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Plate Tectonics, Volcanoes, and Earthquakes Dynamic Earth PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, AND EARTHQUAKES DYNAMIC EARTH PLATE TECTONICS, VOLCANOES, AND EARTHQUAKES EDITED BY JOHN RAFFERTY, ASSOCIATE EDITOR, EARTH SCIENCES Published in 2011 by Britannica Educational Publishing (a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC 29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010. Copyright © 2011 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved. Rosen Educational Services materials copyright © 2011 Rosen Educational Services, LLC. All rights reserved. Distributed exclusively by Rosen Educational Services. For a listing of additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, call toll free (800) 237-9932. First Edition Britannica Educational Publishing Michael I. Levy: Executive Editor J. E. Luebering: Senior Manager Marilyn L. Barton: Senior Coordinator , Production Control Steven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies Lisa S. Braucher: Senior Producer and Data Editor Yvette Charboneau: Senior Copy Editor Kathy Nakamura: Manager, Media Acquisition John P. Rafferty: Associate Editor, Earth Sciences Rosen Educational Services Alexandra Hanson-Harding: Editor Nelson Sá: Art Director Cindy Reiman: Photography Manager Nicole Russo: Designer Matthew Cauli: Cover Design Introduction by Therese Shea Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Plate tectonics, volcanoes, and earthquakes / edited by John P. Rafferty. p. cm.—(Dynamic Earth) “In association with Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services.” Includes index. ISBN 978-1-61530-187-4 (eBook) 1. Plate tectonics. 2. Volcanoes. 3. Earthquakes. 4. Geodynamics. I. Rafferty, John P. QE511.4.P585 2010 551.8—dc22 2009042303 Cover, pp. 12, 82, 302 © www.istockphoto.com/Julien Grondin; p. 22 © www.istockphoto.com/Árni Torfason; pp. 23, 307 © www.istockphoto.com; pp. 202, 305 © www.istockphoto.com/Yali Shi CONTENTS Introduction Chapter 1: Earth’s Dynamic Interior The Process of Plate Tectonics Principles of Plate Tectonics Continental and Oceanic Crust Plate Boundaries Hot Spots Plate Motion The Development of Tectonic Theory The Precursors of Modern Thinking Alfred Wegener and the Concept of Continental Drift The Renewed Interest in Continental Drift Toward a Unifying Theory Dissenting Opinions and Unanswered Questions Plate Tectonics and the Geologic Past The Wilson Cycle The Supercontinent Cycle Continental Reconstructions The Interaction of Tectonics with Other Systems Earth’s Oceans Life Earth’s Climate Other Concepts Related to Plate Tectonics Continental Drift Diastrophism Isostasy Orogeny Tectonics Chapter 2: Volcanoes and Volcanism Volcanic Eruptions Lava, Gas, and Other Hazards Six Types of Eruptions Two 20th-Century Eruptions The Four Worst Eruptions in History Volcano Forecasting and Warning Major Volcanoes of the World Significant Volcanoes of the World Mount Agung Askja Mount Aso Mount Cameroon Cotopaxi Mount Etna Mount Fuji Mount Hekla Mount Hood Irazú Volcano Izalco Volcano Kilauea Klyuchevskaya Volcano Krakatoa Lassen Peak Mauna Loa Mayon Volcano Mount Unzen Mount Nyamulagira Mount Nyiragongo Ol Doinyo Lengai Paricutín Pavlof Volcano Mount Pelée Volcano Pico de Orizaba Mount Pinatubo Popocatépetl Mount Rainier Mount Ruapehu Mount Ruiz Mount Saint Helens Tajumulco Volcano Mount Tambora Teide Peak Vesuvius Volcanic Landforms The Major Types of Volcanic Landforms The Determinants of Size and Shape Hot Springs and Geysers Cross Section of a Geyser and Hot Spring Volcanism and Tectonic Activity Volcanoes Related to Plate Boundaries Volcanic Activity and the Earth’s Tectonic Plates Intraplate Volcanism Volcanoes and Geothermal Energy Related Concepts Bomb Fumarole Kimberlite Eruption Magma Mofette Volcanic Winter Volcanism Volcanology Chapter 3: Earthquakes The Nature of Earthquakes The Causes of Earthquakes The Effects of Earthquakes The Intensity and Magnitude of Earthquakes Modified Mercalli Scale of Earthquake Intensity The Occurrence of Earthquakes Notable Earthquakes in History Significant Earthquakes The Aleppo Earthquake of 1138 The Shaanxi Province Earthquake of 1556 The Lisbon Earthquake of 1755 The New Madrid Earthquakes of 1811–12 The Messina Earthquake and Tsunami The Tokyo-Yokohama Earthquake of 1923 The San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 The Chile Earthquake of 1960 The Alaska Earthquake of 1964 The Ancash Earthquake of 1970 The Tangshan Earthquake of 1976 The Mexico City Earthquake of 1985 The San Francisco–Oakland Earthquake of 1989 The Northridge Earthquake of 1994 The Kōbe Earthquake of 1995 The İzmit Earthquake of 1999 The Taiwan Earthquake of 1999 The Bhuj Earthquake of 2001 The Kashmir Earthquake The Sichuan Earthquake of 2008 The Haiti Earthquake Of 2010 The Study