Chapter 2 - WAVES OF DEVELOPMENT

Introduction Projects that used earlier methods without radical change were The growth of the HLC programme, considered as part of the ‘parent’ from the pilots that were carried out project’s wave. Examples of these as part of a research and were the Peak NP method used in development project in 1993-94 the rest of Derbyshire, Cotswolds (Yesterday’s World, Tomorrow’s AONB in Gloucestershire, or Landscape) and from the Cornwall Hertfordshire in Essex. Fig 2 shows project, was designed to be that different waves have often run evolutionary and experimental. concurrently and inevitably some Each new project was encouraged projects because of their timetable not to copy earlier methods but to or history have therefore used improve on them, to borrow outmoded methods, lagging behind successful aspects but also to test the newest ‘cutting edge’ methods. new approaches and techniques, a process that has been hastened by the rapid development of GIS during the period acting as catalyst.

To understand this evolution, so that different aspects of methodology could be compared on a “like for like” basis taking into account their historic context, the Review arranged the HLC projects Figure 2: HLC programme time-line into four overlapping groups, termed ‘waves'. These Origins (1990 – 1994) waves were defined mainly by chronology, which reveals each The idea of HLC arose initially project’s position within the from the 1990 White Paper, This method’s evolution. The impact of Common Inheritance. This invited one method on a later one has been English Heritage to consider the varied – aspects of some projects desirability of a list of landscapes of have been emulated (ie “positive”), special historic importance, and aspects of others have encouraged from EH’s subsequent advice that rethinking to find better ways (ie comprehensive characterisation of “negative”) and an analysis of this all of the landscape was preferable helped the definition of waves. to a Register of selected areas. EH’s advice, incorporated in government 5 HLC: Taking Stock of the Method policy in PPG15, was based on the lessons, but the project as a whole conclusions of a one year national showed that no suitable method for R&D project on existing approaches HLC yet existed. to historic landscape. The delayed publication of the R&D project as Yesterday’s World, The English Heritage R&D project Tomorrow’s Landscape in 1999 was was carried out in 1993-94, by a significant step forward to widen Cobham Resource Consultants and the debate (Fairclough et al 1999). It the Oxford Archaeological Unit and was the first formal presentation and several subcontractors. Its promotion of the HLC programme, conclusions were published later as and was influential in defining Yesterday’s World, Tomorrow’s subsequent HLC projects. Landscape (Fairclough et al 1999). The project concluded that it would The late publication delayed the be better to assess and understand widespread adoption of HLC, but historic landscape character had some advantages in the long- everywhere, rather than selecting a term. It enabled the book to include few special areas for inclusion in a accounts of successful HLC work national register in contrast to the that had been carried out since the approach adopted in Wales. It R&D project, thus providing a recommended that a new, rapid and summary of current best practice. robust, approach should be This included the influential work in identified that could deliver Cornwall (Herring 1998) and wave multiple objectives and serve 1 and some wave 2 projects such as multiple uses, notably it Hampshire. The late publication significantly raised awareness that also enabled HLC to be placed into the whole of the landscape has an the context of new ideas on historic dimension. The approach sustainable development, as set out would need to be capable of use in for example in the English Heritage conjunction with other types of discussion paper Sustaining the landscape assessment. Historic Environment (English Heritage 1997). It could also take This was investigated separately in fuller account of the links between Views from the Past – historic HLC and the broader frameworks of landscape character in the English the Countryside Character Map countryside. This discussion paper (Countryside Commission/Agency was prepared collaboratively by the 1998/99) and the EH Settlement Countryside Commission and EH to Atlas (Roberts & Wrathmell 2000). promote archaeologists’ perspectives as a way of reaching a fuller understanding of the cultural Cornwall and Wave 1: an landscape as a humanly-formed and experimental phase (1994-1999) semi-natural construct (Countryside Commission 1994; re-issued 1996). Towards the end of the R&D project, the Cornwall The project reviewed existing Archaeological Unit puts these approaches to historic landscape, emerging ideas for HLC into and tested two new approaches. practice by (Herring 1998, Johnson These pilots (in Oxfordshire and 1999). This was as part of a County Durham) taught useful landscape assessment, first on

