentonvacationtoTunisiatovisitDr.Mazigh'srelativesand

54 toevaluateArar'snextbusinessplan.ArardecidedtoreturntoOttawainlateSeptember

to reignitehisbusiness(Mazigh,2008);however,hisreturntoCanadawasinterruptedon

September26bytheUnitedStatesImmigrationandNaturalizationServices(INS)who

arrestedhimatJFKInternationalAirportinNewYork(McCoy,2008;Grey,2004;

Mayer,2005;Lobel,2008).

ArarwassenttotheMetropolitanDetentionCentre(MDC)inBrooklynwherehe

wasquestionedatlengthabouthisassociationwithasuspectedterroristandalQaeda

member.Attheprison,theystrip-searchedhimandplacedhiminsolitaryconfinement

withoutanycontactwithhisfamilyortheoutsideworld(Lobel,2008).Accordingto

Arar,"Itwashumiliatingandagainstmy religiontobenakedinfrontofothers.Theyput

me inanorangesuitandtookmetoadoctorwheretheymademe signformsandgave

me ashot.Iaskedwhatitwasforandtheywouldnottellme.My armwasredforalmost

twoweeks"(TestimonyofMaherArar,October18,2007).ArarwasheldattheMDC for

nearlytwoweeksinwhichtimeheenduredlonginterrogationsandwasdeniedlegal

counsel.Whenhewasgrantedcounsel,itwasdonesoinimproperfashion.Arar'stimein

theMDC would provetobethefirstinaseriesofhumanandlegalrightsabusesthathe

wouldfaceoverthefollowingyear.

ArarwasrenderedfromtheMDC onOctober8onboardaCIAregistered

GulfstreamjettoJordan,andultimatelytoSyria(Grey,2006,pp.62-63).Ararhad

repeatedlyexpressedhisfearoftortureinSyriatoINSauthoritieswhilehewasdetained

attheMDC (HumanRights Watch,2005,p.28).TheStateDepartmentwasequally

awarethatSyriantorturemethodsincludedelectricalshocks,pullingoutfingernails,the

forcedinsertionofobjectsintotherectum,andseverebeatings(McCoy,pp.173-174).

55 Howevera troublingrevelationshowedthattheINShadoriginallyagreedthatArarwas

entitledtoprotectionfromtortureandthatrenderinghimtoSyriawouldlikelyresultin

historture.ItwasassumedthathewouldbesenttoCanadaforfurtherquestioning;

however,thatdecisionwasultimately overridden(Lobel,2008,pp.483-484).

ArararrivedinSyriaonOctober9,2002wherehewasheldintheSyrianMilitary

Intelligence(SMI)PalestineBranch,otherwiseknownasTheGravebyitsprisoners.The

Gravereceiveditsnamebecausetherat-infestedcellswereapproximatelythesamesize

asgraves.Hewasroutinelybeatenonhisback,hisbuttocks,andhisfeetwithshredded

two-inch-thickelectroniccords(Grey2006,pp.2-3;ArarChronology,p.5).Ararwas

eventuallyreleasedfromTheGraveonAugust19,2003andreceivedhisfullrelease

fromSMIonOctober5,2003(O'Connor,2006,p.467).However,itisimportanttoask

whyMaherArarbecameavictimoftheextraordinaryrenditionprogram.Inorderto

answerthisquestion,onemustlooktohisassociationwithfellowSyrian-Canadian

AbdullahAlmalki.

AbdullahAlmalki

AbdullahAlmalkiandMaherArarshareidenticalmigrationhistories.Almalkiwasbom

inSyriaandimmigratedtoCanadain1987withhisfamily,whichwasthesameyearthat

ArararrivedinCanada.Moreover,likeArar,Almalkienrolledinanengineeringprogram

atCarletonUniversityandeventuallyreceivedhisCanadiancitizenshipin1991

(AmnestyInternational,2006).1992, InAlmalkitravelledtoPeshawar,Pakistanand

Afghanistanwherehewasmovedbythe regionsvasthumanitarianneeds.Inthesummer

of1993,hereturnedtoPakistantovolunteerwithaHumanConcernInternational(HCI)

projectfundedbytheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram(Almalkibiography).

56 Almalkiwasdescribedasa"veryreligiousman,educatedintheKoran,whowasviewed

asanelderinthe[OttawaMuslim]community"(Pither,2008,p.56).However,his

volunteerworkintheMiddleEastwouldultimatelyprovetobeoneoftheprimary

reasonsforhissuspectedterroristactivitiespriorto,andpost-9/11.

Inthe2008IacobucciInquiry,whichaddressedtheactionsofCanadianOfficialsin

RelationtoAbdullahAlmalki,AhmadAbou-Elmaati,andMuayyedNureddin,Almalki

hadbecomeapersonofinterestpriortoSeptember11,2001.Inthelate1990s,

presumablyrelatedtohistravelsinAfghanistanandPakistan,"CSISsharedinformation

aboutMr.AlmalkiwiththeRCMP andvariousforeignintelligenceand lawenforcement

agencies,includingUSagenciesandMalaysianagencies"(Iacobucci,2008,p.194).

Moreover,

FollowingtheeventsofSeptember11,2001,theRCMPreceivedseveral

lettersfromCSISandU.S.authoritiesadvisingitofindividualssuspectedof

IslamicextremisminCanada.AmongtheseletterswasaSeptember26,2001

letterfromCSISthatmentionedbutdidnotnameanindividualbelievedtobe

an"alQaedaprocurementofficerinCanada,"andaSeptember23,2001letter

fromtheFBIdescribingMr.Almalkiasthe"Ottawa-basedprocurement

officer"forOsamabinLaden(Iacobucci,2008,p.194).

Accordingtothe2006O'ConnorInquiry,whichsimilarlyaddressedtheactionsof

CanadianOfficialsinRelationtoMaherArar,AbdullahAlmalkiwasaprimarytargetof

theOttawaRCMPandthefocalpointofProjectA-OCanada'slengthyinvestigation.

ProjectA-0CanadawasajointRCMP divisioninvestigationthatwascharged

withinvestigatingAbdullahAlmalki."InearlyOctober2001,RCMP "O"Divisionasked

"A"Divisionforassistanceinvestigating in theactivitiesofAbdullahAlmalki,anOttawa

residentwhowasbelievedtobeconnectedtoal-Qaeda.Inresponse,"A"Division

created ProjectA-0Canadawiththreepriorities:prevention,intelligenceand

57 prosecution"(O'Connor,2006,pp.16-17).Clearly,theintelligencecommunitythought

Almalkitobeanexceptionalpersonofinterest,whichexplainsthedevelopmentof

ProjectA-0Canada,asitwasprovidedwithinformationlinkingtargetedindividuals

withimminentthreatstothesecurityofCanada(O'Connor,2006,pp.35-36).

Consequently,MuslimmensuchasArarandAlmalkibecamethesubjectsofintense

surveillanceforintelligencegatheringinitiativestopreventfurtherterroristattacks.