of Earthquakes Seismic Waves The Observation of Earthquakes Earthquake Prediction The Exploration of Earth’s Interior with Seismic Waves Extraterrestrial Seismic Phenomena Related Concepts Circum-Pacific Belt Fault Types of Faulting in Tectonic Earthquakes Richter Scale Richter Scale of Earthquake Magnitude Seismic Belt Seismic Survey Seismograph Noted Thinkers Beno Gutenberg Sir Harold Jeffreys Augustus Edward Hough Love John Michell John Milne Harry Fielding Reid Charles F. Richter The Scope of Tectonic Forces Glossary For Further Reading Index INTRODUCTION A volcano erupts on the island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean. © www.istockphoto.com/Julien Grondin Humans live on unsteady ground. This fact was made abruptly apparent on January 12, 2010, when a magnitude 7.0 earthquake devastated the Caribbean island nation of Haiti. Because many buildings in this impoverished country were poorly constructed, they could not withstand the shaking and collapsed en masse, particularly in the capital city of Port- au-Prince, 15 miles from the quake’s epicenter. Rescue workers desperately combed through rubble, hunting for survivors. By early February, Haiti’s prime minister estimated that more than 200,000 people had been killed by the earthquake’s effects. This type of earthquake, caused by two separate sections, or plates, of the Earth’s crust sliding against each other is known as a strike-slip earthquake. It is just one example of the restlessness of Earth’s surface. This book will show how the movement of rock within the Earth is explained by the theory of plate tectonics, the idea that Earth’s outer layer is broken into moving pieces. It will show how Earth adds and subtracts land over time. In addition, it will explain how and why volcanoes erupt and earthquakes shake the ground we live on. As early as 1620, scholars noticed that the outlines of continents could fit together like puzzle pieces. In 1912, German scientist Alfred Wegener first explained the concept of “continental drift.” He postulated that a single supercontinent, which he called Pangea, once existed, but broke apart into several pieces over geologic time. Wegener cited the existence of similar types of rocks and fossils found from separate continents as proof. He also used continental drift to explain the evidence of major climate and biological changes. By the late 1960s, scientists had pieced together the “how” of plate tectonics. Earth’s crust—the top layer of the lithosphere—is broken into pieces called plates. The plates rest on and slide over a layer of plastic and molten rock. As the plates move, they shape the features of Earth’s surface above, including continents and oceans. Movement takes time—a mere 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 inches) per year in some places, less in others. Hundreds of millions of years have passed since Pangea began to separate into the land masses we know today. The surface of each tectonic plate is made up of continental crust and oceanic crust. The continental crust is less dense and thus floats higher than oceanic crust. It is also about 40 km (25 miles) thick. While oceanic crust averages about 6.4 km (4 miles) thick. Tectonic plates interact at convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries. When the boundary of oceanic crust meets, or converges with, continental crust, the more buoyant continental crust stays afloat while the oceanic crust is forced beneath it—a process called subduction. The subducting crust melts under the pressure and heat of Earth’s mantle, and the process offers an explanation of why continental crust is generally older than oceanic crust. When two oceanic plates meet, the older plate subducts under the younger one. In contrast, when two continental crusts meet, neither gives way. Instead, the earth is forced up, creating mountains. The thickness of the crust aids this process. The Himalayas were formed when the plate under India and the plate under Asia met. They are still applying enough pressure to cause the Himalayas to grow taller each year. Two plates slide past each other at transform boundries. These plate interactions neither create nor destroy crust. Most transform boundries lie beneath the ocean: however, some, such as the San Andreas Fault in California, occur on land. Faults associated with convergent and transform boundries appear as two huge masses of rock tensely locked in place. When the plates build up enough pressure to overcome the friction holding them, the releasing energy causes the ground to shake—an earthquake. Earth’s volume is a constant. As crust moves, subducts, and is consumed by the mantle, new crust is formed. When some plates move together, other plates move apart, or diverge. At divergent bundries, hot, liquid magma from Earth’s
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