6 Bodmin Moor (by Land Use All HLC projects in England and Consultants for the Countryside many beyond descend to some Commission), and then applied to extent from Cornwall’s use of the whole of Cornwall (CAU and YWTL theory (eg Fairclough (ed) LDA). 1999, Dyson-Bruce et al 1999, ERM and ERA 2000, Dixon and Many parts of the pioneering Hingley 2002, Cooney et al 2002). methodology developed in Cornwall are found in the current HLC The rest of the first wave HLC programme projects. All HLC projects - Peak District (and projects in England and beyond Derbyshire its offshoot), Avon and descend to some extent from the Isle of Axholme - followed the Cornwall’s successful Cornwall project but represent further experimentation Cornwall HLC’s guiding principles using the principles of YWTL, (CAU and LDA 1994; Herring ‘Views’ and the Cornwall HLC. 1998, 12) were that the method There was consensus regarding the should: Cornwall method, and many aspects of it were used in the new projects, • characterise the whole but new techniques were also landscape, in the present day; developed. These exploited newly- • be straightforward, consistent, available if primitive GIS, they used repeatable and verifiable with other techniques such as time-sliced further assessment; historic mapping, and they reflected • be as far as possible objective, local identity and priorities as with areas of subjectivity made recommended in the national transparent; Research & Development project • consider no part of the (Fairclough et al 1999, 55 landscape to be greater in value than another; HLC in the Peak District continued • generalise, ie identify dominant the tradition of Cornwall as a historic landscape character; relatively simple and easily • use a concept of mainly visible understood method with clear time-depth over long periods of classifications, but it was more time; heavily GIS-based. It differed, • use present-day 1:25000 OS however, in its reliance on historic maps as the primary base; maps (Barnatt forthcoming). While • map discrete areas of HL this was valuable, leading to greater character within the present-day objectivity, it focused less on the landscape; surviving landscape. Its • use a pre-defined classification; characterisation was however • provide a common, easily supported by information about how understandable language for characterisation decisions were users and a starting point for made (a series of note boxes further research; attached to each polygon to describe • use an archaeological approach sources and decisions), thus starting to the interpretation of HL to make HLC method more character. transparent. A closely similar method was extended to the rest of Derbyshire (Barnatt et al 2000).

7 HLC: Taking Stock of the Method HLC type 18th - 19th century enclosure by local and parliamentary act 19thC ('Extended' or 'Infill') 20th C ('New' or 'Modern') 20th century leisure and sports development • Reconstruction of historic Ancient unenclosed Ancient unenclosed coastal 'Warths', beaches and cliffs Ancient unenclosed commons Coresettlements Large scale utility landscapes landscape; period maps or Late medieval enclosed open fields created by local arrangement and exchange Late medieval enclosure of steep-sided cultivation Medieval (or earlier) enclosure of rich, wet grassland Medieval and post medieval enclosure of the coastal clay belt Medieval and Post-medieval organised enclosure of open heath Medieval enclosed fields created by assart time-slices (not time-depth per Medieval enclosed fields created by organised clearance Medieval or earlier irregular enclosed fields Post medieval (15th - 17th C) irregular fields enclosed from anciently reclaimed Post medieval (15th - 17th C) organised enclosure of anciently recaimed inland m Post medieval (18th - 19th C) parliamentary (or similar) enclosure se); Post medieval (18th - 19th C) parliamentary enclosure Post medieval (18th - 19th C) parliamentary enclosure or recamation of inland pe Post-18th century woodland plantation and forestry Post-medieval and modern fields adjusted from earlier (i.e.A1) enclosures Post-medieval designed ornamental landscapes Post-medieval fields created from enclosure of medieval parkland Pre 1800 'ancient woodland • Increased transparency in the method (though limited in Avon and Axholme);

• Use of GIS, but mainly as a CAD-style drawing tool not query-led analysis. Figure 3: Avon HLC (map excluding Bath and Bristol) Wave 2: establishment (1997 – 2000) Avon adopted the basics of the method used by Cornwall more or Wave 2 projects developed the use less unchanged, though importantly of GIS and experimented with ways it increased the range of the of introducing greater time-depth. classification through a combination They firmly established the of time-depth/previous land- approach as a practical method use/enclosure process, and was the applicable in many different first to start using any form of GIS counties. They comprise Cotswolds (Sydes 1999). (and thus Gloucestershire), Nottinghamshire, Hampshire (and at The Axholme project, carries out at a later date, Kent, which borrowed sub-county level, also continued the its methods) and Suffolk. Cornwall tradition, but included much more detail, relied on historic The Cotswolds HLC has links to maps, and used the time-depth Avon, on which it built, as well as matrices that had been suggested in to Cornwall (Wills 1999, Hoyle YWTL and used in Cornwall. It 1999). The concepts used were the made greater use of documentary same, as were many practicalities. sources, and created period, phase The breadth of the classifications and process maps (Miller 1997, increased to include more aspects of Miller 1999). HL character, including previous HL character and greater time- Wave 1 represents in part an depth. The project used GIS, but offshoot of the mainstream HLC digitising from paper-based method, but its contribution to the characterisation not direct-to-screen. development of the HLC method The use of attributes attached to can be summarised as follows: GIS polygons was a new element, increasing the range and scope of • High level use of historic maps HLC products. Gloucestershire later and documents to inform HL used the Cotswolds method, further character; expanding and improving the range of types and attributes.