However,theveracityoftheintelligencegatheredconcerningAlmalkiwaslargely

questionableandhadracialprofilingconcerns.AccordingtoAlmalki,"Clearlyfromthe

wayIwasfalselylabelledbytheRCMP beforetheyevenstartedtheirinvestigation,and

beforetheyevenknewmuch,ifanything,aboutme,andthefalseinformationand

accusationsthattheysenttoSyriaandmanyothercountriesatthattime,thatstrongly

suggeststhatitwasbecauseofracialprofilingand incompetence"(Interview,August10,

2009).

Nevertheless,Almalkididlittletoabatethesuspicionsurroundinghisalleged

terroristconnections.WhileundersurveillanceinOttawa,Almalkileftthecountryon

November27,2001forMalaysia,underwhatJusticeO'Connor(2006,p.72)described

as"suspiciouscircumstances."Almalki'sdeparturefromCanadaoccurredwithout

ProjectA-0Canada'sknowledgeuntilseveraldayslater,whicharguablygavethe

RCMP andCSISthesensethathewasfleeing.Accordingly,onJanuary21,2002,search

warrantsweregrantedforAlmalki's house,hisbrotherNazihAlmalki'shome,and

AhmadEl-Maati'sresidence.Thesearcheswerenotexpectedtoyieldmuchinformation,

butasignificantamountwasgathered.26computerharddrives,40videotapes,100

compactdiscsanddiskettes,20,000pagesofdocumentsincludingphotographsand

58 financialrecords,and2boxesofshreddeddocumentsforreassembling.Someofthe

computers,compactdiscsanddisketteswerehiddeneitherinwallsorrafters(O'Connor,

2006,p.73).Obviously,thedubiousnatureofthematerialleftseriousquestions

surroundingAlmalkiandhisassociates,butAlmalki'slocationwasstillamysteryto

CSISandtheRCMP atthebeginningof2002;however,theysuspectedhewasin

Malaysia,hiswife'shomecountry.

OnMay102002,CSISandProjectA-0CanadalearnedthatAlmalkihadleft

Malaysia,andinlateMaylearnedthathemayhavebeendetainedinSyria,whichwas

laterconfirmedinthemiddleofJune(Iacobucci,2008.p.203).LikeArar,Almalkiwas

heldintheSMIPalestineBranchinSyriafromMay2002toMarch2004.Almalkialso

enduredthesamehorrifictorturingmethodsadministeredbySMIofficials.Hedescribed

hisfirstinterrogationattheSMIPalestineBranchwherebytheinterrogatororderedhim

totakeoffhisjacket,shoes,andsocksandtolieontheflooronhisstomach.Hisknees

werebent,withhisfeetintheair.Twoorthreemenwhippedthesolesofhisfeetwith

frayedcableswhileothermenkickedhimrepeatedly(Pither,2008,p.117).Almalkialso

frequentlyenduredtheseveretorturemethodknownastheTire,whichArarhadbeen

threatenedwith(ArarChronology,p.5).

"He[Almalki]wastakenfromhiscelltoaninterrogationroom,blindfolded,

andtoldtostripdowntohisunderwear.Theybroughtatiretohimandtold

himhowtogetintoit.Hesatinthetirewithhisback onthefloor,andthe

backofhisneckagainsttheinsideofthetire.Hisarmswerearoundthetire.

Theyraisedhis legsupsohisweightwasonhisbackandhewascompletely

restrained.Theystartedbeatinghimonthesolesofhisfeet,headandbody,

andalsostruckhimonhisgenitals"(Copeland,n.d.,p. 14).

Almalkisufferedlonginterrogationsfortwenty-twomonths,whileCanadianofficials

largelyremainedidleintheirattemptstoensurehisrelease.Thisleadstoserious

59 questionsaboutcitizenshipprotectioninaheightenedage ofnationalsecurity.

ThesuspicionsurroundingAlmalkiwaspredicatedonvariousintelligencereports,

butwhatwerethechargesthatwarrantedMaherArar'sallegedterroristactivities,andhis

subsequentrendition?AccordingtoJusticeO'Connor(2006,p.51),"Mr.Arardidnot

cometotheattentionofProjectA-0CanadauntilanOctober12,2001meetingbetween

Mr.AlmalkiandMr.AraratMango'sCafeinOttawa."Consequently,Ararbecamea

personofinterestandhisbiographicalinformationwascollectedbyProjectA-0Canada.

InNovember2001,ProjectA-OCanadadiscoveredthatin1997,ArarhadusedAlmalki

asanemergencycontactonanOttawaapartmentcontract,whichbecameknownasthe

MintoLease.document This alongwithinformationabouttheMango'sCafemeeting

wasgiventotheFBIwithnowrittencaveatsattached(O'Connor,2006,p.55).This

conceivablyledtoArar'sarrestatJFKInternationalAirportonSeptember26,2002.The

allegedterroristandalQaedamemberthatwasthefocusofArar's intenseinterrogation

attheMDC wasAbdullahAlmalki.TheveracityofAlmalki'sterroristconnectionswas

purelyspeculative,butforAmericanintelligenceofficers,Ararwasguilty-by-association.

Oncemore,thisperceptioncanbeinterpretedasanextensionofthe"us"versus"them"

mentalitythatisimbeddedinOrientalism.

TheomissionofanywrittencaveatsbytheRCMP withregardstotheMinto Lease

andotherintelligencereportsgiventoAmericanagencieshasbeenthematterof

significantdebate.However,itisimportanttonotethatRCMPpolicyrequiresthat

decisionstoexchangeintelligencebemadeona case-by-casebasis,andthatjudgement

beappliedtodeterminewhethersharingwouldviolateanyone'srights,orotherwisebe

inappropriate(O'Connor,p. 2006,33).However,oncemore9/11actedasacathartic

60 v

eventthatcalledforseveralpolicychangeswithlittletimeforbureaucraticdiscussions.

AccordingtoRCMP witnesses,membersoftheRCMP anditsdomesticand

foreignagenciesmetatRCMPHeadquartersoneitherSeptember12or13,

2001todiscussthethreatofanotherattack,andtheneedforincreased

cooperationandcoordinationamongtheagencies,includingtheneedtoshare

relevantinformationinatimelymanner.Thesediscussionswerethestarting

pointforinformation-sharingarrangementsthatultimatelyresultedinProject

A-0CanadaprovidingAmericanagencieswithinformationaboutanumber

ofindividuals,includingMr.Arar.Someofthisinformationlikelyplayeda

roleintheAmericandecisiontotransferMr.ArartoSyria(O'Connor,p.37).

