CurrentsACADEMIC In Teaching and Learning JOURNAL

VOLUME 9 NUMBER 1 MARCH 2017 CURRENTS | MARCH 2017

Table of Contents

About Us EDITORIAL CURRENT CLIPS & LINKS Currents in Teaching and Learning is a peer-reviewed electronic journal that fosters “ Making connections, crossing divides” 2 Websites Related to Teaching 41 exchanges among reflective teacher-scholars across the disciplines. Published twice — Martin Fromm and Learning a year, Currents seeks to improve teaching and learning in higher education with — Kayla Beman short reports on classroom practices as well as longer research, theoretical, or con- ceptual articles and explorations of issues and challenges facing teachers today. ESSAYS BOOK REVIEWS Non-specialist and jargon-free, Currents is addressed to both faculty and graduate “ Seeking Rapport: Emotion, Feminist 5 students in higher education, teaching in all academic disciplines. Pedagogy, and the Work of Long-Term David Wiley’s edited volume, 42 Substituting in Writing Intensive An Open Education Reader Courses” — Kara Larson Maloney Subscriptions — Sara Hillin If you wish to be notified when each new issue ofCurrents becomes available online Maggie Berg and Barbara K. Seeber’s 45 and to receive our Calls for Submissions and other announcements, please join our The Slow Professor Currents Subscribers’ Listserv. Subscribe Here Subscribe Here TEACHING REPORTS — Vanessa Osborne “ Scholars in Training: Moving from 17 Benedict Carey’s How We Learn: 48 Student Engagement to Student The Surprising Truth about When, Empowerment” Where, and Why It Happens — Todd Olszewski, Danielle Waldron, — Geoffrey B. Elliott and Robert Hackey

“ Using Pedagogical Interventions to 26 POETIC NOTE Quell Students’ Anxieties about Source-Based Reading” “ Banana Trees and Rooster Calls 51 — Ellen C. Carillo — Matthew Johnsen

PROGRAM REPORTS THE BACK PAGE “ The Teaching and Learning of Intensive 33 About Us, Subscriptions, Submissions, Inquiries French at Ekiti State University: A Literacy Based Model for Second Language Acquisition in Nigeria” — Odey Ebi Veronica and Moruwawon Babatunde Samuel

Source of Cover Image: Impakter (http://impakter.com/deconstructing-empathy-in-the-digital-age/) CURRENTS | MARCH 2017 EDITORIAL

Making connections, crossing divides — Martin Fromm

At a time when the world has become dangerously frac- in the academic enterprise, the scholars featured in this online research. She argues that “exploring the largely the teacher as “substitute,” Hillin suggests that “teaching tured, it is more imperative than ever to explore new issue refashion and revitalize the relationship between neglected affective components of students’ develop- practices that acknowledge and bring emotion into the channels for building relationships based on empathy teachers and students, transform hierarchy, and envision ment of digital literacy practices is an important step forefront” are critical to alleviating obstructive anxieties and mutual respect. In the field of education, are there a more holistic vision for academic success. toward quelling students’ reading-related anxieties.” and distrust, building classroom relationships, and find- systematic, academically rigorous approaches that we as This perspective drives her crafting of assignments and ing a productive balance between personal vulnerability Re-envisioning the relationship between instruc- teachers can use to create and sustain these empathet- in-class activities that introduce to students reading and professorial authority. tor and student, according to Todd Olszewski, Danielle ic bonds in and beyond the classroom? What forms of strategies that give students a greater sense of control Waldron, and Robert Hackey, involves a new approach Looking beyond the student-teacher dynamic, collaboration, assignment structure, curricular and ex- over a seemingly overwhelming amount of information. to collaboration that “emphasizes the potential of com- Odey Ebi Veronica and Moruwawon Babatunde Samuel tra-curricular opportunities, and in-class practices can In particular, Carillo proposes ways to “foster a deeper pressed hierarchy” in “encouraging students to develop define productive intellectual work in terms of forging we adopt that will alleviate student anxieties and alien- engagement with fewer sources rather than a superficial research questions, conduct an independent inquiry, empathetic connections across cultures. In “The Teach- ation in contexts of disruption and dissonance, guide engagement with many” that “compels students to slow and develop a collaborative academic product with ing and Learning of Intensive French at Ekiti State students toward higher levels of self-awareness and down both as they search for sources and as they read faculty members.” In “Scholars in Training: Moving University: A Literacy Based Model for Second Lan- relational competence, and cultivate transformational (and re-reread) these sources.” In this way, the author from Student Engagement to Student Empowerment,” guage Acquisition in Nigeria,” Veronica and Samuel partnerships between teacher and student? The articles identifies a close synergy between emotional subjectivity the authors share their experience in moving outside highlight areas of academic practice where teaching and in this issue address these questions from a variety of and academic rigor, suggesting that addressing students’ and beyond traditional credit-bearing models of facul- learning, state policy, and cultural subjectivity collide. perspectives, but with a shared conviction that conven- underlying fears and anxieties is key to promoting effec- ty-guided student research such as honors theses and in- Discussing the specific post-colonial context of Anglo- tional approaches to and structures of learning are not tive intellectual performance. dependent studies. As an alternative, they incorporated phone Nigeria’s proximity to Francophone countries in adequate for engaging students in an increasingly unset- a student (who is one of the co-authors) into a larger Sharing this view of emotion as an important sub- Sub-Saharan Africa, they examine the development of tled and confusing environment. state-level project as co-investigator with faculty mem- ject of academic analysis, Sara Hillin applies feminist pre-degree programs designed to cultivate skills in “lis- One area of shared concern in these articles is the bers, operating on a professional co-peer basis with both pedagogies to the problem of how to address the issue of tening, speaking, writing and representing” a second importance of emotion and empathy as subjects of anal- her instructors and collaborators outside the university. student anxiety, distrust and resistance when unforeseen language “in an integrated manner” prior to introduc- ysis for conceptualizing challenges in areas ranging from The authors suggest that that this mode of collaboration circumstances disrupt course routines and continuity. In ing other academic subjects. The holistic approach to language acquisition, research endeavors, and informa- “provides a deep, rich, and multifaceted professional “Seeking Rapport: Emotion, Feminist Pedagogy and the second language acquisition that the author propos- tion literacy to the predicament of long-term substitut- socialization experience” that empowers and challeng- Work of Long-Term Substituting in Writing Intensive es extends beyond technical proficiency to the deep- ing. Some of these articles examine empathy building es the student to view herself/himself as a co-equal in Courses,” Hillin argues that professors acting as long- er and more transformative level of students’ cultural and collaboration as essential tools for learning beyond research undertakings with real-world applications and term substitutes need to move beyond “quick fixes” and consciousness. Noting that “speech acts” constitutes a and outside traditional curricular structures or when stake-holders. “administrative logistics” such as relying on the previous “glimpse into the rich field of intercultural pragmatics,” predictable classroom routines are disrupted. Other ar- instructor’s materials and methods. While not dimin- Veronica and Samuel argue that the acknowledgment While Olszewski, Waldron, and Hackey look out- ticles design ways to build empathy into institutional ishing the importance of access to these resources for of cultural identities in the classroom is critical to the side the traditional curricular structure, Ellen Carillo and curricular structures at the university and classroom a smooth transition, particularly when the need for a acquisition of skills needed to engage with the intercul- demonstrates ways to empower students within the levels. These perspectives challenge conventional defini- substitute arises suddenly, the author suggests that we tural realities within and beyond the university. framework of a writing and research-intensive course. tions of academic achievement and rigor, extending it “invite emotion into the classroom” in a way that fosters In “Using Pedagogical Interventions to Quell Students’ The issue ends with a brief poetic meditation on the beyond the formal curricular, degree, and credit-bearing deeper bonds of empathy and rapport between the stu- Anxieties about Source-Based Reading,” Carillo turns intercultural experience of teaching and learning. Based model while re-interpreting academic rigor through the dents and their new instructor. Contending that a major our attention to student anxiety and lack of confidence on his experience teaching at Stawa University in Kam- lens of emotion and subjectivity. Deconstructing the impediment to the success of such courses is students’ when confronted with assignments involving extensive pala, Uganda, Matthew Johnsen’s “Banana Trees and false dichotomy between objectivity and subjectivity underlying view of themselves as “abandoned” and of

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Seeking Rapport: Emotion, Feminist Pedagogy, and the Work of Long-Term Substituting in

Rooster Calls” reflects lyrically on the more universal tributed their time to strengthen the quality and clarity Writing Intensive College Courses theme of human potentialities that cross over what can of scholarship. They are, in no particular order, Dana otherwise appear to be formidable material and cultural Polanichka, Tim Murphy, Tanya Rodrigue, Pamela — Sara Hillin divides. Hollander, Lynette Goldberg, Linda Larrivee, Judith Jeon-Chapman, Sandra Burger, Dan Shartin, Charles In “Clips and Links,” Kayla Beman directs readers Sara Hillin is an Associate Professor of English and the Writing Director in the Department of English and Cullum, Emanuel Nneji, Jessie Moore, Mary Lynn Saul, to useful online sites in teaching and learning. While in Modern Languages at Lamar University. She teaches courses in first year composition, advanced composi- Ann Frymier, Sam O’Connell, Doug Downs, Cleve Wi- the last issue the focus was on teaching writing, in this tion, pedagogy, multimedia writing and rhetoric at Lamar University in Southeast Texas. Her areas of research ese (who did double duty as reviewer and copy editor), issue Beman draws attention to databases and online interest include composition theory and pedagogy, rhetorical theory, the scholarship of teaching and learning, Alison Cook-Sather, Amy Ebbeson, Katrina Liu, Lance learning resource centers that provide a wide range of Langdon, and Christina Santana. I also would like to ex- and women’s rhetorics of the 20th century. teaching-related resources and instructional videos and tend thanks to several reviewers for the last issue (Spring articles. Abstract Introduction 2016) whose names were erroneously omitted. They We ask of our students, first year all the way through We ask of our students, first-year all the way through The book reviews selected by our Book Review Ed- are Nathan Pino, Lori Dawson, Bonnie Kanner, Maria graduate level, that they produce discourses that are graduate level, that they produce discourses that are sin- itor, Kisha Tracy, tackle the issue of how we as educators Villalobos-Buehner, and Antonio Guijarro-Donadios. sincere, and yet at the same time meet whatever stan- cere, and yet at the same time meet whatever standards can resist, operate outside of, and find workable alterna- Members of the Editorial Advisory Board represent a dards of academic discourse we have deemed appro- of academic discourse we have deemed appropriate. tives to the corporate structures and mindsets that are core source of inspiration and vision for moving for- priate. But what about when an instructor has to take So they find themselves nestled within a juxtaposition besieging academia. The issues addressed in these book ward with the journal, including the design of themes up a class, or classes, in medias res, after the initial of our invitation to honesty and the tradition-steeped reviews range from strategies for making education more for the spring issues. They are, again in no particular instructor of record has had to unexpectedly leave for vernacular of the academy, with its call to conform in openly accessible, finding a “slow learning” alternative order, Charles Cullum, Emanuel Nneji, Dan Shartin, the duration of the term? Such occurrences are much various ways: follow an appropriate documentation to corporate-style models of efficiency and productivi- Kisha Tracy (also Book Review Editor), Cleve Wiese, more plentiful than we might think, and yet there is lit- format, avoid first person except where necessary, cite ty, and inquiring into the learning process itself. Kara and Daron Barnard. My thanks once again to the web tle to no scholarship concerning the emotional impact, all references, etc. Regardless of the discipline in which Larson Maloney reviews David Wiley’s edited volume, designer, Amanda Quintin. It should be noted that the on students and writing instructors, that picking up the we teach, we guide students through a semester during An Open Education Reader (Pressbooks, Creative Com- first comment that I hear from colleagues is that the pieces in such a situation creates. This article seeks to which they not only master content, but also adapt to mons License, 2014); Vanessa Osborne reviews Maggie design of the issue is elegant and beautiful, thanks to fill in the gap in this discussion by synthesizing peda- increasingly sophisticated rhetorical situations posed by Berg and Barbara K Seeber’s The Slow Professor (Uni- Amanda’s exceptional skills. I look forward to working gogical research on the matter and first hand accounts our writing assignments. Instructors in writing intensive versity of Toronto Press, 2016); and Geoffrey B. Elliott with our new Marketing Director, Sarah McMaster. I of what works best when substituting long-term in a writing intensive course. courses therefore must work to create a space for our reviews Benedict Carey’s How We Learn: The Surprising also once again want to express my appreciation for the students to enjoy risk taking and playing with language Truth about When, Where, and Why It Happens (Random unremitting supportiveness of Linda Larrivee, Dean of and develop more facility with written composition. Es- House, 2014). the School of Education, Health, and Natural Sciences, tablishing an effective rapport early on with students is, who is always generously available with creative solu- I would like to extend my thanks once again to of course, key in creating an environment where these tions whenever issues arise. all who have made this issue possible. It is, as always, things can happen. a humbling venture to rely so greatly on the expertise But what about when an instructor, whether in a and generosity of colleagues. Particular gratitude goes composition course or any other discipline, has to take out to the team of referees and copy editors who con- up a class, or classes, in medias res, after the initial in- structor of record has had to unexpectedly leave for the