8 Nottinghamshire combined regional programme for the East of techniques from Cornwall, the England, which was planned to use Cotswolds and, indirectly, the Peak the same methodology for all of District. Part of the product was a East Anglia, but changes for 19th century map reconstruction of Hertfordshire were so great that the historic landscape as

well as a Broad types 18th-century and later enclosure characterisation of the BROAD TYPES Ancient monument Built up area Common pasture Horticulture Industrial present-day historic Meadow or managed wetland Post-1950 agricultual landscape Post-1950 agricultural landscape landscape (Bishop Post-medieval military Post-medieval park and leisure Pre-18th-century enclosure Unimproved land 2000). Comparison of Woodland all others th the 19 century and the Sub-types Allotments Ancient monument present-day map was Ancient woodland Boundary loss from irregular co-axial fields Boundary loss from long co-axial fields Boundary loss from post-1700 fields used to demonstrate Boundary loss from random fields Boundary loss from rectilinear fields Built margin Built up area landscape change and Coastal marsh Current industrial landscape Current military Current mineral extraction time-depth. Disused military Disused mineral extraction Formal park or garden Former coastal marsh Former common arable or heathland Former common pasture, built margin Former common pasture, open margin Former marsh or fenland Hampshire’s HLC Former medieval deer park Former post-medieval park Freshwater fen or marsh SUB-TYPES Heath or rough pasture project was carried out Heath, former warren Informal park Intertidal land Irregular co-axial fields by Oxford Archaeology Long co-axial fields Managed wetland Meadow Unit, one of the Meadow with modern boundary loss Modern leisure Modern plantation on former arable Modern plantation on former common arable or heath consultants on the Modern plantation on former common pasture Modern plantation on former informal park Modern plantation on former warren Open margin Yesterday’s World, Orchard Plotlands Random fields Rectilinear fields Tomorrow’s Landscape Shingle spit Water reservoir Wet woodland or alder carr Woodland clearance project. This project all others took account of preceding projects but put more of the YWTL R&D theory into practice. It was less dependent on land-use than on easily identifiable Figure 4: Suffolk HLC - Broad & attributes such as morphology, as Sub types well as the spatial, functional and chronological distinctions of types later Eastern projects are part of (Lambrick and Bramhill 1999, Wave 3. Fairclough et al 2002). Kent followed an almost identical In summary, Wave 2 projects method, although with the addition moved slightly away from the pure of confidence levels for each form of the Cornwall method, but polygon (Croft et al 2001). Surrey, contained several major much later, broadly followed suit, contributions to HLC evolution: but also developed in new, Wave 3 directions and is discussed later. � Continued use of GIS as a display tool, and the first In Suffolk’s HLC project, emphasis use of attribute data; these was placed on recognising land-use projects were the first with types in reference to earlier map the fully-developed ability sources within a morphological to interrogate their GIS to basis for field patterns (Ford 1999). produce multiple outputs; It was the first within a rolling � Modelling time-depth, past