In addition,JusticeO'ConnorfoundthatProjectA-OCanadaprovidedAmerican

authoritieswithsignificantinformationaboutArardifferent on occasionspriorto

September26,2002despitetheassessmentthatArarwasnomorethanapersonof

interest.TheinformationpassedtoAmericanagenciesincludedanumberofmisleading

orfalsestatementsthatweredamagingsuchasthedescriptionthatArarwasamemberof

agroupofIslamicextremistgroupwithsuspectedlinkstoalQaeda.Moreover,there

wereseveralreferencestoArarbeingasuspect,principalsubject,andtargetorimportant

figureintheRCMP'sinvestigationofAbdullahAlmalki(O'Connor,2006,p.113).

JusticeO'Connor(2006,p.157)concludedthattheAmericandecisiontorenderArarto

'SyriawaslargelybasedonfalseinformationprovidedbytheRCMP,whichdidnot

includewrittencaveats.Inthe"waronterror"dueprocessesandlegalconsiderations

wereeroded.Canadianofficialssharingofsensitiveandinaccurateinformationon

CanadiancitizenswithforeignagenciesclearlyledtoMaherArar'srenditiontoSyria.

Moreover,BothMaherArarandAbdullahAlmalki'srenditionstoSyriaprovedthatthe

litigiousramificationsof9/11wouldaffecthumanandcitizenshipprotectionrights

beyondrecognition.

Furthermore,JusticeIacobucci'sinquiryintoAbdullahAlmalki's22-month

61 detentioninSyriahasyieldedsimilarconclusions.However,itisfirstimportanttonote

thatAlmalki'scircumstancesarenotentirelycongruentwiththedefinitionof

extraordinaryrenditionthatwasoutlinedintheliteraturereview.Almalkitraveledto

SyriaonhisownaccordtovisithisillgrandmotherinMarch2002atwhichpointhewas

detainedbytheSMI.Nevertheless,thesamemachinationsthatfueledtheextraordinary

renditionofMaherArarareinherentinAlmalki'scase,whichhasbeencalled

"opportunisticrendition"(Interview,August10,2009).

Itiscalled"opportunisticrendition"becauseAlmalkiwasconvenientlydetainedby

theSMIinDamascus."ItwasclearthattheRCMP providedfalseinformationthatwas

sentdirectlySyria tothatsetuphisdetentionandtorturethere,andhewasinterrogated

andtorturedonquestionsthatweresenttotheSyriansbytheRCMP andinformationthat

wasexchangeddirectlybyCSISwiththeSyrians(Interview,August10).Oncemore,

JusticeIacobuccifoundthatCanadianofficialsplayedasignificantroleinthecaptureof

aCanadiancitizen.InApril2002,ProjectA-0CanadaprovidedU.S.agencieswiththree

CDscontainingtheRCMP'sSupertextdatabasewithoutwrittencaveats.Thedatabase

containedaconsiderableamountofmaterialrelatingtoAlmalki,includingdocuments

thathadbeenseizedduringtheJanuary22,2002searchofhisresidenceandother

documentsrelatedtoProjectA-OCanada'sinvestigation(Iacobucci,2008,p.403).

Oncemore,thesensitiveinformationofaCanadianofficialwasreleasedtoa

foreignagencywithoutwrittencaveats,whichrenderstheinformationsusceptibleto

interpretation.AccordingtoJusticeIacobucci(2008,p.409):

Thefactthatthedatabasewasprovidedwithoutcaveats,andthefactthatthe

U.S.haditsowninvestigativeinterestinMr.Almalkipriortotheevents

underreview,Ibelieveitisreasonabletoinferthatthedocumentsprovidedin

theSupertextdatabase,orinformationfromthosedocuments,madetheirway

62 intothehandsofSyrianofficials,andwerethenusedbythem,togetherwith

otherinformation,tointerrogateMr.AlmalkiinSyria.Onthisbasis,I

concludethattheactionsofCanadianofficialsinsharingtheSupertext

databaselikelycontributedto,andthereforeresultedindirectlyin,

mistreatmentofMr.AlmalkiinSyria.

ThishasbeenacontentiousissuesurroundingbothArar'sandAlmalki'scases,asitis

clearthatboth ininstancesCanadianofficialshaveplayedasignificantroleintheir

captures,andultimatelytheirtortures.

Inaddition,Canadianofficial'sinvolvementwithArarandAlmalki'srenditions

havebreachedpartsoftheCanadianCharterofRightsandFreedoms.Part1Fundamental

Freedomsstatesthateveryonehasfreedomofconscienceandreligionandfreedomof

association(Charter,1982).OnecanarguethatbothArarandAlmalkibecame"persons

ofinterest"duetotheirSyrianheritageandIslamicfaith.JusticeO'Connorstatedthat

Arardidnotbecomea"personofinterest"untilhemetAlmalkiatMango'sCafeon

October12,2002.ThebiographicaldatarelatingtoArarafterthismeetingwasgivento

Americanagencieswithnowrittencaveats;therefore,Ararwasrenderedbasedonhis

associationwithAlmalkiwithoutproperevidence.Thisclearlybreaksthefreedomof

associationintheCharter.Inaddition,undertheLegalRightssection,everyonehasa

rightnottobesubjectedtoanycruelandunusualtreatmentofpunishment(Charter,

1982).DespiteArarandAlmalki'sconfinementsandtortureinSyria,Canadianofficials

involvementledtotheircruelandunusualtreatmentofpunishment.Oncemore,itis

importanttodistinguishArarandAlmalkiasexceptionalcasesthatmaynotnecessarily

berepresentativeofthelargermindsetsandideologiesofCanadianintelligenceand

enforcementagencies.

ItisalsoimportanttoconsidertheinternationallawsandconventionsthatArarand

63 Almalki'srenditionshavecircumvented.AccordingtotheUnitedNations'Convention

againstTortureandOtherCruel,InhumanorDegradingTreatmentorPunishment(CAT),

Torturemeansanyactbywhichseverepainorsuffering,whetherphysicalor

mental,isintentionallyinflictedonapersonforsuch purposesasobtaining

fromhimorathirdpersoninformationoraconfession,punishinghimforan

actheorthird a personhascommittedorissuspectedofhavingcommitted,or

intimidatingorcoercinghimorathirdperson,orforanyreasonbasedon

discriminationofanykind,whensuchpainorsufferingisinflictedbyorat

theinstigationoforwiththeconsentoracquiescenceofapublicofficialor

otherpersonactinginanofficialcapacity.

Moreover,Article3states,"NoStatePartyshallexpel,return("refouler")orextraditea

persontoanotherStatewheretherearesubstantialgroundsforbelievingthathewouldbe

indangerofbeingsubjectedtotorture"(CAT,1984).

UponhiscaptureinMay2002,Almalkiclaimsthat,"Iknewthattorturewas

internationallyprohibited,butIdidnotknowanyspecificlawsorconventions.