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duration of the term? Such occurrences are much more 1) What type and level of course did you take over? is well known to be commonplace and is a means of sition studies in the last twenty years, and so it seems plentiful than we might think, and yet there is little to 2) At what point in the semester did you take over the contingent, though dismally low paying, employment, reasonable that this would be one avenue for reflecting no scholarship concerning the pedagogical impact of course? Had any major assignments been done and especially among those hoping to secure full-time teach- productively on the practice of long-term substituting such a situation. A full-time instructor teaching five graded already? ing positions in the future. Two book-length studies, in writing courses. Though the faculty responses dis- courses, for example, will potentially leave 125 students Pronin’s Substitute Teaching: A Handbook for Hassle-Free cussed later in this article do not formally fit into this 3) Were you, to your knowledge, the first “substitute” behind, and spaces to be filled by as many as five other Subbing (1983) and Dellinger’s The Substitute Teaching methodology, they do underscore the power of reflect- to come in, or had there been more than one prior instructors. The scholarship of teaching and learning is Survival Guide (2005), fill the void for K-12, but lit- ing on/observing one’s own classroom practice both as it to your taking over? showing increased interest in the practices of creating erature for college level subbing seems sparse. Bucior is happening and after the term has ended. and maintaining mutually beneficial instructor/student 4) Was it made immediately apparent that you were (2011) writes in her New York Times op-ed piece “The Accounting professor Bloom (2013) does offer an rapport, with scholars from disciplines such as Edu- going to be the instructor for the duration of the se- Replacements” that within the U.S., “5.2 percent of enticingly positive account of substituting at the college cational Leadership, Business, Statistics, and Spanish mester, or did you (and the students) initially think teachers are absent on any given day,” and ultimately level for one of his departmental colleagues, for one class weighing in on these issues [Starcher, 2011; Bledsoe and that the original instructor of record would return? the available data lets us know that students “have sub- period. The introspection he provides is useful in that Baskin, 2014; Smith, 2015; Waples, 2016; Castella, By- 5) What particular difficulties did you have in initially stitute teachers for nearly a year of their kindergarten he claims that in teaching unfamiliar students, he came rne, and Covington, 2013; and Conner, 2013]. It seems developing rapport with students? through 12th grade education” (p. 2). It seems logical to to a heightened awareness of the strengths and limits of safe to assume, therefore, that this interest would extend assume that the statistics could be similar for college lev- 6) How much of the original instructor’s material (syl- his own teaching methods (p. 107). Also of relevance is to methods for gaining rapport when serving as a long- el instructor absences. When her article was published, labus, assignment sheets, policies, etc.) did you end Bloom’s admonition to keep abreast of what others are term substitute, particularly in courses in which writing a promising piece of legislation, the Substitute Teaching up using? Did you start fresh with a new syllabus? doing in our departments. “To make our courses more assignments comprise a major component of the course Improvement Act, was before Congress; however, it has 7) How would you gauge the “success” of this semester integrative,” he writes, “we should consider discussing grade. never been enacted. Substituting, whether short-term or in terms of meeting your overall goals for the course our own subject areas with our colleagues teaching other long-term, is treated with similar pedagogical disregard To obtain a fresh perspective on long-term substi- (you can define success rather broadly here)? courses in accounting and other disciplines as well…” at the college level, where it is a largely under paid effort, tuting, I surveyed three of Lamar University’s English (p. 106). In a long-term substituting situation, such The results of this survey are analyzed following a brief unless the substitute becomes the instructor of record and Modern Languages faculty members whom I knew knowledge can help fortify us against being taken aback literature review and discussion of relevant scholar- formally when the original instructor announces he/she had “subbed” in courses during the last several years. when we are asked to adopt a class, syllabus, and assign- ship on matters of substituting, rapport, and feminist will not be returning to class at all. Such reflections are in keeping with a growing need in ments with which we are unfamiliar. In fact, Bloom ad- pedagogy. the field to create, as Kinney (2007) muses, a “place for Duebber (2000) eloquently calls subbing the “bah vocates short-term subbing on occasion for four specific us to be teacher-scholars engaged in the messiness of Literature Review: Substituting in K-12 Education humbug” of teaching, elaborating that a substitute “is reasons, the most important of which in this context be- our profession,” which involves “mining the personal The gap between what is known about the craft of sub- supposed to manage a class of strangers at a moment’s ing that substituting creates an opportunity for faculty narratives and I-wonderings of our classrooms” (p. 24). stituting in K-12 and what is known about the practice notice,” teach “from fractured plans,” and “maintain dis- to “experiment with the application of their own teach- Kinney (2007) claims that we need to veer away from in college should be filled by a discussion of what works cipline and a sense of humor” (p. 73). Bletzer (2010) of- ing techniques, or for that matter other techniques, to the glossed over versions of what goes on in our class- that is supported by theory and practice. Bucior’s in- fers a relevant perspective on subbing that goes beyond different subject matter in their own discipline and oth- rooms, as when we do so we “don’t invite readers into sightful 2011 memoir Subculture: Three Years in Educa- the do’s and don’ts checklists offered in most scholarship er related disciplines” (p. 107). Such a practice might the ‘true’ situation, but instead offer our own limited tion’s Dustiest Corner is an interesting look at the basics of on the topic (“Some Things to Do Before a Sub Ar- work well in any discipline, also, as a kind of primer perspectives” (p. 26). What I asked my colleagues cov- substituting, but still is limited to the K-12 experience. rives,” “A Hand to Substitutes,” and “A Practical Guide to help instructors acclimatize to unfamiliar classrooms, ered a gamut of issues, from the administrative to the By college age, students are well accustomed to tolerat- to Substituting at Different Grade Levels” provide such in the event that they should find themselves long-term pedagogical. Additionally, the questions were designed ing the “sub,” and the literature on the subject helps bear “quick and dirty” guides). Bletzer (2010) explains that subbing in the future. to elicit a sense of how much, if at all, emotion weighed out the shaky ground any instructor is on in taking over substitute teaching, a “performed experience,” is suitable in as a component in the period of adjustment and also for the research method of auto-ethnography, a method Scholarship on Rapport and its Cross-Disciplinary for a class. A search for the purpose of creating a brief Relevance to Long-Term Substituting in any specialized pedagogical interventions. The ques- literature review on the issue yielded only scholarship that “holds ethnography to its origins in experiential re- Building and maintaining rapport are of obvious con- tions I asked were the following: geared toward the K-12 community, where substituting cord-keeping, site immersion where the self centers the author in subsequent write-up, and introspection reflex- cern across the curriculum, with scholarship from those ivity with other people and within oneself” (p. 404). who teach in a variety of disciplines weighing in. Con- Auto-ethnography has gained some ground in compo- ner (2013) comments that instructors who make an ef-