9 HLC: Taking Stock of the Method HL character, change changes by comparison between the through time, via GIS; present-day and 1st edition 6" maps. � Significant development in The Peak method was also description of HL character influential, in terms of increasing in terms that recognised the transparency of decision-making previous HL character and about character. The range and analysed historic process scope of HL character interpretation and morphology. was greatly increased, because it was not constrained by fitting within predefined type-lists but able Wave 3: development (1999–2000) to generate a large number of potential types subject to GIS Wave 3 developments were interrogation (Darlington 2002, Ede prompted by a number of factors, with Darlington 2003, DCMS 2002 not least the experience of the ten p31). previous successful Wave 1 and 2 projects. The promise and Somerset at the same time limitations of various aspects of the developed a system using the same method were by now evident in a distinctions, but more explicitly and range of easily available with greater reliance on publications and tested project morphological attributes held within designs (Fairclough et al, 1999, discrete data fields (Aldred 2001). Herring 1999). An HLC progress This further increased the range and review was presented in December scope of types, and made 1998 in the first of what has become interpretation more transparent. a biennial series of English Heritage Previous landscape change was also HLC seminars held at the Society of assessed. Antiquaries in London. Its published papers enabled future Herefordshire, like Lancashire and projects to use techniques and Somerset, further developed the concepts based on the same guiding attribute-based approach. It was, principles (Fairclough (ed.) 1999). however, set within a broader Networking between HLC analysis and a quite different scale practitioners was growing as well, of characterisation than previously and the potential use of GIS in used. It explored stratigraphic characterisation and analysis was principles of landscape analysis at a becoming more widely recognised, very high level of generalisation, just as the availability of GIS in and brought a new level of SMRs was becoming commonplace. theoretical clarification to the Wave 3 projects were Lancashire, process (White with Ray Somerset, Herefordshire, Surrey, forthcoming). Hertfordshire and Essex. The Surrey HLC used the Lancashire took many aspects of Hampshire method, but improved it Cornwall, Hampshire and the with new ideas. More sophisticated Cotswolds to create a system based use of GIS, the addition of several on multiple attribute data new categories, increased time- (morphology, process, chronology depth, and further levels of and source references) for each transparency brought its approach polygon, as well as indicating past

10 in the method which was Figure 5: Surrey HLC easily replicable; very close to the other Wave 3 � Use of metadata on the projects (Bannister 2001). digital and other data used in HLC; Hertfordshire, the second East of � Increased functionality in England project (and Essex, the the outputs to produce both third), departed from their detailed and amalgamated predecessor in Suffolk by adding forms of the data, assessment of the depth of historic especially combinations of character for each polygon using a interpretation and variety of sources, all referenced description; through multi-tiered attribute data � Development of the HLC fields (Dyson Bruce 2002). The model concept for spatial Eastern HLC project officer also and temporal analysis; added experience gained in � Greater consistency in Scotland, where HLA had evolved classification; data from the Cornwall starting point, structures with separate by-passing some English attributes. evolutionary paths (Dyson Bruce et al 1999). Wave 4: higher evolution and The key contributions of Wave 3 consolidation (2001-02) projects to the development of the HLC method were: Wave 4 projects are the most methodologically consistent set of � Use of GIS not just as a projects. They have clear display tool but for antecedents in earlier waves and analysis, to provide a combine all the best elements of platform for query-led HL preceding methods. They have character types, as well as greater emphasis on assessing providing increased flexibility and transparency

11 HLC: Taking Stock of the Method or being planned in 2002, for example Buckinghamshire, Isle of Wight, Northamptonshire and Dorset. During the review, these were all at an early stage, and are therefore not fully described here.

The contribution of Wave 4 projects to HLC’s methodological evolution can be summarised as mainly: Figure 6: Cheshire HLC: broad summary types (in progress, Dec � An important level of 2002) consolidation; � Increased standardisation, changes in the past with direct providing a basis for a template comments for individual polygons, Project Design; in a similar way to Hertfordshire � Increased complexity in and Essex but with Lancashire-type attribute recording, thus use of attribute recording. GIS was strengthened interpretation; even more central in this wave, and � More emphasis on previous HL continued to influence techniques character that better reflects and the method, being more than time-depth; simply a tool for displaying results. � Highly sophisticated and There is an increased concern for flexible use of GIS, coupled flexibility and transparency. with greater transparency; � Better digital map bases One tendency of Wave 4 projects is (notably ‘MasterMap’), towards smaller polygons and finer therefore avoiding new grained characterisations, which at digitising or scanning etc; county scale risks losing sight of � Increased use of geo-referenced broad patterns and strategic vertical APs and other pre­ overview. Perhaps some degree of existing digital data. legibility, although sophisticated use of GIS should normally be able to avoid this pitfall by use of Further development of HLC – appropriate levels of amalgamation using HLC (Fairclough 2002). This tendency also implies a high degree of At the time of publication of this resolution that may not be reflected report, a second national HLC in the accuracy of available data, review was in full swing, reviewing which relate to the scale and the uses confidence of the HLC. and applications to which HLC was being put. The results will be Wave 4 projects were Devon, available towards the end of 2003. Cumbria & the Lakes, Shropshire It will look at applications in many and Cheshire, and almost identical fields, notably spatial planning, methods are used in projects starting landscape management, agri­