However,fromwhatIsawinSyria,whatIwastold,andwhatIheardfromother

detainees,itwasclearthatSyriawasusedasaproxyforinterrogation,tortureandillegal

imprisonment(Interview,August10,2009).Therefore,itisabundantlyclearbasedon

CAT'sdefinitionoftortureandArticlethat 3stateofficialsknewthatbothArarand

AlmalkiwouldbetorturedinSyria,whichhasviolatedtheirhumanrightsinconjunction

withbreachingasignificantinternationalconvention.BoththeUnitedStatesandCanada

havesignedCAT,thusonemustbegintoquestiontheirrespectivehumanrightsrecords.

Consequently,itisimportanttoevaluateArarandAlmalki'srenditionsfroman

immigrationandsettlementperspective.Onthesurface,bothMaherArarandAbdullah

Almalkiappearedtobethedefinitionofidealimmigrantswhohadsuccessfully

integratedintoCanadiansociety.Theywerefluentinoneoftheofficiallanguages,they

wereeducatedatprestigiousCanadianinstitutions,theyweresuccessfulandrespected

64 telecommunicationsengineersandentrepreneurs,andtheywereregardedasleadersin

theOttawaMuslimcommunity.However,bothArarandAlmalkiareshadowsoftheir

formerselvesaftertheirhorrificexperiences.Canada,whichisoftenheraldedasa

humanitarianstatethatextolsthevirtuesofaprogressiveimmigrationpolicypredicated

onmulticulturalismandsocialinclusion,hasineffectreducedthefunctioningcapacityof

twoimmigrantsandtheirrespectivefamilies.

BothArarandAlmalkihaveaddressedtheeffectsoftheirphysicalandmental

traumaontheireverydaylivessincetheirreturntoCanada.Forinstance,KerryPither

(2008,p.386)quotesDr.GeorgeFraseroftheOttawaTraumaandAnxietyClinicwho

describesAlmalkias,"sufferingfrommajordepressionandpost-traumaticstress

disorder...[His]copingstrategyofblockingoutemotionalfeelingsandemotionsinorder

tocopewithhisisolationhasmadereconnectingwithhisfamilyandfriendsdifficult."In

addition,Almalki"hasbeenseekingprofessionalmedicalandpsychologicalhelpfor

ailmentsresultingfromthetorturehewassubjectedtoinSyria.Abdullah'sdoctorhas

toldhimthathisjawisdisplaced,andheisalsobeingtreatedforchronicpaininhis

shoulder,hipandfoot(AlmalkiBiography,n.d.).Theseaforementionedailmentshave

reducedhisabilitytoworkandprovideforhisfamily.Helaments,"Engineeringand

businessarepartof me.Ilovedmy companybecauseIwasabletocombineboth.Now

notbeingabletodoeither,partofmeisgone,andIconstantlyfeelitsabsence"(Pither,

2008,p.388).Moreover,Almalkistatesthathisextraordinaryrendition"destroyedmy

lifeandaffectedterriblymyfamily,includingmy children"(Interview,August10,2009).

MaherArarhasbeensimilarlyaffectedbyhisexperiencesinSyria.Accordingto

hiswifeDr.Mazigh,"Forhim workwasoutofthequestion:hismentalandphysical

65 healthwerefragile,he neededtorest-andbesides,whowaslikelytohiresomeone

suspectedofterrorism,whowaswrittenaboutalmostdailyinthepress?"(Mazigh,2008,

p.223).InArar'stestimonytotheUnitedStatesHouseofRepresentativesJoint

OversightHearing(October18,2007,p.12)hestatedthroughasatellitefeedbecausehe

isstillonano-flightlistintheUnitedStates:

"SincemyreturntoCanada,Ihavelivedinconstantpsychologicalpain.This

painmanifestsinvariousforms.Ifeelemotionallydistantfrommy family,

includingmywifeandchildren.Iamstillfragile.Ihavelostconfidencein

myselfandameasilyoverwhelmed.Ihavelosttheabilitytomulti-task,

whichisessentialformy engineeringprofession.Icannolongerconcentrate

formorethanshort a time.Ihavenightmaresandrecurringflashbacks,and

constantlyfearflyingandbeingkidnappedagain.My bodyisslowlyhealing,

butthecognitiveandpsychologicalscarsarestillwithme.

ArarandAlmalki'sexperiencesinSyriaandtheroleofCanadianofficialshadlimited

theirabilitytofunctionCanadian in society.However,itisimportanttoconsiderthe

impactoftheirrenditionsonthegreaterCanadian-Muslimcommunityandthe

implicationsinregardstosettlementexperiencesandimmigrationtrendstoCanada.

Themovetonationalsecurityinthewakeofthe9/11attackshasservedtofurther

marginalizeMuslimsinCanada.AccordingtoAlmalki,"HadIledthelifeIdid,hadthe

businessIhad,andthesociallifeIhad,butwerenotaMuslim,wouldIhadfacedwhatI

faced?Idonotthinkso.SoclearlyIambeingdiscriminatedagainstbecauseIama

Muslim"(Interview,August10,2009).Both ArarandAlmalkiareexceptionalvictimsof

programsthatareIslamophobicinnature,whichinconjunctionwiththeirresponsible

reportageclaimingthattheywereterroristswithouttangibleproofhasleftbothmenon

thefringesofsocietywherefewpeoplewillinteractwiththem.Itisabundantlyclearthat

Canadianinstitutionsneedtonavigatethepost-9/11climatewithincreasedcaution,as

theircampaignsagainstMuslim-Canadianshaveshowntohavedistinctramifications.

66 TheArarandAlmalkicaseshadledtoconcernsovercitizenshipprotectionfor

manyMuslim-Canadians.Almalki,whowasconsideredanelderintheOttawa-Muslim

communitywasheldagainsthiswillininhumaneconditionsinSyriafortwoyears.The

Canadiangovernmentdidlittletoensurehisreleasedespitehisdualcitizenship.

AccordingtoAlmalki,

IhadaverystrongfeelingfromtheexperienceIhadinCanadabefore

travellingabroadandinMalaysiaandfromwhatIwasaskedfromthe

beginninginSyriathatCanadawasbehindmyinterrogationandtorture.But

initiallyIthoughtthattheCanadianExternalAffairswouldworkfrommy

release.ButastimepassedandIdidnotreceiveanyconsularvisits,andas

moreandmoreinformationandquestionscamefromCanada,myhopethatthe

Canadiangovernmentwouldensuremy releasedisappeared(Interview,August

10,2009).

Therefore,onecaninferthatthegreaterMuslim-Canadiancommunitymayhavefelt

thattheywerethesubjectsofincreasedracialprofiling,whichcouldconceivably

leadtoexperiencesreminiscentofAlmalkiandArar's.