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fort to build a “positive relationship” with their students “write in genres, and thus assume subject positions for from faculty I surveyed, we will see that much of that in general” (p. 397). The relevance of the theory of af- “will be compensated with students improving cogni- which they might not yet understand the motivations discourse reflects the instructors' empathy for students, fective filters lies in its connection to self-efficacy and tively, behaviorally, and emotionally” (p. 39). Conner’s or possibilities” (p. 219). So how do we secure credi- their regrets, and their active engagement of students in emotion. Mingzheng (2012) explains that “[t]he filter piece, on point with its implicit assertion that much is at bility and guide students who are already rattled by the the process of collaboratively pressing on with new goals is up when the acquirer is unmotivated, lacking in con- stake when rapport is not established, connects nicely to departure of their initial instructor through a produc- they fashioned together. They mention “bonds,” as well fidence, or concerned with failure. The filter is down research concerning reasons for and possible antidotes tive, writing intensive semester? We can do this through as the students’ transference of their emotions about the when the acquirer is not anxious and is trying to become to student disengagement and fear of failure, both of both deliberate and more impromptu opportunities situation onto them: a member of the speaking group” (p. 397). Petterson which are risks in classes where a new instructor comes to identify with our students—though collaboration, (2006) alludes to employing humor effectively in a writ- Faculty Member C:…I was in fact the second “sub- in several weeks or later into the term. Scholarship on one-on-one meetings, and copious amounts of process ing intensive course, stating that “true language play is stitute” to take over the course. This proved quite building rapport in modern languages courses also gives modeling. We should, in these cases, invite emotion delirious, it is infectious, it is delicious and perhaps even problematic in that students felt like poor “stepchil- a nod to rapport. In discussing rapport building with his into the classroom, using techniques supported particu- necessary food for the brain. What better place for that dren,” namely because their perception entailed be- Spanish students, Bryant Smith recounts that balance is larly by feminist pedagogies and other SOTL findings. precious delirium than the classrooms in which we teach ing an “unwanted” class—in not only having been crucial; he writes that, “by showing them that Spanish The theoretical underpinning for this argument comes writing (p. 391)?” If the use of humor is an effective but “abandoned” by the original instructor, they felt is relatable and making myself more approachable while from Micciche’s (2007) work, especially Doing Emotion: perhaps optional strategy in classes where students have (and in fact verbalized) that they felt like orphans still maintaining my professionalism, students are more Rhetoric, Writing, Teaching, and her articles on feminist had the luxury of the same instructor through the whole being “shuffled around” with various foster parents. inclined to perform well” (p. 36). pedagogy. Other scholarship that will be used to help term, then surely it becomes far more important as a This disturbed me deeply, and I attempted to reas- theorize a means of rectifying a class fractured by an in- pedagogical intervention in a long-term substituting sit- Castella, Byrne, and Covington (2013) identify sure them that the unfortunate situation was not a structor’s sudden departure includes Petterson’s “Gram- uation in which students’ affective filters are up (fearing two relevant “deflective strategies” that students engage reflection of them by ANY means, merely an issue mar Instruction in the Land of Curiosity and Delight” failure, etc.). in when they fear failure: “defensive pessimism” and that involved a certain amount of time in finding (2006), and Johnson’s “Beyond Standards: Disciplinary “self-handicapping” (p. 862). The student who engages a teacher who would remain with them for the re- Although this technique worked for Faculty Mem- and National Perspectives on Habits of Mind” (2013). in defensive pessimism will “alter the meaning of fail- mainder of the semester. ber C, humor should not necessarily be considered a ure by holding unrealistically low expectations for tasks The scholarship on rapport specifically provides a panacea for diffusing unease in the classroom. In fact, This same instructor found employing humor to be of where one’s performance will be evaluated,” while a stu- link to feminist pedagogies, tending as it does to ad- some more reserved students, suffering from “gelotopho- immense help in taking over a junior level creative writ- dent who self-handicaps will explain away the reason vocate pedagogical strategies that increase collaboration bia” (a fear of being laughed at) may “perceive classroom ing course: for failure and use instead “premeditated excuses” (p. among instructors and students, as well as a focus on laughter as threatening and shame-inducing,” a reality 862). The latter, self-handicapping, looms as a decep- targeting myriad student difficulties that are rooted in In the poetry writing seminar, I did sense a degree which prompts Bledsoe and Baskin (2014) to caution tively easy go-to strategy a student might use in a course fear of failure. Micciche (2007) writes that “in academ- of suspicion and even a bit of resentment toward that an instructor who believes humor to be the best way with a long-term substitute, in which, if rapport is not ic as well as popular culture, emotions raise suspicion me for having taken over the course. I understood to solidify rapport “may actually be contributing to the established, the student might feel she/he was set up to because they are said to cloud judgment. Indeed, emo- this, however, as a compliment to the original in- fear-based responses of some students…” (p. 34). These fail in the first place by uncontrollable circumstances. tion is regularly cast as reason’s spoiler, by everyone from structor and of course did not take it personally. A researchers offer advice that can be of help to a long-term Equipped with these authors' perspectives, a long-term Nietzsche to Donald Trump” (p. 1). The problem with strategy that helped me with this was employing a substitute. In essence, they urge instructors to help stu- substitute can effectively read into her students’ behav- taking emotion seriously as a category of analysis, she bit of humor when I felt tension arise. For exam- dents “manage or reduce their anxiety” through explic- iors and perhaps tackle those problems with individual further explains, is “the tendency within intellectual as ple, I would exclaim, “Well, I’m not [the original it discussion of those anxieties and using interventions conferences. well as popular thought to collapse emotion with all instructor], nor will I ever be, so y’all are just stuck such as “guided imagery, expressive writing, or stretching things feminine, a marker that, at least in the history with me.” or relaxation methods…” (p. 37). These strategies, while Setting the Stage for Theory and Practice of Long- of academic discourse, has signaled a tendency to be In situations of long-term subbing, it is predictable they may not typically fit into an instructor’s curriculum Term College Level Substituting weak, shallow, petty, vain, and narcissistic” (p. 3). But perhaps that an instructor would occasionally resort during a semester that goes smoothly from start to fin- Regardless of the methods we may use to develop sound the problems created by long-term subbing, as well as to humor in order to break the tension. Indeed, there ish, may become vital in preventing attrition, disengage- practices for long-term substituting in college cours- the pedagogical solutions to those problems, are largely is some evidence that well-timed humor can be an aid ment, and a host of other behavioral issues in a semester es, filling in the gap in this conversation is imperative, emotional in nature. Yes, much can be gained from ad- to learning in the composition classroom. Mingzheng where a new instructor takes over. Therefore, the goal, especially since our students are already in a vulnera- hering to clearly defined administrative logistics during (2012) states that “some general pedagogical benefits of particularly in a long-term substituting situation, is to ble position, being asked to, as Kill (2006) explains, the initial transition, but if we read into the responses humor are uniquely suited to the language class room address these anxieties proactively in order to move stu-

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dents from a static “fixed mindset” to a “growth mind- during a sixteen-week fall or spring semester. The pro- Faculty Member A Faculty Member B set,” in which students recognize themselves as being able files are arranged from the least challenging long-term The first faculty member discussed taking over two sec- The second faculty member took over a face-to-face to learn “beyond a fixed level of knowledge” (p. 37). substituting situation to the most challenging. tions of first-year, first-semester composition (during first-year, first-semester composition course during the In a classroom long-term substituting situation, it Though the focus of the case studies presented in the same semester) within the first week of classes. His third week of the semester. Nothing had been graded at is possible that there is nothing to lose and everything this article is the writing intensive English course, it is responses reflect a virtually seamless transition, which that point; however, the instructor states that “students to be gained from questioning with one’s students, as clear that the anxieties that students experience in other can somewhat be attributed to the fact that students had already received their first assignment.” In contrast feminist pedagogies advocate, “links between power/ disciplines, and thus the strategies that can be most use- had not yet met with their instructor regarding substan- to Faculty Member A, Faculty Member B did not have control and emotion/embodiment” (Micciche, 2014, p. ful in a long-term substitute situation, are nearly iden- tive policies, syllabi, or major assignments. He was the the apparent luxury of serving as the course’s first sub- 136). Collaborative practices aligned with feminist ped- tical. Waples (2016), writing from the vantage point of first substitute instructor to come into the class, and he stitute: writes that “it was made apparent very early that I would agogies mentioned by the faculty in my survey include a statistics instructor, comments that students in such I was by far not the first ‘substitute’ for the class. I be instructor of record for the duration of the semester.” working together on a new syllabus, as well as designing courses enter them with a “high level of statistics anxi- believe that, in addition to the instructor of record, He further comments that he “had no trouble devel- activities that allow students to further strengthen the ety” and also that three keys to establishing rapport in I was the fourth instructor that semester. (I will add oping a rapport with the students” and that he did not bonds they began to build with each other prior to the such courses are implementing “reciprocal sharing and that this was further complicated by the students use the original instructor’s syllabus at all, having “start- substitute’s appearance. In her article on feminist ped- respect while humanizing the subject of statistics,” in- attending a library workshop which added, in the ed and finished the course with my own syllabus and agogies, Micciche (2014) explains that emotion is “the creasing students’ sense of self-efficacy by continually students’ perspective, yet another instructor to their curriculum.” It is clear from this instructor’s reflections grounds of self-other relations and an inescapable ele- “monitoring the learning process,” and “ensuring class- class.) ment of all cultural institutions,” as well as being tightly room connectedness through teacher-student collabora- that there was little to no distressing interruption in the This statement, which contextualizes a problematic sce- woven into our judgments and beliefs (p. 136). Some tion” (p. 285). Indeed, the rapport analogy works per- normal course of his plan for the semester; he was able nario in which the new permanent instructor is another knowledge of feminist pedagogies can also allow us to fectly if we substitute the word “statistics” in Waples’ to conduct these particular courses as he does his others: in a long line of substitutes, illustrates how this instruc- acknowledge and participate in our students’ moral and comments with the word “composition,” and, I would I did what I normally do with my classes. I try to tor encountered an uphill battle not only to establish ethical development, since, as Bletzer (2010) reminds venture, “math,” and so on. Even the prior experiences be honest, consistent, clear, and above all, fair. I try rapport but also to convince students that she was in us, the academic world is a place where students “are that have led students to fear failure in statistics—not to give them some measure of choice, when and if fact the last instructor who would be taking the class. developing a ‘moral imagination’ as they are taught how being able to forge a “personal connection with the top- it is prudent to do so. Having some semblance of This instructor did know that she would be teaching the to effectively function within the world” (p. 412). That ic,” “inability to appreciate the subject” (p. 286-287)— control does seem to have very positive results with class for the duration of the semester; despite this assur- development certainly continues well into students’ col- and the like, are, if we extrapolate from her argument, regard to the teacher/student rapport. ance, however, she discusses a classroom dynamic that lege years, where we as instructors contend with our stu- replicated in writing intensive courses. What may be es- Essentially, the context in which this instructor inher- was tenuous at best and further hampered by her lack of dents’ levels of moral maturity and independence. pecially useful about these case studies for those in dis- ited the course (during the first week, having immedi- access to the course’s print and online materials: ciplines other than English is that, being so complete- ate certainty that it was now his course, and having the Faculty Survey Results on Long-Term Substituting: ly focused on writing (and thus the constant creation, The students were guarded at first, and who can ability to begin and end with his own assignments and The Real World Perspective sharing and revision of texts and even beliefs), the situ- blame them? I spent my first day in the class get- curriculum) enabled him to easily assume the authori- Below are the three faculty profiles for the instructors ations presented amplify the manifestation of students’ ting to know the students and having them explain ty necessary to guide his students through the semester, who have served as long-term substitutes in a variety anxieties; similar issues might emerge but otherwise fly to me what instruction they received previously, “unencumbered,” as he says, “with regard to any previ- of writing intensive courses. Their commentary helped under the radar in courses with a long-term substitute what their assignment was, and how far they’d pro- ous expectations on the students’ part.” Therefore, no to inform the analysis and discussion that follows their that are less writing intensive, but nonetheless they can gressed with the assignment. Most of the students unique pedagogical interventions proved necessary in responses. These responses indicate that the level of dis- still significantly hamper students’ ability to move from had done little to work toward the assignment, and this situation. Faculty Member A’s experience warrants ruption and the need for intensive pedagogical strategies a “fixed” to a “growth” mindset. Waples (2016) adds many stated that this was because they needed fur- inclusion here because it provides a nice juxtaposition increases depending on factors such as how many class further credibility to the findings of Faculty Members B ther guidance from the instructor and were waiting with the other two, further illustrating how long-term sessions have been passed when the new faculty mem- and C in particular, asserting that the “availability of the to ask questions of her. substituting can create increasingly problematic peda- ber takes over, how many substitutes have previously instructor” (p. 289), perhaps above and beyond what is gogical issues depending on how much time in the se- This passage indicates both the instructor’s empathy for taken the class, and whether there is a clear dissonance required in contact hours, is key to creating an effective mester has elapsed before the new instructor takes over. her students, who were already reeling from a revolving between the original instructor’s methods, materials and rapport. door of substitute instructors, and the students’ initial teaching philosophy and those of the new instructor. All attitude, fleshed out more fully in the following com- courses referenced were face to face, and all were taught Three Faculty Profiles