12 environmental programmes, and and regional identity (Dyson-Bruce research frameworks and agendas, 2002). and provide exemplars and case studies. A planned second stage of the HLC programme is to produce regional Apart from all the varied HLC maps drawn from county level applications of individual HLC, the work and absorbing other HLC technique is also being used in landscape-scale work such as EUS a range of follow-up ways, which and NMP. A draft regional will in turn extend the methodology overview of this type has been and introduce it to new scales, undertaken by the Cornwall whether at more local level or Archaeology Unit within the South higher, regional levels. West, linked to English Heritage’s Several HLC projects are using the A Strategy for the Historic HLC method in other contexts: for Environment in the South-West. It example. Cornwall CC has carried used county-scale HLC where it out a more detailed HLC using GIS was available, but filled gaps in and incorporating additional data HLC coverage (Dorset and for the Lynher Valley and for areas Wiltshire) by rapid top-down around a mining World Heritage interpretation in discussion with the Site bid. Lancashire CC is relevant county archaeologist or developing and testing part of its Hi storic Landuse Character Types S W regi on Agr icultur e (Un enclose d lan dscape s) HLC at a local level in Bowland Agr icultur e (Ancie nt en closur e) Agr icultur e (Hist oric en closur es) Agr icultur e (M ixed e nclosur es) Agr icultur e (M ixed e nclosur es - dam age d) and the Lune Valley within the Agr icultur e (M ixed h istoric/ rece nt) Agr icultur e (Re cent e nclosu res) Agr icultur e (Re cent e nclosu res, post m edie val) Agr icultur e (Re cent e nclosu res, early mode rn) European Pathways to Cultural Agr icultur e (Re cent e nclosu res, mod ern pastu re) Agr icultur e (Re cent e nclosu res, mod ern, ara ble) Agr icultur e (Re claimed land ) Hor ticultu re Landscapes Culture 2000 Ancien t wood land (histo ric pr e 18 00) Rec ent wo odlan d (p la ntat io n po st 18 00) Ur ban (Me dieval - 170 0) Ur ban ( 170 0 - 1840 ) programme (Darlington 2002, Ur ban ( 184 0 - 1940 ) Ur ban ( mo dern 194 0 - ) In dustr ial/Com mer cial (e xtrac tive ind ustry) In dustr ial/Com mer cial (in dustr ial/com mer cial com plexe s) Nord Paulsson and Fairclough Or nam enta l Wa ter (nat ura l) Wa ter (ar tificial) 2002). Both Cornwall and T he Co ast ( inter tidal zo ne) Lancashire county councils are also carrying out urban characterisation based on the ideas and philosophy laid down by HLC (Ede with Darlington 2003). 0 25 50 75 100 Km

Other projects have followed up HLC at more local level, either as part of an application of the data, to Figure 7: SW Regional Character include further detailing, or used as Map. Produced as part of A contextual information. The New Strategy for the Historic Forest DC local assessment built on Environment in the South-west for the Oxford Archaeological Unit’s SW Region EH. (Cornwall, HLC work in Hampshire, as did Somerset, Avon and Gloucestershire Hampshire CC's urban hinterland are derived from completed HLCs) landscape assessments for Winchester and Basingstoke. The East Anglian Historic Fields Project HLC officers. The success of this is using the East of England HLC as trial (particularly given that South part of a more advanced study of the West HLCs represent all four character of historic field patterns waves) demonstrates that regional

13 HLC: Taking Stock of the Method HLC overviews will be feasible the HLC method (Herring even if individual county HLCs 1998). used different methods. If it is 3. Hampshire (OAU) - the possible in a context of such principal YWTL consultants methodological diversity, it will be testing their own interpretation easy elsewhere. of its findings. Very influential on subsequent projects. First stage county coverage of HLC 4. Lancashire (along with others, is nearing completion in several notably Somerset) - the further government regions, notably in the development of the Cornwall NW, and the next step of regional and Hampshire projects, using synthesis and overview will be able GIS to transform the method, to begin soon. changing direction from classification-led methods to attribute-based ones. Summary of Chapter 2 5. Current Wave 4 projects (Cumbria, Shropshire, Devon From this overview of the evolution and Cheshire) – mature of HLC, some principal milestones attribute-based methods, can be identified: incorporating the Lancashire, Somerset and Hertfordshire 1. The R&D project (Yesterday’s methods, with increased World, Tomorrow’s Landscape), flexibility, greater transparency, and Views from the Past – these more time-depth potential and established the guiding fuller characterisation of past principles of HLC. changes to the historic 2. Cornwall (CAU) – this landscape. This provided the pioneering project definitively springboard for the best-practice put these ideas into practice, and consolidated methodology that introduced the main aspects of is set out in the accompanying Template PD.

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