In2004,lawyerColonelMe.MichelW.DrapeauwrotetoJusticeDennisO'Connor

onbehalfoftheMuslimCommunityCouncilofOttawa-Gatineau(MCCO-G)to

illuminatetheMuslimcommunity'sconcernsafterthereleaseofArarandAlmalki.The

MCCO-GsurveyedanumberofitsconstituentswhowereafraidofCanadianlaw

enforcementagencies'aggressivetactics.Anonymoustestimoniessuchas"Justbeinga

Muslimyoucouldnowbecomeaterroristsuspect"and"IfeeluneasyinpublicbecauseI

looklikeaMuslim"illustratedtheirgrowingfearsandapprehensions(MCCO-G,2004,

pp.35-36).A totalof404surveyformswerereceivedandcompleted.82% of

respondentsfelttheydidnothavethesamefreedoms,rightsandprivilegesasother

Canadians.75% ofrespondentsfeltthattheycouldeasilybecomesuspectorlabeledas a

terroristbytheRCMP,CSISorpolice.Finally,81% ofrespondentsfeltmoretargeted

67 nowbecause,asaMuslimpersontheymaylookact ordifferently(MCCO-G,2004,pp.

43-44).Thissurveyhassignificantramificationsonthemulticulturalsocialfabricthat

Canadaisoftenheraldedfor.Moreover,one caninferfromtheMCCO-G'sconstituents'

sentimentsthattheirsettlementsexperiencesinCanadahavebeenaffectedbytheir

apprehension,whichreducedtheirabilitytosuccessfullyintegrateintoCanadiansociety.

OnecanarguethattheMCCO-G'srespondents'perceptions,inconjunctionwith Arar

andAlmalki'srenditions,maypreventMuslimfrommigratingtoCanada.

However,theMCCO-GbelievedthattheMuslimcommunity'sresponseswere

derivedbysensationalmediareports.CitinganarticlewritteninIslamicHorizonsby

professorMohammedElmasry(MCCO-G,2004,p.56)"Apopularandlargelymedia-

createdbeliefthatIslamcondonesandencouragesviolencehasledtosignificantsocietal

anxietyamongCanadianMuslims.ThissituationexistsmainlybecausetheCanadian

mediaarecreatinganimaginarynationalcrisisbasedonaninaccurateunderstandingof

Islam."ScholarsBarbaraPerryandScottPoynting(2006,p.5)suggest,

Themediaareespeciallycomplicitinthedisseminationofanti-Muslim

imagery.Thewidespreadperpetuationofsuchcaricatures—bythemediaand

bypublicfigures—fuelssentimentsofsuspicionandmistrustbyunfavorably

shapingpublicperceptions.Therearefew,ifany,positivemediaimagesof

Arabs,Muslims,orMiddleEasternersgenerally.

Inaddition,Muslim-Canadiansfeelmore thataccountabilityandtransparencymustbe

placeonmediaproductionandaudienceconsumption.Insurvey a conductedbyCaidi

andMacDonald,theyfoundthattheirMuslimrespondentsconsistentlypointedtothe

perceivedbiasofthemedia,particularlytelevisionandprintsources,andtheneedfor

medialiteracyandcriticalskills.Respondentswerequotedassaying,"Mediais

responsibleforfalseinformation"and"StoriesaboutMuslimsareinnegativelight"

68 (2008,p.367).ThiscanalsobeappliedtotheinaccurateandnegativereportingonArar

andAlmalki.AccordingtoAbdullahAlmalki,"Eventhough[theprintmedia]ismore

balancednow,butbeforethemediawaswillingtoprintandairgovernmentleaksoffalse

andunproveninformationandallegationswasvery thatdamagingtomyselfandmany

otherMuslimCanadians"(Interview,August10,2009).

Themedia'sportrayalofMuslimsinnegativefashion,withthehighly public

storiesofmenlikeMaherArarwithheadlinessuggestingheisa"suspectedterrorist"

arguablyleadstohatecrimesdirectedatMuslims.A surveyofMuslims-Canadiansin

2002byCAIR-CANfoundthat56%ofrespondentshadexperiencedatleastoneanti-

Muslimincidentinthetwelvemonthssince9/11.Thesamepercentageincreased found

mediabiasagainstMuslimsandIslam.Some33%hadexperiencedverbalabuse;18%

hadexperiencedracialprofilingand16%hadexperiencedworkplacediscrimination

(CaidiandMacDonald,2008,pp.3-4).Oncemore,itisapparentthatthemedia,along

withCanadiansecurityagencies,havehadadverseeffectsofCanadian-Muslimspost-

9/11,thusjeopardizingtheirabilitytoachievesocialinclusioninCanadiansociety.

AbdullahAlmalkiaddressedhisfeelingsofbeingaMusliminCanadapost-9/11.

69 Conclusion

TheSeptember11,2001attacksintheUnitedStateshaveactedasacatalystthathave

forcedWesternliberaldemocraciestoadoptandimplementregressivepoliciesand

programsthattargetcertainethno-religiousgroups.Theextraordinaryrenditionprogram

wasthereforedevisedandsanctionedbytheUnitedStatesgovernmentwiththesole

purposeofpreventinganotherSeptember11.However,theUnitedStatesisnotalonein

advancingtheprogram.Canada,Australia,andGreatBritainhaveparticipatedin

renderingindividualstotheCIA'sglobalwebofsecretprisons.MaherArarand

AbdullahAlmalkiaretwoCanadian-Muslimsthathavewitnessedtheircitizenshipand

humanrightserodedinthe"waronterror,"whichhasrepeatedlycircumvented

internationalanddomesticlawsthroughitsinhumanepractices.Moreover,extraordinary

renditionsareclearanddistinctextensionsofIslamophobia,aformofanti-Muslim

racism,whichisparticularlyevidentwiththestaggeringnumberofMuslimsandArabs

thathaveemergedasthevictimsoftheprogram.Onthesurfaceitappearsthattheracism

inherentlyinvolvedintheprogramisbasedonreligiousbeliefsratherthantraditional

racism,whichispredicatedonphenotypicalcharacteristics.

However,extraordinaryrenditionsalsopossesstheovertcharacteristicsofEdward

Said'stheoryofOrientalismwherebyEurocentricideologieshavepermeatedtheIslamic

worldandcreatedMuslimsandArabsasthe"other."TheWest'sOrientalistthought

patternshavethusjustifiedtheextraordinaryprogramasanecessaryinitiativetopurgean

"inferior","uncivilized",and"hostile"regionofits"barbaric"people.Western

institutionssuchasimmigrationdepartments,bordercontrolandintelligenceagencies,

andthemediahavefurtheredtheEurocentricnotionofsuperioritybydefiningMuslims

70 andArabsasuncivilizedandhostilefundamentalistsseekingtodestroyWest. theYet,

thecriticalanalysesforwardedbytheseaforementionedinstitutionsisrarelyreversed

therebyquestioningtheirmoralityintheiractionstowardstheIslamicworld.