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mentary, that she was an imposter in the class, and that I never developed the dialogue that I had with stu- stituted in and the diversity of courses taught. Perhaps aries of professional confidentiality. “This concern very they had no interest in receiving instruction from her on dents in other classes. for this reason, this instructor offers the most emotional much touched me,” she writes, adding that she turned their major assignments: content in her reflection as well as the most practical this concern into a teachable moment, admonishing the Faculty Member B is of course correct in her firmly consideration of effective pedagogical interventions in students that “to honor the original instructor, and to There was very much an atmosphere that first day rooted belief that rapport is most effectively established these situations. This instructor, during her ten years as honor themselves, they were to do their best work and of this being somebody else’s assignment and some- during the first couple of weeks of class, a time during full-time faculty, has done long-term substituting work that I would assist them in this endeavor in any way I thing I was not qualified to discuss with them. I’m which, according to Bledsoe and Baskin (2014), “stu- in four courses: a junior level poetry writing course, two could.” Seeking an opportunity to enhance her situat- certain it did not help that I did not even have a dents exhibit shyness in the classroom” (p. 34). To follow basic writing courses, and one sophomore level world ed ethos with her students, she informed her creative copy of the assignment sheet, their syllabus, or any up on her belief in this practice, there is some mention literature course. In all instances, she was aware that she writing students that “I had earned my M.F.A. from the other materials for the course; I did not yet have in the scholarship of teaching and learning of not only would become the instructor of record. With the po- same institution as the original instructor and that we access to the course outline. how rapport is established and the benefits of a good etry and world literature courses, she took over almost had shared some of the very same mentors.” She echoes rapport, but also the optimum window of opportunity In obtaining the original instructor’s materials, this new a month into the semester. In both cases, students had a dilemma that Faculty Member B mentioned regarding for building that rapport. Starcher (2011), Professor of instructor was trying to create what little sense of sta- either already received substantive feedback on their cre- access to exactly what had previously been covered; she Business at Indiana Wesleyan University, discusses using bility she could for the students, but ultimately she ran ative work or they had already completed a major exam. hesitated to ask students outright, as she did not want to a portion of the first day of his classes to detail his plan into obstacles and transitioned the students to her own In the case of the basic writing courses, she took over appear “inept,” hence “increasing their anxiety.” Addi- to meet individually with each student for fifteen min- course plan and syllabus. She notes that there was a dis- about two weeks into the semester. Her experience in tionally, she states that she felt doing so would have cre- utes during the first four weeks of class, a plan which tinct difference in teaching style between herself and the the world literature course, in particular, for which she ated a burden on the students to guide her through her he asserts makes students “more comfortable speaking original instructor (she describes herself as being “laid was the third substitute, generated reflections concern- own teaching. In both the creative writing course and out in class and asking me questions both inside and back” in contrast to what she saw as a “rigid” syllabus ing her need to take a sympathetic stance toward these the basic writing courses, she used the original instruc- outside of the classroom” (p. 162). Prior to the meeting, which included a pop quiz component, which she op- students, who, she sensed, seemed to blame themselves tor’s materials out of necessity, as she had not taught students fill out a “Student Information Inventory” with posed). Due to the difference in teaching philosophies, for the loss of the previous two instructors: these courses before. In world literature, however, she basic questions that establish the student’s background this faculty member struggled to give the students the had experience and thus the latitude to begin fresh with and professional goals. Although the author’s successful They seemed disappointed to have lost two instruc- assurance that she was in fact the one in charge. A strat- her own syllabus. In contrast to Faculty Member B, Fac- implementation of this pedagogical tool illustrates that, tors in a row. They much preferred the second one egy she used to accomplish this was to integrate her own ulty Member C had, as she writes, “well thought out yes, establishing one’s identity as an instructor com- better than the first one, and I found him a ‘tough syllabus into the class, in part to build trust with the stu- and meticulous materials at my disposal” in both her mitted to fostering good rapport is important from the act to follow.’ Also, being that I was the one who dents, and in part to eliminate some of the minutia from basic writing and creative writing courses. She reflects outset, it can also offer a long-term substitute a focused had to return their exams, it became that much the original syllabus that did not fit in her teaching style. that she is “indebted” to the instructors who left those plan to use at whatever point in the semester they may more problematic. Nevertheless, I found myself In response to the last survey question, Faculty Member materials behind for her and her students’ benefit. take over the class. constantly having to reassure them that I would not B offered a particularly salient reflection on establishing leave them, and that I would help them in any way Faculty Member C also offers helpful commentary rapport and what we mean when we refer to the “suc- Due to a more chaotic transition to assuming the that I could. on a strategy that, though perhaps time consuming, cess” of such a class: instructor role in this class than that experienced by speaks to the amount of emotional labor we invest in Faculty Member A, it is clear that Faculty Member B This faculty member’s assessment of student resistance …I can never consider this course a ‘success’ in my our writing intensive courses: experienced greater difficulty in establishing trust and and apprehension was translated into specific strategies teaching dossier. I develop a rapport with my stu- rapport, and thus in guiding students through their for creating and maintaining mutual trust and respect in Another strategy that proved effective was being dents in the first two weeks of the course. I use that written work, particularly in relation to their apparent and out of the class. The first difficulty she encountered more flexible than normal in meeting students time to get to know the students and to ease them initial allegiance to the original instructor, who was now in developing a rapport concerned the students’ ques- individually. In other words, expanding/revising into learning through discussions about their expe- gone indefinitely. tions about what exactly had happened to the previous office hours was critical in gaining trust. Thus, by riences, fears, and expectations with writing. When instructors. Dealing with this initial problem was, as she demonstrating to students that I was willing to you rely on this time to build the relationship with Faculty Member C indicates, central to being able to move on to the course work longer hours if necessary to accommodate your students, it’s hard to take over a course after The third faculty member had the most extensive expe- goals, especially in the poetry writing course. Faculty them, they too realized that the situation wasn’t ex- this window of time passes and consider the course rience with long-term substituting in writing intensive Member C writes that in response to the students’ que- actly facile for me either. When they began to view a success. I never felt the students trusted me, and courses, both in terms of the number of courses she sub- ries, she told them what she could within the bound- me as another human being caught in the situation

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along with them, and not as the one who caused Faculty Member C, due to her intense empathetic sense We all know that our classroom atmosphere is in- to see us as sympathetic friends or their peers. As Maher the situation, things flowed much more smoothly. of the students’ dilemma (their feelings of abandon- herently tied to teaching persona, and trying to and Tetrault (2001) assert, “feminist professors cannot And when they realized that I wanted to help them ment, and her own need to develop trust quickly, par- change the atmosphere is incredibly challenging. simply become equals, or “sisters,” to their students” make that transition, and that I was on “their side,” ticularly in the workshop-based poetry writing course) I wished, after the class, that I had tweaked the (p. 150). They also explain that the “complex grounds rapport was strengthened. and also her ready access to most course materials, was course schedule in such a way that I did devote at for authority lie in the intersection of personal identity able to craft appropriate, student-centered pedagogical least a week of that takeover to starting over, but and professorial and academic responsibilities” (150). Her keen sense of her students’ needs also extended to interventions that in turn led her to deem her courses in hindsight, I don’t think that would have helped. As Faculty Member C reflected, given the right circum- the creation of more active learning techniques, which successful. Put in the same situation again, I would certainly stances, instructor authority can be rectified and created allowed students to build on the connections they had try it, just to see if it did have any effect on the collaboratively, through activities such as working to- already forged among each other as peers prior to her Discussion and Analysis overall atmosphere. gether on a new syllabus. taking over the classes. She had this to say about her The colleague who stepped into a class one week after pedagogical interventions in her world literature course: And thus, something that should be apparent in the the semester began had no apparent difficulties, and this Conclusion discussion so far is the presence of emotion as a miti- I adjusted the course goals to include more collab- finding is unsurprising. The proverbial deck seems to be It is evident, both from my informal survey of faculty gating factor in whether these courses reach a measure orative activities, which proved quite effective. Per- stacked, though, against any substitute who comes into and from the scholarship on the topic, that the more of success. How well we acknowledge and process our haps this was due to the bond that the students had a class more than a couple of weeks into the semester. In time students have spent with the original instructor of own emotions, as well as those of our students, in these developed with each other (having been through such situations, the classroom climate is changed dra- record during the term, the more problematic it is for a courses, is a crucial factor in determining how and if our three different instructors within a relatively short matically, such that the classes in which we are subbing new one to take over. One could argue that a quick fix students will eventually cease to see us as “substitutes” or time span), or perhaps due to the individual assis- cannot realistically be compared to others in which we for such dilemmas would be the use of identical sylla- themselves as “abandoned.” tance I gave them. I also enlisted their help in creat- establish connections with our students from day one— bi, schedules, and assignments in similar courses. But ing a new syllabus (inquiring about their preferenc- Faculty Member B’s commentary on the issue expertly As Micciche (2005) explains, we as instructors have beyond state mandated student learning outcomes for es in genres, etc.), so that they felt that they actively defined what she saw as a critical, two-week window already been somewhat primed to see to students’ eth- core-level and advanced courses, the reality is that a sense contributed to their learning. This strategy also in which to solidify that trust and rapport. The fact is ical and emotional development in the “‘caring space’ of academic freedom gives us room to choose, within helped them feel more autonomy and control over that writing intensive courses are sites of risk for our of composition classrooms” (p. 167). She writes that, wide parameters, our teaching styles, philosophies, and what seemed an unpredictable situation at first. students, and in taking these risks—with genre, with “efforts to produce critical thinkers, cultural work- strategies for engaging our students. Quick fixes should ers, or enfranchised citizens—all of which are by now Faculty Member C, taking into account the extra work sentence-level conventions, with ideas—they grow as include making sure a new instructor has ready access commonplace goals regularly articulated in composi- put into establishing a rapport with students in all four writers. In long-term substitute situations, the business to any of the previous instructor’s materials—syllabi, tion scholarship, are most certainly efforts to construct courses, counted each of these courses as relatively suc- of risk is shunted further and further into the future, schedule, assignments—beforehand. This access in large an emotional culture in the classroom” (p. 178). This cessful, adding the insight that whether or not a long- and, perhaps, in the most chaotic of circumstances, nev- part determined the success of Faculty Member C's idea is echoed by Johnson (2013), a composition in- term substituting situation is to be successful in a writing er realized at all. Some instructors, for example, might basic writing courses. But the grayer area relates to how structor who asserts that influential documents like intensive course depends much on the “nature” of that “play it safe” by relying on the original instructor’s mate- we pick up the pieces of a potentially broken class when the Framework for Success in PostSecondary Writing ask course in relation to trust between teacher and student: rial even if they feel pedagogically opposed to an assign- we must rely on a toolbox of savvy pedagogical tools to ment or aspect of the syllabus. Also, as we can see from that we “address the person behind the writing prod- establish trust with our students. Long-term substitut- Sharing poetry in a workshop setting requires even Faculty Member B’s commentary, students can develop ucts and processes” and to “consider intellectual agency ing is far from an educational anomaly, and as educators more trust than in other academic settings, so this loyalty to an instructor in a remarkably short period of and the ethical aims of writing instruction” as well as our strategies for successfully taking over a course are course proved particularly challenging. It really time, even in a week or two, and so, from their vantage teach habits of mind (p. 527). The construction of such strengthened by considering cross-disciplinary scholar- does depend, to a large extent, on the nature of the point, ripping away the security of a promised instructor an environment becomes a much taller order, howev- ship on building rapport, addressing students’ anxieties, course. More lecture-oriented courses would most is certainly jarring and may create ire and distrust, even er, when instructors are faced with the task of engaging and feminist pedagogical theory. likely be easier to begin teaching mid-way. though the new instructor is in fact doing those students students who may feel, regardless of the validity of that an immense favor by stepping in. Faculty Member B of- feeling, that they have already been “abandoned.” The fered a particularly salient analytical comment regarding solution, however, is not simply to allow our students classroom dynamics and teaching style:

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References Maher, F. and Tetrault, M.K. (2001). Thefeminist classroom: Bledsoe, T. & Baskin, J. (2014). Recognizing student fear: Dynamics of gender, race, and privilege. Lanham, MD: Scholars in Training: Moving from Student The elephant in the classroom.College Teaching, 62, 32-41. Rowman and Littlefield. doi: 10.1080/87567555/2013.831022 Micciche, L. (2007) Doing emotion: Rhetoric, writing, Engagement to Student Empowerment Bletzer, K. (2010). Performing substitute teaching.” Urban teaching. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Press. Review 42.5, 403-421. doi: 10.1007/s11256-009-0137-y. Micciche, L. Emotion, ethics, and rhetorical action. — Todd Olszewski, Danielle Waldron, and Robert Hackey Bloom, R. (2013). The experience of substituting for a Journal of Advanced Composition 25.1, 161-184. colleague. Accounting Education: An International Journal, 22.1, Micciche, L. (2014) Feminist. In G. Tate et al (Eds.), Todd Olszewski is Assistant Professor of Health Policy & Management at Providence College. He received his 105-107. doi: 10.1080/09639284.2012.729342 A Guide to Composition Pedagogies. Second Edition. Ph.D. in History from Yale University with a concentration in the history of science and medicine. His research (pp. 128-145). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Bucior, C. (2011). Sub Culture: Three years in education’s interests include the history of the biomedical sciences, health policy, and chronic disease. dustiest corner. Denver, CO: Outskirts Press. Mingzheng, L. (2012). An empirical research on the application of humor in college english teaching. Bucior, C. (2010, January 3) The replacements. Danielle Waldron, a 2015 graduate of the Health Policy & Management program at Providence College, is The New York Times, p. WK8. Revista Academiei Fortelor Terestre 17.4, 396-407. a doctoral student in the Gerontology program at the University of Massachusetts, Boston. Her research Castela, K., Byrne, D., & Covington, M. (2013). Petterson, N. (2006). Grammar instruction in the land of interests include health and social policy for people aging with disability, elder driving, and quality of care in Unmotivated or motivated to fail? A cross-cultural study of curiosity and delight. Teaching English in the Two-Year achievement motivation, fear of failure, and student disengage- College, 33.4, 388-391. post-acute care settings. ment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105.3, 861-880. Substitute teaching: A handbook for doi: 10.1037/a0032464 Pronin, B. (1983). Bob Hackey, Ph.D., is Professor of Health Policy & Management at Providence College and a Visiting Fellow at hassle-free subbing. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press. Conner, T. Relationships first.Journal of Global Intelligence the Pell Center for International Relations and Public Policy at Salve Regina University. He received his Ph.D. and Policy, 6.11, 37-41. Smith, B. The evolution of my rapport: One professor’s journey to building successful instructor/student relationships. College in Political Science from Brown University. His research interests include the rhetoric of health care reform, Dellinger, J. (2005). The substitute teaching survival guide: Teaching, 63, 35-36. doi: 10:1080/87567555.2014.999023 health care in popular culture, and state responses to the Affordable Care Act. Emergency lesson plans and essential advice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Starcher, K. (2011). Intentionally building rapport with students. College Teaching, 59.4, 162. Abstract Keywords Duebber, D. (2000). Substitute teaching: Sink or swim. doi: 10.1080/87567555.2010.516782 In recent decades, U.S. colleges and universities have student engagement, undergraduate research, Educational Leadership, 57.8, 73-74. Waples, J. (2016). Building emotional rapport with students in undertaken concerted efforts to promote engaged mentoring, policy analysis Johnson, K. (2013). Beyond standards: Disciplinary and statistics courses. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in learning to strengthen and broaden research opportu- national perspectives on habits of mind. College Psychology, 2.4, 285-293. doi: 10.1037/stl0000071 nities for undergraduate students. To date, traditional Composition and Communication 64.3, 517-541. models of engaged scholarship have relied on faculty-di- Kill, M. (2006). Acknowledging the rough edges of resistance: rected interactions. In this article, we discuss a collabo- Negotiation of identities in first-year composition. College rative approach to engaged undergraduate research and Composition and Communication 58.2, 213-235. propose an alternative model: empowered scholarship. Kinney, K. (2007). On reflecting the reflectiveness of the In this model, faculty members collaborate with under- teacher-scholar. Teaching English in the Two-Year College graduate researchers as co-equal junior investigators. 35.1, 20-29. In this way, empowered scholarship provides unique professional socialization opportunities for “scholars in training.” Our essay reflects upon the authors’ experi- ences as field researchers for the Rockefeller Institute’s ACA Implementation Research Network, explores the methodological and institutional challenges associated with empowered scholarship, and offers advice for stu- dents and faculty interested in pursuing similar collabo- rative research projects.

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Over the past two decades, U.S. colleges and universi- the development, execution, and publication of a re- 2013). However, the survey also indicated that students Our project emphasized the potential of students ties have placed a renewed emphasis on engaging un- search project. were more likely to report being engaged in “technical” and faculty collaborating as co-equals on real-world pol- dergraduate students in research as part of a broader aspects of research projects such as data collection and icy analysis. Many honors theses and independent stud- Empowered scholarship offers a new model of aca- focus on developing active environments for student data analysis than in designing studies and presenting or ies are “student directed” in that students choose the demic engagement by creating opportunities for faculty learning. Hands-on experience with research yields publishing findings (NSSE, 2013). Our model of em- topic, develop their argument, and submit their work members to engage in research collaborations outside tangible benefits for undergraduates, as participating powered scholarship incorporates students equally into for faculty review. Nevertheless, even in these cases, the the classroom, while affording students considering in undergraduate research projects bolsters students’ all phases of a project, providing them with a fuller and faculty member always asserts his/her authority as the graduate school – or careers in policy analysis – a chance motivation, self-confidence, and presentation skills more complete understanding of the research process. evaluator. Writing a senior thesis is an important and in- to immerse themselves in meaningful, real-world re- (Mabrouk, 2009). In the sciences, undergraduate re- Our student team member was directly involved in the tegral academic activity in its own right, but our model search projects. Faculty from many disciplines – includ- search opportunities have also helped students to clarify design, execution, and promotion of the academic proj- of empowered scholarship parallels more traditional ac- ing not only health policy, but political science, public career goals and increased their desire to pursue grad- ect described in this article. Indeed, such full and con- ademic research opportunities by encouraging students administration, sociology, and urban studies – may find uate study (Russell, Hancock, & McCullough, 2007). sistent student participation is integral to the success of to develop research questions, conduct an independent their scholarly expertise in demand by external constitu- Presenting papers in formal settings at undergraduate our model of empowered scholarship. inquiry, and develop a collaborative academic product encies such as nonprofit organizations or state and local research conferences provides students with significant in conjunction with – rather than directed by – faculty governments. Many faculty members encounter oppor- Opportunities for empowered scholarship come professional socialization experiences (Caprio & Hack- members. tunities to work with external partners on applied re- along at unexpected times that do not necessarily ad- ey, 2014; Helm & Bailey, 2013). High-impact practic- search projects, typically generating a report or other de- here to the traditional academic calendar year. Because An integral aspect of our project entailed working es such as internships, senior capstone courses, service liverable. The higher education community places great the invitation to participate in our research project ar- with the Nelson A. Rockefeller Institute’s ACA Imple- learning opportunities, and study abroad programs of- emphasis on fostering partnerships between colleges and rived several weeks into the spring semester, a traditional mentation Research Network (“the Network”) to pro- fer students rich educational experiences to shape their nonprofits, which often take the form of service learning credit-bearing directed study was not a feasible option vide detailed state-level analyses of the implementation intellectual and professional development (Kuh, 2008). requirements and/or internship programs at the depart- for this project. When opportunities fall within the of the Affordable Care Act over time. The Network Collaborative learning environments also have the po- mental or institutional level. confines of the traditional academic calendar, however, recruited scholars and health professionals to serve as tential to transform classroom experiences for students traditional independent study or directed study courses field researchers to assess health reform implementation and faculty when implemented effectively (Harrison & Participating in such partnerships and projects, can provide an administrative home for collaborative experiences at the state level. Researchers associated Grant, 2015; Hjelm, 2013). however, can be difficult for faculty teaching at primar- student-faculty research. In such cases, however, we rec- with the Network agreed to employ a common Field ily undergraduate institutions with substantial teaching Traditional models of student engagement typically ommend that students be evaluated on a “pass-fail” basis Research Report Form developed by the project coordi- loads. In this context, empowered scholarship offers tan- build upon an established academic course in which the to underscore the non-hierarchical nature of the project. nators to facilitate comparisons of implementation pro- gible benefits for both faculty and students. Empowered faculty member directs and evaluates student work. In Since our project was not embedded within the confines cesses and outcomes of the Affordable Care Act across scholarship enables faculty members to mentor students this model, faculty members define, organize, and eval- of a course, no assignments or due dates were included. various states. The Report Form shaped our research in an intimate academic setting that fosters close, pro- uate the goals and methods of the research, the process Instead, the research and writing schedule was driven questions, responsibilities, and format in preparing a fessional relationships. Developing students as co-inves- of gathering data and/or preparing analyses, and the by our accountability to an external constituency and detailed state-level analysis of ACA implementation in tigators on research projects can make in-depth commu- preparation of a final scholarly product. Drawing upon a desire to finish a draft of the report before a nation- New Hampshire. While for some this represents a cer- nity partnerships possible. For students, participating in our experience working on a state-level analysis of health al conference convened at the Brookings Institution in tain loss of control, we maintained the freedom to con- research collaborations with actual clients develops mar- care reform, we explore a complementary – yet distinct October 2014. To seize these opportunities, faculty and duct research operations and craft a final product as we ketable “real-world” skills. – opportunity for faculty-student collaboration that not students must be willing to work in nontraditional ways saw fit. only engages undergraduates in active learning, but em- Empowered scholarship, in short, opens the door and structure projects accordingly. The opportunity to powers them to work side-by-side with faculty as junior to high impact practices that engage students. Data participate in a national research project on the Afford- Structuring our Research colleagues on cutting-edge research projects. Our model from the 2013 National Survey of Student Engagement able Care Act afforded unique networking opportunities Participating faculty viewed this project as an opportu- of “empowered scholarship” provides opportunities for suggests that students who engage in service learning and professional recognition for both participating fac- nity to try a new approach to collaborating with – rather professional growth and development for undergradu- activities are more likely to vote and solve real-world ulty and students. In addition, participation also raised than simply directing – student researchers. We sought ate scholars in training. In an empowered scholarship problems. Similarly, 59% of college seniors surveyed the institution’s visibility among relevant stakeholders. to provide a deep, rich, and multifaceted professional model, faculty members collaborate with undergraduate reported that their service-learning experience helped socialization experience that reflected our institution’s researchers as co-equal junior investigators throughout to connect their academic studies to “real life” (NSSE,