Thedivisiveethosof"us"versus"them"thatSaiddiscussesisreflectedinthe

institutionalnatureofculturaldominancethattheprintmediaprojectsonsociety."The

ownershipandmanagementofmediaenterprises,andthegrowingcoalescenceand

centralizationofownershipbyconservativeidealogues,suchasConradBlack,leadstoa

homogenizedportrayalofMuslimsinthemedia,onewhichconservativeideologiesare

supported"(Henry,1999,p.26).Thoughviolentlydenied,racismhasreachedthetop,

bothinpoliticsandthemedia.Orrather,asthehistoryofracismshows,ithasalways

beenatthetop,andinthisrespectcontinuityprevails(vanDijk,1995b,p.29).Moreover,

thepubliciscompromisedbythecapitalistimperativesthatfuelprofitdrivenenterprises

likenewspapersandmagazines.Itisessentialthatthepublicbecomescriticalinits

disseminationofprintmediaandquestionstheveracityofthereportage.Thisis

especiallypertinentinrespectstovisibleminoritygroups'representationinthemedia,as

theymaybecomeincreasinglymarginalizedandfacegreaterdifficultiessuccessfully

integratingintoCanadiansociety.

Inaddition,theUnitedStates',anditsallies"waronterror"hasonlyservedto

increaseterrorintheirrespectivestatesandabroad,andfurthermarginalizeMuslimsin

theirrespectivecountries.AccordingtoRegWhitaker(2008,p. 10).

ThedifficultiesencounteredbyMuslimandArabminoritiespost-9/11asthey

findthemselvesdeemed"suspectcommunities"intheeyesoftheNorth

AmericanandEuropeanmajoritieswillrequiremorethanonepublicinquiry

toresolve,especiallyinlightoftheemergenceof"homegrown"extremism

andterroristoutragesplannedandinsomecasesperpetratedagainstfellow

citizensbyyoungradicalizedMuslimsbornandraisedintheWest

71 TheroleofCanadianofficialsintherenditionsofMaherArarandAbdullah

Almalkihashadsignificantramificationsontheirphysicalwellbeingand mentalhealth.

BothmenhavelaunchedsocialjusticecampaignstoalerttheCanadianpublicofthe

government'sroleintheircaptures.AccordingtoAlmalki,"LikemanyotherCanadians,

thepictureIhadofCanadaascountry a thatwasagainsttortureandachampion of

humanrightshasseverelybeenshaken.ButasCanadians,thepeopleofthiscounty,we

havearesponsibilitytocorrectthis"(Interview,August10,2009).BarbaraOlshansky,

theassistantlegaldirectoroftheCenterforConstitutionalRights,whichrepresents

MaherArarinhislegalcaseagainsttheUnitedStates,saidthatherviewofAmericahad

changedsincetheextraordinaryrenditionprogramwasrevealedin2005."Ihavenot

changedmyopinionaboutitspeople,butunfortunatelyIhavechangedmyopinionabout

itsrespectforhumanrights.Itisnolongertheleaderintheworld.Ithasbecomethe

leaderintheviolationofhumanrights"(Mayer,2005).

72 T

Bibliography

Almalki,A.(10August,2009).Interview.Toronto,Canada.

Amiel,B.(2001,December18).TheJewsarenottheproblem.NationalPost.

Annan,K.(2004,July12).SeminaronConfrontingIslamophobia.RetrievedMay20,

2009,fromhttp://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/sgsm9637.doc.htm.

Anonymous,(n.d.).AbdullahAlmalkibiography.RetrievedJuly9,2009from

http://www.abdullahalmalki.ca/bio.htm.

Anonymous,(n.d.).MaherArar:Chronologyofevents.September26,2002toOctober5,

2003.RetrievedJuly8,2009fromhttp://www.maherarar.ca/mahers%20story.php.

Anonymous.(2001,December27).Ourterrorismisblessed.NationalPost.

Arar,M.(2007,October18).TestimonyafterMaherArarJointOversightHearing:

RenditionofTorture:TheCaseofMaherArar,CommitteeofForeignAffairs

SubcommitteeonInternationalOrganizations,HumanRightsandOversightwith

CommitteeontheJudiciary,SubcommitteeontheConstitution,CivilRightsand

CivilLiberties-UnitedStatesHouseofRepresentatives.Retrievedfrom,

www.foreignaffairs.house.gov/110/aral018O7.pdf.

Allmand,W. & Barrette,D.(2004).OpeningsubmissionoftheInternationalCivil

LibertiesMonitoringGrouptotheCommissionofInquiryintotheActionsof

CanadianOfficialsinRelationtoMaherArar.RetrievedJuly8,2009from,

http://www.maherarar.ca/documentation.php.

AmnestyInternational."Rendition"andsecretdetention:A Global systemofhuman

rightsviolations.RetrievedJune21,2009,from

http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/POL30/003/2006/en/dom-

POL300032006en.html.

Bell,S.(2001,September13).A conduitforterrorists.NationalPost.

Bell,S.(2002a,October22).CanadiandetainedbyU.S.turnsupinSyria:Accusedofal-

Qaedalink:Ottawaprotestedman'sdeportationtouncertainfate.NationalPost.

Bell,S.(2002b,October23).SyriansdetainCanadiandeportedfromU.S.:Americans

suspectOttawamanhasal-Qaedalinks.NationalPost.

Caidi,N.& MacDonald,S.(2008).InformationpracticesofCanadianMuslimspost-

9/11.GovernmentInformationQuarterly25,348-378).

73 CanadianCharterofRightsandFreedoms.(1982).Constitutionact.RetrievedAugust2,

2009fromhttp://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/charter.

Cheney,P.(2002,October12).Canadian'sdeportationcausesfuror.Globe& Mail.

CommissionofInquiryintotheActionsofCanadianOfficialsinRelationtoMaherArar

(2006).ReportoftheeventsrelatingtoMaherArar:FactualBackground.Volume

I.Ottawa,ON:MinistryofPublicWorksandGovernmentServices.

CommissionofInquiryintotheActionsofCanadianOfficialsinRelationtoMaherArar

(2006).ReportoftheeventsrelatingtoMaherArar:FactualBackground.Volume

II.Ottawa,ON:MinistryofPublicWorksandGovernmentServices.

CommissionofInquiryintotheActionsofCanadianOfficialsinRelationtoMaherArar

(2006).ReportoftheeventsrelatingtoMaherArar:Analysisand

recommendations.Ottawa,ON:MinistryofPublicWorksandGovernment

Services.

Copeland,P.(n.d.)AbdullahAlmalki:Chronology.RetrievedJuly12,2009from:

http://www.abdullahalmalki.ca/story.htm

Coyne,A.(2001,September16).Whatifithappenedhere?NationalPost.

Dershowitz,A.(2002).Why TerrorismWorks.NewHaven,Connecticut,Yale

UniversityPress.

Dimento,J.F.C.& Geis,G.(2006).Theextraordinaryconditionofextraordinary

rendition:TheCIA,theDEA,kidnapping,torture,andthelaw.WarCrimes,

Genocide& CrimesagainstHumanity,vol.2,35-64.

Dobrowolsky,A.;Rollings-Magnusson,S.& Doucet,M.G.(2009).Security,insecurity,

andhumanrights.Contextualizingpost-9/11.InS.Rollings-Magnusson(Ed.),

Anti-terrorism:Securityandinsecurityafter9/11(pp.13-31).BlackPoint,NS:

FernwoodPublishing.

Drapeau,Me.Col.M.W.(2004).OpeningsubmissionbytheMuslimCommunity

CouncilOttawa-GatineautotheCommissionofInquiryintotheActionsof

CanadianOfficialsinrelationtoMaherArar.RetrievedJuly8,2009,from,

http://www.maherarar.ca/documentation.php.

Editorial.(2001,September12).Letloosetheglobalwaronterrorism.GlobeandMail.

Elia,N.(2006).Islamophobiaandthe"privileging"ofArabAmericanwomen.NWSA

Journal,18(3),155-161.

74 Elmasry,M.(2001,September14).Neighboursascollateraldamage:terrorism's

aftershockaredestabilizingsociety,asMuslimCanadiansaretargetedfor

stereotypingandabuse.Globe& Mail.

Fekete,L.(2004).Anti-MuslimracismandtheEuropeansecuritystate.RaceandClass,

46(1),3-29.

Fischer,L.(2008).Extraordinaryrendition:Thepriceofsecrecy.AmericanUniversity

LawReview,57,1405-1451.

Gadd,J.(2001,September12).Dayofinfamy:Canadianreaction:Muslimsfear

backlash;Jewishgroupissuesalert.Globe& Mail.

Gardner,R.;Karakaolus,Y.& Luchtenberg,S.(2008).Islamophobiainthemedia:a

responsefrommulticulturaleducation.InterculturalEducation19(2),119-136.

Gearty,C.(2006).Canhumanrightssurvive?Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversity

Press.

Gee,M.(2001,September25).Waronterror:anunstableregion:howdoextremistsuse

hatredasaweapon?Globe& Mail.

Gottschalk,P.& Greenberg,G.(April2008).Islamophobia:MakingMuslimsthe

Enemy.JournalofMuslimMinorityAffairs,28(1),163-164.

Goldstone,R.(2006).Combatingterrorism:Zerotolerancefortorture.CaseWestern

ReserveJournalofInternationalLaw,37(2/3),343-348.

Grey,S.(2004,May 17)America'sGulag.Newstatesman,22-25

Grey,S.(2006).Ghostplane:ThetruestoryoftheCIAtortureprogram.NewYork,NY:

St.Martin'sPress.

Gurdon,H.(2001,December24).WhatlinksDec.to 25Sept.11:Ourcivilization,

plantedinChristiansoil,istheworld'sdominantforce.NationalPost.

Halliday,F.(1999).IslamophobiaReconsidered.EthnicandRacialStudies,22(5),892-

902.

Hanson,J.(2009).TheBushFrame:Usversusthem;goodversusevil;intentionsversus

consequences.RetrievedJuly17,2009,fromTheSituationist,

http://thesituationist.wordpress.com/2009/01/16/the-bush-frame-us-vs-them-good-

vs-evil-intentions-vs-consequences/

Helly,D.(2004).AreMuslimsdiscriminatedagainstinCanadasinceSeptember2001?

CanadianEthnicStudies,36(1),24-47.

75 Henry,F.(1999).TheracializationofcrimeinToronto'sprintmedia:A researchproject.

Toronto,On:RyersonPolytechnicUniversity,SchoolJournalism. of

Henry,F.,& Tator,C.(2002).Discourseofdomination:RacialbiasintheCanadian

English-languagepress.TorontoON:UniversityofTorontoPress.

Hersh,S.M.(2004,May10).TortureatAbuGhraib:AmericansoldiersbrutalizedIraqis.

How farupdoestheresponsibilitygo?NewYorker,RetrievedFebruary19,2009,

fromhttp://www.newyorker.eom/archive/2004/05/l0/04051Ofa_fact.

Holt,T.(2000).TheProblemofRaceinthe21stCentury.England:HarvardUniversity

Press:23-46.

Honey,K.(2002,October14).ConcerngrowsfordeportedCanadian.Globe& Mail.

HumanRightsWatch(2005).HumanRightsWatchReporttotheCanadianCommission

onInquiryintoActionsofCanadianOfficialsinRelationtoMaherArar.

RetrievedJuly14,2009from,http://www.maherarar.ca/index.php.

Huntington,S.(1996).Theclashofcivilizationsandtheremakingofworldorder.

Toronto,ON:SimonandSchuster.

InternalInquiryintotheActionsofCanadianOfficialsRelation intoAbdullahAlmalki,

AhmadAbou-ElmaatiandMuayyedNureddin.(2008).Ottawa,ON:Ministryof

PublicWorksandGovernmentServices.

Ismael,T.Y.,& Measor,J.(2003).RacismandtheNorthAmericanMediaFollowing11

September:TheCanadianSetting.ArabStudiesQuarterly,25(2),101-136.

Jonas,G.(2001b,November27).Fewsecurityrules:Firstdefine'terrorism.'National

Post.

Jonas,G.(2001a,October15).Muslimmushrooms,terroristtoadstools—Fifthcolumnist

ushersbinladenwithinourperimeter.NationalPost.

Kay,J.(2001,October18).A healthydoseof'bigotry.'NationalPost.

Khan,S.(2002,September12).Sept.11:Canada'sMuslims:don'tshackleusto

9/11:CanadianMuslims,horrifiedthatlastyear'scrimewascarriedoutinthe

nameofIslam,haveaspecialdutytochallengeintoleranceheadon.Globe&

Mail.

Kruger,E.,Mulder,M.& Korenic,(2004). B. CanadaAfter11September;Security

Measuresand"Preferred"Immigrants.MediterranenQuarterly,15(4),72-87.

76 Lewington,J.andI.Peritz.(2001,September15).Aftermath:dayofmourning:Canadian

Muslimwon'tgooutalone:Islamicspokesmenappealfortolerance;some

questionedbyRCMP officers.Globe& Mail.

Lewis,B.(2003).ThecrisisofIslam:Holywarandunholyterror.NewYork,NY:

ModernLibrary.

Lobel,J.(2008).ExtraordinaryrenditionandtheConstitution:ThecaseofMaherArar.

TheReviewofLitigation,28(2),479-500.

Lockman,Z.(2004).ContendingvisionsoftheMiddleEast:Thehistoryandpoliticsof

Orientalism.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Ljunggren,D.(2003)Chretien:Canadanotwilling.RetrievedJuly2,2009,fromGlobal

PolicyForum,

http://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/167/35213.html.

Mahtani,M.(2001).Representingminorities:Canadianmediaandminorityidentities.

CanadianEthnicStudies,33(3),99-133.

Makin,K.(2001,December18).Waronterror:appealscourtupholdsconviction

forspreadinghate.Globe& Mail.

Mamdani,M.(2004).GoodMuslim,badMuslim:America,theColdWar,andtheroots

ofterror.NewYork,NY:ThreeLeavesPress.

Mayer,J.(2005,February14).OutsourcingTorture:ThesecrethistoryofAmerica's

"extraordinaryrendition"program,New Yorker.