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motto to “transform yourself, transform society.” By quire skills that students do not possess. By fostering a Mutual accountability, rather than a traditional su- After several months of collaboration and sharing work empowering our student as a colleague, not simply as sense of collaboration among equals, students retain a pervisory faculty-student relationship, defined our ap- in progress, our student developed a level of comfort a research assistant, we hoped to provide her with a sense of independence but can still learn new skills from proach to organizing our timeline and workflow. In our with critiquing and editing her professors’ writing as if hands-on sense of what a career as a policy researcher faculty members when necessary. Students are thus em- initial report, one team member claimed the primary they were peers. She also recognized strengths in her own entailed. Many empowered scholarship tasks are compa- powered to learn new skills to accomplish their assigned responsibility for writing a particular section while the set of research skills and learned new editing techniques rable to those associated with traditional models of en- project responsibilities. other two team members claimed secondary responsi- to improve her own writing. More importantly, this gaged learning such as directed studies and other forms bility for reviewing and editing that same section. All continual process of self-review, partner critique, and A conscious commitment to interdisciplinarity of independent research. However, the team-based na- team members were thus able to claim co-ownership for correction strengthened her sense of ownership in the shaped the assignment of responsibilities for respective ture of our collaboration – and the interdependence of the report in its entirety, as each team member contrib- deliverables associated with the research project. As an team members. At an initial organizational meeting, team members while preparing the case study report – uted to developing every section of the final report. For undergraduate, she also corresponded with editors from team members reviewed the materials provided by the required faculty and students to develop new ways of this article, we applied the same approach of assigning our research sponsor as a professional—responsibilities project directors, along with two existing reports from working together. The result was not only different in primary writing responsibilities and secondary editing that many research teams may not typically extend to other states and identified several key tasks for structur- terms of the scope of the project (a published report for responsibilities to all team members so each could claim an undergraduate student. After experiencing the innate ing their research. Each team member identified areas a nationally-recognized health policy think tank), but co-ownership and co-authorship. Faculty felt strongly frustrations and satisfactions of both writing and pub- of particular interest within the reporting framework; also for the process used to structure our work, which that the student team member should be included as lishing this report, she developed a unique understand- responsibility for tasks was assigned based on the expect- spanned three semesters in two different academic years. a full co-author, signifying that her contributions were ing of policy analysis through this model of empowered ed level of detail and complexity associated with each co-equal. scholarship. By the conclusion of this project, she was In organizing our research project, tasks were con- section. One faculty member’s prior experience writing transformed from a capable student into a young pro- ducted side-by-side rather than in a top-down fashion in about insurance market reform and federalism provided Re-envisioning the Student Experience—From an fessional. Her personal growth evolved over the course which faculty assigned students certain tasks or respon- a natural fit for the sections dealing with Medicaid ex- Empowered Student Perspective of the project as she recognized that if she continued sibilities. Working from a core set of research questions, pansion, the certification of qualified health plans, and Our student’s participation in the Network complement- to produce good quality work, this project would serve each team member discovered new sources, organized coordination among state and federal officials, along ed her undergraduate experience and helped frame her as an opportunity not only to take control of her own research findings, and drafted sections for the final -re with data and reporting requirements. Another faculty post-graduate plans. In the fall of 2014, after evaluating intellectual development, but also to develop an identity port. Unlike traditional independent study projects on member’s training as a historian afforded an unusual- health policy and co-authoring this report, she gained a in her chosen field as a twenty year-old undergraduate our campus where faculty members develop a syllabus, ly good match for the first section of the report that clearer understanding of professional health policy re- student. With this drive, an ability to self-correct, and assign readings, and grade assignments, our research explored the statutory history of reform; this section search and writing. As a full co-author, as opposed to a sense of confidence, she became a published author project was based upon a collaborative partnership, not mined news articles, public opinion polls, press releases an undergraduate research assistant, she experienced the before college graduation. This tangible end product so- a hierarchical power relationship. Faculty and students and other official documents to place New Hampshire’s organic frustrations and successes involved in research lidified her identity as an empowered learner. critiqued each other’s writing, worked together to iden- experience in context. His research responsibilities also and policy analysis. She independently compiled mem- tify data and other sources, and edited (and re-edited) included an overview of the state’s small business ex- Our student’s involvement in the project bolstered bership profiles of key decision makers, documented the the final report multiple times. change and an analysis of enrollment data. Our student’s her academic confidence and inspired her to plan and transfer of grants and funding between different levels previous work as a research assistant engaged in mar- conduct a second independent research project that re- Collaborative faculty-student research teams must of governments and private entities, and closely mon- keting research to promote a recently published book quired IRB approval. She embarked on this indepen- determine the division of labor appropriate for their itored the state’s consumer education and navigational manuscript prepared her to take on sections regarding dent study with one of the two professors involved in particular research project. We identified particular assistance activities. By researching, re-researching and the state’s publicity, stakeholder input, and interagency the empowered student learning experience. Initially, competencies for each team member during prelimi- updating these ever-changing components of the report, relations. Her prior coursework in policy analysis, which they developed a course schedule and discussed weekly nary meetings and assigned primary responsibility for the student learned the importance of monitoring the included identifying and analyzing primary source ma- readings, as assigned by the faculty member. However, certain topics and sections. Faculty and students both fluidity of staffing and money in policy analysis. She also terials such as board meeting minutes, grant decisions, as their Network collaboration continued, the student held secondary responsibilities of reviewing and revising developed a growing knowledge of health policy termi- and local newspaper articles, enabled her to report on began establishing her own independent study dead- each other’s work. In this sense, the division of labor was nology, political climate, and other substantive informa- the leadership, staffing, and consumer education and lines, drafting her IRB application, and compiling the even. It is entirely possible for such a division of labor tion while preparing the report. outreach initiatives in the state. report independently. Watching her growth, the faculty to result in uneven levels of ownership and knowledge, Moreover, through this research and collabora- member trusted that she would complete the work as she particularly if faculty members work on tasks that re- tion, she gained keen insight into editing and revision. had in their Network collaboration, making the shift in

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relationship dynamics very natural. Ultimately, she cre- ments, but also require a substantial amount of work Advice from Faculty to Faculty result, there will be a learning curve for everyone. ated and executed a year-long senior thesis. Growing by both parties. Conducting a major empowered scholarship project A collaborative project organized around the notion and developing skills as a researcher through her par- • Communicate with your students and listen to their within the confines of a liberal arts college is a challeng- of empowered scholarship can and should be a professional socialization activity for students. While ticipation with the Network, she subsequently applied questions. Suggest that your students allot time to ing endeavor. In particular, faculty members and stu- the final product—an article, chapter, or report—is these skills to the traditional senior thesis format. These conduct preliminary research and be prepared to dents engaged in empowered scholarship projects may two projects spurred a shift in her professional aspira- revisit and reread documents as the project devel- a tangible indicator of team achievement, the pro- face both methodological and institutional challenges. cess by which empowered scholarship is produced is tions—rather than pursuing a clinical career, she gained ops. Keep in mind that the process may take longer equally integral as an indicator of success. admission to a Ph.D. program to pursue a career in pol- for the student researchers than for their faculty For faculty, opportunities for release time are lim- icy analysis and teaching. Thus, in this case, the tradi- colleagues, who may have more contextual back- ited due to administrative responsibilities and the • Compartmentalize. Although students are colleagues ground knowledge and experience with the processes on a collaborative project, they also wear different tional senior thesis model and our empowered learning need to offer required courses for majors. Similar of research, revision, and publication. Thus, your hats as advisees or students in class. This may be model assumed distinctive, yet mutually beneficial roles challenges face students who participate in signif- students may require additional clarification. the most challenging aspect of empowered schol- in her undergraduate experience. icant research projects, as classes, assignments, ex- • Be confident in your students’ abilities. Although it tracurricular activities, and jobs compete with the arship—for both students and faculty members. Undergraduate students, especially those studying may be their first time embarking on such a project, project for the student’s time and attention. Our Establishing clear boundaries while simultaneously at liberal arts colleges, may embrace a variety of learn- continue to offer support while recognizing their sponsoring organization lacked funding for sti- promoting mutual respect can ensure that faculty and students interact comfortably and professionally ing experiences that include unpaid internships and potential as independent researchers. Remind stu- pends, travel grants, or other support for participat- in the classroom and during research meetings. research assistantships. These learning experiences help dents that their previous reading assignments, class ing scholars. These funding limitations also limited them determine or eliminate potential career paths. For projects, and research papers have prepared them the time required for grant writing and reporting. • Be flexible. Prepare for unexpected challenges that for this collaborative research project. may arise. Although tasks and responsibilities may the right student, empowered scholarship is a long-term We, therefore, offer empowered scholarship as a be assigned to particular team members, be willing investment, affording both publication and networking • Be open-minded, patient, and committed. The model for colleagues at other institutions who seek to trade or assist fellow team members as needed. opportunities. Students interested in pursuing a career research process may be technical, even tedious or to develop an active research program but who face If the collaborative project is a non-credit-bearing in academia, in particular, will recognize the importance frustrating. Students may follow false leads and limited funding coupled with substantial teaching come to dead ends, but these challenges should be experience for student partners, remain cognizant of of publications in establishing credibility in their fields. or administrative obligations. expected. Edits and revisions also require substantial their other academic responsibilities. time and effort. More importantly, encourage stu- Empowered scholarship affords faculty members the Advice from an Empowered Student to Faculty Collaboration and Risk Taking dents from the very beginning to offer suggestions or Our model of empowered collaboration aims to demon- opportunity to serve as colleagues, co-investigators, and revisions on their professors’ writing and to expect Our approach to organizing our work marked a new strate how students and faculty members can work to- mentors, but faculty members who consider embarking the same for their own work. on empowered scholarship with their undergraduates chapter for both faculty and student members of the re- gether on innovative research projects. We believe this search team. Our initial discussions about how to man- model of scholarship can transfer to other disciplines • Be able to compartmentalize and adjust to shifting should keep several important lessons in mind: professional roles. Students may find themselves in age the project underscored how each member of the and universities and have identified concrete lessons for • Assess and self-assess—and be honest. When or- the role of co-author at 10am, but at noon revert team was taking a risk by participating in the project. faculty members seeking to embark on a collaborative ganizing a research team, identify and play to the back to a traditional role in a professor’s classroom Potential risks for faculty members include identifying strengths and skills of prospective team members. research project with one or more students. Advice and before returning to their co-author role when team members who have a certain degree of comfort Each team member will need to utilize his/her suggestions from our student author to faculty members critiquing a passage written by their professor and and familiarity with each other, developing mutual strengths and skills and be mindful of any weakness- interested in the empowered scholarship model include: team partner. es when the team assigns research tasks and writing trust with respect to completing assigned responsibili- • Remind your students that empowered scholarship • Step back and analyze how the experience is affect- responsibilities. ties (and indeed, assigning responsibilities), and taking may require more intensive effort than what is ing your students’ future plans. For our student team on new responsibilities in a non-academic credit capac- • Emphasize the process. Guiding students through all typically expected of a student enrolled in an inde- member, participating in this collaborative project steps of the research process—data collection, writ- ity. Building the team—that is, identifying the student pendent or directed study. This is most likely a new bolstered her academic confidence and inspired her ing, and editing—can be a rewarding and enlight- co-author(s)—is key. The choice of student co-author(s) experience for both students and faculty members. to plan and conduct a second independent research ening experience. Empowered scholarship means needs to be weighed carefully by faculty members. Em- Student-faculty collaborations offer unique and project that required IRB approval. Reflection on envisioning an undergraduate team member as an powered scholarship is not a “one size fits all” model: exciting experiences and rewards that are different your work and honest discussion of this experience equal colleague rather than as a traditional research a student who could excel needs to come to the table from typical classroom or credit bearing assign- are invaluable to your students’ future career paths. assistant with circumscribed responsibilities. As a with established skills that are then employed in a very