Mazigh,M.(2008).Hopeanddespair:My strugglestofreemyhusband,MaherArar.

Toronto,ON:McClelland& StewartLtd.

McCoy,A.W.(2006).A questionoftorture:CIAinterrogation,fromtheColdWartothe

WaronTerror.NewYork,NY:MetropolitanBooks.

McGhee,D.(2008).TheendofMulticulturalism?Terrorism,integrationandhuman

rights.London,UK:OpenUniversityPress.

McKenna,B.(2001,December15).Muslimsdividedovertape:SaudiArabia,Egypt

acceptauthenticityofbinLadenbutmanystillsceptical.Globe& Mail.

Mitchell,A.(2001,September21).Brinkofwar:theracialfallout:tideofhatecrimes

risinginCanada.Globe& Mail.

77 Muscati,S.A.(2002).Arab/Muslim'Otherness':Theroleofracialconstructionsinthe

GulfWarandthecontinuingcrisiswithIraq.JournalofMuslimMinorityAffairs,

22(1),131-148.

Omi,M.& Winant,H.(1994).RacialformationintheUnitedStates:fromthe1960sto

the 1980s.NewYork,NY:Routledge.

Perry,B.& Poynting,S.(2006).InspiringIslamophobia:Mediaandstatetargetingof

MuslimsinCanadasince9/11.WorkingPaper,TASAConference2006,

UniversityofWesternAustralia& MurdochUniversity.

Pither,K.(2008).DarkDays:ThestoryoffourCanadianstorturedinthenameof

fightingterror.Toronto,ON:VikingCanada

Priest,D.(2005,November2).CIAHoldsTerrorSuspectsinSecretPrisons,Washington

Post,p.AOL

Rapley,R.(2007).WitchHunts:FromSalemtoGuantanamoBay.Kingston,Ontario,

Canada:McGillQueen'sUniversityPress.

Razack,S.H.(2008).CastingOut:TheevictionofMuslimsfromWesternlawand

politics.Toronto,ON:TorontoUniversityPress.

Razack,S.H.(2004).ImperilledMuslimwomen,dangerousMuslimmenandcivilised

Europeans:Legalandsocialresponsestoforcedmarriages.FeministLegal

Studies,12,129-174.

Roach,K.(2003).September11:ConsequencesforCanada.Montreal,Quebec,Canada:

McGillQueen'sUniversityPress.

Rollings-Magnusson,S.(2009).Security,humanrights,andsocialjustice:Wheredowe

gofromhere?InS.Rollings-Magnusson(Ed.),Anti-terrorism:Securityand

insecurityafter9/11(pp.13-31).BlackPoint,NS:FernwoodPublishing.

Rubenstein,H.(2002,September16).Rootcausesofterrorism.NationalPost.

Sadat,L.N.(2006).Ghostprisonersandblacksites:Extraordinaryrenditionunder

internationallaw.CaseWesternReserveJournalofInternationalLaw,37(2/3),

309-342.

Said,E.W.(1981).CoveringIslam:Howthemediaandtheexpertsdeterminehowwe

seetherestoftheworld.NewYork,NY:PantheonBooks.

Said,E.W.(2007).LatentandmanifestOrientalism.In T.DasGupta,C.E.James,

R.C.A.Maaka,G.E.GalabuziandC.Andersen(Eds.),Raceandracialization:

Essentialreadings(pp.45-55).Toronto,ON:CanadianScholars'PressInc.

78 Said,E.W.(1978).Orientalism:WesternconceptionsoftheOrient.NewYork,NY:

Routledge& KeganPaulLtd.

Sanjek,R.(1994).TheEnduringInequalitiesofRace.InS.Gregory,S& R. Sanjek

(Eds.),Race(pp.1-18).NewBrunswick,NJ:RutgersUniversityPress.

Salloum,H.(2002).Theterroristcrisis:TheviewfromCanada.ContemporaryReview,

280(1634),146-151.

Saunders,D.(2007,February24).A WorldofMaherArars.TheGlobeandMail.

Shahid,F.(2002,September28).EmbracePeace,NationalPost.

Sheridan,L.P.(2006).IslamophobiaPre-andPost-September11th,2001.Journalof

InterpersonalViolence21(3),317-336.

Sivanandan,A.(2006).Freedomofspeechisnotanabsolute.RaceandClass,48(1),75-

92.

Smith,H.,& Ley,D. (2008)EveninCanada?Themultiscalarconstructionand

experienceofconcentratedimmigrantpovertyingatewaycities.Annalsofthe

AssociationofAmericanGeographers,98(3),686-713.

Teelucksingh,C.(2009,January20).RacialDiscourse,courselecture.Ryerson

University,Toronto,ON.

Thobani,S.(2003).Warandthepoliticsoftruth-makinginCanada.InternationalJournal

ofQualitativeStudiesinEducation,16(3),399-414.

Thobani.S.(October1,2001)."Women'sResistance:FromVictimizationto

Criminalization",ConferenceforCanadianAssociationofSexualAssault

Centres,Ottawa,ON.

UnitedNationsConventionagainstTortureandOtherCruel,InhumanorDegrading

TreatmentorPunishment.(1984).RetrievedAugust2,2009from,

http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cat.htm.

VanDijk,T.(1995a).Powerandthenewsmedia.InD.Paletz(Ed.),Political

CommunicationandAction,(pp.9-36).Cresskill,NJ:HamptonPress.

VanDijk,T.(1995b).Themassmediatoday:Discoursesofdominationordiversity?

Javnost/ThePublicLjubljana,2(2),27-45.

Ward,L.(2007,January25).FromAlladintoLost Ark,Muslimsgetangryat'badguy'

filmimages.ManchesterGuardian.

79 & StateCrimesintheWar Welch,M.(2006).ScapegoatsofSeptember111th::HateCrimes

onTerror.Piscataway,NewJersey,UnitedStates:RutgersUniversityPress.

Whitaker,R.(2008).Arar:Theaffair,theinquiry,theaftermath.IRPPPolicyMatters9

Winkler,M.M.(2008).When"extraordinary"meansillegal:Internationallawand

EuropeanreactiontotheUnitedStatesrenditionprogram.WorkingpaperYale

LawSchool.

Worthington,A.(2007).TheGuantanamoFiles:TheStoriesofthe774Detaineesin

America'sIllegalPrison.AnnArbor,Michigan,UnitedStates:PlutoPress.

Wortley,S.& Tanner,J.(2005).InflammatoryRhetoric?BaselessAccusations?A

responsetoGabor'scritiqueofracialprofilingresearchinCanada.Canadian

JournalofCriminologyandCriminalJustice,47(3),581-609.

Zine,J.(2006).Unveiledsentiments:GenderedIslamophobiaandexperiencesofveiling

amongMuslimgirlsinaCanadianIslamicschool.EquityandExcellencein

Education39(3),239-252.