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concrete way. Presumably, students involved in empow- the research collaboration is new and unknown territory References Rockefeller Institute of Government. (2013). Managing health ered scholarship activities will be upperclassmen who that can be intimidating. ACA Implementation Research Network. (2015). The ACA reform: State-level field network study of the implementation have completed the core requirements for their major Implementation Research Network. Albany, NY: Rockefeller of the affordable care act. October 2013 Field Research Report Conclusion Institute of Government. http://www.rockinst.org/aca/. - Memorandum for Field Research Analysts (September 13). and developed a foundational knowledge of the content Albany, NY: State University of New York. area. Our student co-author had already demonstrated Our project demonstrates the potential of collaborative Caprio, M., and R. Hackey. (2014). If you build it they will Rockefeller Institute of Government. (2015). National report in a required course a facility for identifying key stake- research to not only engage students, but to develop come: Strategies for developing an undergraduate research points to New Hampshire’s individual approach to adoption holders, researching key interest group positions, and “scholars in training” on significant projects with exter- conference. Journal of Health Administration Education, 31 (3), 247-66. of the ACA. Albany, NY: Rockefeller Institute of Government. describing the policy-making process at the state level in nal stakeholders. The payoff of our strategy is evident Online at http://www.rockinst.org/ACA/pdf/2015-01-26%20 a group project in our program’s required policy analy- in both the process and the final product. After many Hackey, R., T. Olszewski, and D. Waldron. (2015). New News%20Release.pdf. sis course. We sought to employ these practical research months of research and writing that fit in around other Hampshire: Baseline Report. Albany, NY: Rockefeller Institute of Government. http://www.rockinst.org/ACA/states/ Russell, S., M. Hancock, and J. McCullough. (2007). Benefits projects, internships, and a wedding for one team mem- and problem-solving skills in our project. New_Hampshire/2015-01-New_Hampshire_Baseline.pdf. of undergraduate Research experiences. Science 316, 548-49. ber, our team’s report was published in January 2015. Research collaborations with students might be un- Harrison, S., and C. Grant. (2015). Exploring of new models of Salsman, N., C. Dulaney, R. Chinta, V. Zascavage, and H. Joshi. common within the culture of particular institutions, Faculty members interested in empowering stu- research pedagogy: Time to let go of master-apprentice supervi- (2013). Student effort in and perceived benefits from undergrad- uate research. College Student Journal 47 (1), 202-11. thus making it vital for untenured faculty members to dents as “scholars in training” should first identify ap- sion?” Teaching in Higher Education, 20 (5), 556-566. explain their research program to the institution’s tenure propriate community partners and projects, then select Hjelm, T. (2013). Empowering discourse: Discourse analysis Wayment, H., & K. Dickson. (2008). Increasing student partic- review committee. A substantial risk for faculty members students with relevant skills to collaborate as co-authors as method and practice in the sociology classroom. Teaching in ipation in undergraduate research benefits students, faculty, and department. Teaching of Psychology, 35 (3), 194-97. is professional credibility. By bringing students into the while also assessing students’ availability to devote time Higher Education, 18 (8), 871-882. project with less training and experience, and assigning to the project, their maturity in dealing with faculty, Kuh, G. D. (2008). High-impact educational practices: What them real responsibilities, there is a potential loss of con- and their accountability. Viewing student researchers they are, who has access to them, and why they matter. Wash- trol and also the possibility that the final product might as co-equal (albeit junior) partners requires faculty to ington, DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities. not be as finished or polished as it might have been if abandon traditional notions of the roles of instructors Landrum, R., and L. Nelsen. (2002). The undergraduate graduate students had been in this co-author role. Simi- and students. Doing so provides significant mentoring research assistantship: An analysis of the benefits.Teaching of larly, faculty members committed to conducting research opportunities beyond a traditional independent study Psychology, 29 (1), 15-19. with students may alter the sorts of journals they con- or directed reading course. Lopatto, D. (2010). Undergraduate research as a high-impact sider for submission. For an untenured faculty member, student experience. Peer Review, 12 (2), 27-30. Our model of empowered scholarship is applica- this may prove a risky strategy when applying for ten- ble for faculty members and students in any discipline National Survey of Student Engagement. (2013). Promoting ure and promotion. However, if a student-faculty team high-impact practices: Pushing boundaries, raising the bar. who are pursuing research opportunities with external is able to effectively marshal resources and share clearly Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Center for Postsecondary organizations. Ideally, empowered scholarship provides delineated responsibilities, the quality of the academic Research. an opportunity for faculty and students to collaborate product should be comparable to the quality expected and tap into new, cutting edge needs with real-world for publication in top-tier peer-reviewed journals. applications for actual clients, with the ultimate goal of Likewise, student researchers also take risks when providing an enhanced professional socialization experi- partnering with faculty members on such projects. Stu- ence for the students. dents must set aside ample time to work on the research collaboration, which may challenge their ability to bal- Acknowledgments ance other coursework and other responsibilities. How- The authors are grateful to Brian Bartolini, Sally ever, if students organize and prioritize their research Schmall, and the two anonymous reviewers for their and schoolwork, they can manage both types of expe- constructive feedback. riences effectively. In addition, students must overcome any uncertainties they may have about the process, as

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which remains largely unexplored, includes addressing “pay[ing] attention to how we find what we find” (2015, Using Pedagogical Interventions to Quell Students’ the affective component of conducting digital research, p. 211), can help dispel anxiety. What does this look like including the reading of source-based materials this from a pedagogical perspective, though? How might an Anxieties about Source-Based Reading research involves. While studies of students’ research instructor emphasize “how we find” as a means of quell- practices often report students’ feelings of frustration ing students’ anxieties about the impossibility of finding — Ellen C. Carillo at various points in the research process (Head, 2007; everything? Head and Eisenberg 2009, 2010; Kuhlthau, 2004) One way of working toward this goal involves help- these findings tend to be overshadowed by findings that Ellen C. Carillo is an Associate Professor of English at the University of Connecticut and the Writing Program ing students understand that while they are not expect- provide insight into students’ progress toward more Coordinator at its Waterbury Campus. She teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in composition and ed to find everything ever written on a subject, they can intellectually productive research practices. Although literature, and is the author of Securing a Place for Reading in Composition: The Importance of Teaching for take steps to find the most important scholarly voices not a formal study of students’ digital research or read- and sources on that subject. Spending time describing Transfer (Utah State UP, 2015). Her scholarship has been published in Currents in Teaching and Learning; ing practices, Amy E. Robillard’s (2015) “Prototypical and modeling for students the process of mining anoth- WLN: A Journal of Writing Center Scholarship; Rhetoric Review; Pedagogy: Critical Approaches to Teaching Reading: Volume, Desire, Anxiety” addresses these af- er scholar’s reference page, for example, gives students Literature, Language, Composition, and Culture; Reader: Essays in Reader-Oriented Theory, Criticism, and fective responses. Robillard describes her students’ anx- a systematic way of finding the most frequently cited ieties surrounding whether they are reading enough, Pedagogy; Feminist Teacher; and in several edited collections. Ellen is co-founder of the Role of Reading in sources and scholars on their topics. Thinking sources whether they are reading the right things, and whether Composition Studies Special Interest Group of the Conference on College Composition and Communication are “possessable” (Robillard, 2015, p. 212), some stu- they will ever feel as though they have even scratched (CCCC) and regularly presents her scholarship at national conferences. dents believe this practice must violate a school’s aca- the surface of all they need to know. The scope of Ro- demic integrity policy. Other students view reference billard’s piece, however, does not allow her to explore pages as superfluous and ignore them altogether. Ded- some of the potential pedagogical implications of her Abstract Background icating some time in class to showing students how to focus. Picking up where Robillard leaves off, this teach- This teaching report details pedagogical interventions Although today’s college students are often expect- trace where a scholar “has been” (to use Robillard’s met- ing report describes ways instructors can help quell these that allow instructors to address students’ anxieties as ed to conduct research using the internet, studies in- aphor) in order to imagine the stops on that journey reading-related anxieties in students as a means toward they relate to the reading of source materials. Draw- dicate that they seem to lack the ability to effectively that might be productive for their own scholarship, as helping students develop intellectual capacities crucial ing on data indicating that students experience anxiety undertake this work. Students’ reliance on Wikipedia well, can go a long way toward helping students become in research-based writing courses in which a focus on while conducting online research, this piece argues (Nicholas, Rowlands & Huntington, 2009), as well as more confident in their abilities to find the most rel- source use is presumably most common.1 I have includ- that exploring the largely neglected affective compo- Google-based searches, has been documented (Nicho- evant scholarship. Moreover, this proactive approach ed IRB-exempt, anonymous student responses from nents of students’ development of digital literacy prac- las, Rowlands & Huntington, 2009; Purdy, 2012), as means that students are less likely to get bogged down in course evaluations throughout this piece because they tices is an important step toward quelling students’ have their poor skills evaluating the credibility of the and stymied by the sheer volume of information avail- reading-related anxieties. In so doing, instructors can speak not only to students’ development of productive sources they find online (Ostenson, 2009; Hargittai, able to them. As students apply this targeted approach, more comprehensively support students’ development reading and research practices in my course, but when Fullerton, Menchen-Trevino, & Thomas, 2010). Stud- they begin to notice that some sources appear over and of the intellectual capacities important to source-based looked at closely, they also attest to students’ develop- ies have indicated that students choose sources based on over again on multiple reference pages, and they come reading and writing. ment of confidence in these abilities. their ease of use as opposed to the relevance to their sub- to realize the importance of those voices to the conver- Keywords ject (Purdy, 2012, p.7) and that students— who quote Dispelling Students’ Anxieties About Finding sation. Genuine discoveries like these quell the anxiety primarily from the abstracts and first page of sources— associated with information overload and create a space digital research practices, research writing, plagiarism, Every Source may even lack the ability to understand what they are for a research process that is characterized by excitement reading pedagogies, reading-writing connections Refusing to distinguish between the anxieties that stu- reading (Howard, Serviss, & Rodrigue, 2010, p. 189). and curiosity rather than insecurity and anxiety. dents and professional scholars feel, Robillard recom- Certainly, instructors at all levels and across the dis- mends that students and scholars alike come to terms Shifting Attention to the Relevance of Sources ciplines have a significant amount of work to do in order with the fact that “we do not—nor can we—system- Instructors can design assignments that help students to help students develop stronger information literacy atically read everything there is to be read” (p. 210). narrow the field of potential sources by emphasizing skills and digital research practices. Part of that work, Accepting this fact, argues Robillard, and instead, the relevance of sources and refraining from requiring

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students to include an unnecessarily large volume of Moreover, students can no longer mindlessly grab tices introduced in the course. This student and others students focused on a very limited amount of text sources in their research writing. In light of the findings sources only from the first page that a search-engine have come to recognize their abilities to “look for good while summarizing these sources, raising questions from The Citation Project, an empirical study of how returns, a practice Randall McClure (2011) noticed stu- evidence,” “do research better,” use “sources differently” about “whether students understand the sources they students across postsecondary institutions use sources dents engaging in during his study of students’ online and apply “different techniques for engaging with sourc- are citing” (Howard, Serviss, & Rodrigue, 2010, 189). in their research-based writing, Sandra Jamieson calls research habits. Although the sources appearing on the es.” To change one’s practices, particularly those that are Students often constructed arguments “from isolated for the adoption of a “less-is-more philosophy.” She ex- first page of a search may be some of the most relevant so ingrained—like students’ reading and research prac- sentences pulled from sources” (Howard, Serviss, & Ro- plains: ones, I would posit that students often stop there be- tices— is a bold step in and of itself, and one that can drigue, 2010, 189), suggesting that they may not have cause the volume of pages any given search returns can be anxiety-producing. Yet, these comments speak to the understood the larger ideas and arguments put forth in If our goal in assigning researched writing is to be overwhelming particularly if students are not adept at opposite result— namely students’ high estimation of the sources. These findings have led Jamieson (2013) teach students to engage with sources and enter narrowing the search through the manipulation of search their abilities in several aspects of research-based writ- to conclude that “students lack the critical reading and conversations with them on a topic, there is no real terms. By shifting the annotated bibliography’s empha- ing. thinking skills necessary to engage with the ideas of oth- reason for that process to include more than three sis away from volume, the assignment has stopped pro- ers and write papers reflecting that engagement in any or four sources. Similarly, if one of our goals is to ducing anxiety in students because they no longer feel Teaching Students How to Read Source Materials discipline.” Jamieson further explains her conclusion: teach information literacy skills, we can do that by compelled to use whatever sources their search produces When students describe the abilities they are honing— asking students to find two additional sources that Students are less likely to be able to understand the just to meet the required number of sources. Instead, as they do in the quotations just above— they are com- are in dialogue with the sources read in class and larger concepts in the texts they read, or to be able the assignment privileges relevance and gives students menting, in part, on their reading abilities. For example, the issues that interested students within them. to assess how an argument unfolds, how sources the opportunity to take ownership of the decisions they finding good evidence and drawing similarities across (par. 67) are in dialogue with each other, or how the author make regarding which sources to include in their anno- sources necessitate strong critical reading skills. Other uses an accumulation of references and sources to Informed by these recommendations of The Citation tated bibliographies. This revised annotated bibliogra- students remarked even more directly on reading in further a position of his or her own, or support, Project, as well as Purdy’s (2012) research indicating that phy assignment and the resulting research-driven essay their anonymous course evaluations. One student noted challenge, or revise a position or interpretation pre- relevance was one of the least important criteria students in which students whittle down the number of sources that “the most beneficial aspects of this course was [sic] sented by another scholar. reported using for choosing an online source (p. 8), I even further have proven to be important antidotes to learning how to become a better reader and writer” while recently revised an annotated bibliography assignment the unnecessary and anxiety-producing emphasis on the others listed the course’s attention to “close reading” and In order to help students develop their abilities to engage I had been using for years. With the goal of fostering volume of sources that students report experiencing in “active reading” as especially beneficial. Giving students in the work that Jamieson outlines, instructors must de- a deeper engagement with fewer sources rather than a other courses and contexts. In fact, in their anonymous the tools they need to be successful readers of the sourc- liberately focus on teaching students how to read so stu- superficial engagement with many, I now ask students course evaluations, students regularly comment on how es they encounter is crucial as all too often instructors dents can do so more effectively and ultimately feel more to include in each annotation a few sentences about the being more deliberate when looking for sources and take students’ reading abilities for granted, assuming confident about their encounters with texts. There are potential relevance of each text to their project. Students considering sources in more depth has been beneficial. they will be able to read whatever texts they find. Recent any number of ways to engage in this important work. need to articulate how and why each source might work One student noted, “I have learned to look for good studies, though, suggest that students’ critical reading Alice Horning (2011), one of the foremost experts on within the context of their research, as well as under what evidence and how to slow down and analyze a research abilities are rather weak. The SAT Verbal/Critical Read- reading in the field of composition, has argued that in- conditions each text might not work (e.g., the topic veers question. Before I would jump in really quickly.” Oth- ing Portion, for example, has shown a steep decline in structors can help students, who are novice readers, read in a different direction or the student ends up taking a ers describe learning “how to do research better and use students’ reading abilities over the last several decades. “extended informational prose texts” by teaching them different position). This slight change in the assignment my sources differently” and how to “dra[w] similarities/ Despite criticisms of the test, its long history allows for skills such as analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and appli- compels students to slow down both as they search for differences across sources” as well as learning “different comparisons over time, comparisons that reveal that “in cation, which experts regularly use. She describes the sources and as they read (and re-reread) these sources. techniques for engaging with sources.” These comments 2015 [the date of the most recent published study], the importance of helping students develop into “meta-read- This metacognitive aspect of the assignment gives stu- suggest that students recognize the value in focusing average score on the SAT verbal test was near historic ers” who, like expert readers, remain remarkably aware dents a greater sense of control and purpose, which has more closely and deeply on (fewer) sources and indi- lows” (par. 2). throughout their reading process— aware of the differ- helped dispel anxiety much like Robillard’s commitment cate the degree of confidence that emerges from such ent reading skills they are applying, aware of where texts As mentioned above, students’ reading problems to helping students pay attention to “how we find what work. Whereas the student mentioned above previous- come from, how texts fit into larger conversations, how and related instances of source misuse have also been we find” (2015, p. 211). ly “would jump in really quickly,” the student has the language works, and so on (par. 3). Horning notes that documented by The Citation Project. In the students’ confidence to replace that practice with the new prac- “this goal can be achieved through teachers’ understand- writing samples from the study, researchers found that ing of what experts do, through specific instructional

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scaffolding strategies. . . and through requirements of from the sources as did many of the students who were ing skills. I feel like I am now better prepared to write think not only in terms of students’ intellectual needs, extended, focused practice,” all of which Horning de- part of The Citation Project’s research sample. Instruc- research papers in the future.” And, finally, one student but their emotional needs, as well. As Robillard details, tails in her essay (par. 12). Like Horning, literacy expert tors might hold workshops on the difference between seemed to connect this emphasis on preparation with students experience many of the same anxieties as pro- Donna Qualley (1993) also recommends active reading summary and analysis to help students recognize what decreased anxiety, noting “It is a great course for those fessional scholars when it comes to source-based reading strategies, but she takes these even one step further and it means to read in order to summarize versus reading in intimidated by ‘W’ courses. They should take this first and writing. This connection between students and their requires that her students meet with her for individual order to analyze. before any other ‘W’ [course].” As this student notes, instructors, many of whom are professional scholars, reading conferences in addition to the more common this potentially intimidating course on research-based can serve as a gateway into discussions that underscore Teaching students how to read source material rhe- writing conferences. In these reading conferences, Qual- writing did not, in fact, produce anxiety, and is recom- realistic rather than overblown and anxiety-inducing torically is also an important reading practice that many ley talks to her students about their active reading strat- mended to other students for that very reason. In all of expectations regarding conducting research. Moreover, students don’t already possess. It is not even necessary egies, what they are reading, how they are reading, what these comments, as well as those quoted earlier, students giving students the tools to locate the most relevant to start with what might be thought of as advanced they focus on as they read, and any questions they have share their positive feelings about their abilities, suggest- sources and scholars on a subject, as well as engage with reading skills such as rhetorical reading. In fact, my first about what they are reading. The personal connections ing that the pedagogical strategies I have described here source materials means that students are less likely to be step when focusing on reading with my students in a Qualley builds with her students during these confer- have the potential to help students not only become stymied by the sheer volume of information at their fin- research writing course involves teaching them how to ences and this individualized way of intervening into stronger readers, writers, and researchers, but more con- gertips. Shifting attention to students’ emotional needs productively annotate and then requiring them to adopt their reading practices is a model that benefits students fident ones, too. in addition to their intellectual needs— and using the this approach instead of highlighting, which is often stu- and instructors. Reading conferences offer students a former to better understand the latter— is an important dents’ default and largely ineffective form of annotation. safe space to discuss their reading and learn about them- Concluding Thoughts step toward developing pedagogical interventions that The point is that instructors need to address students’ selves as readers while also allowing instructors to gain Students’ preparation is perhaps the most important target the anxieties surrounding source-based reading. reading abilities through targeted interventions that will insight into students’ anxieties surrounding reading and antidote to their insecurities and anxieties surrounding not only help students become better readers, but that what steps may need to be taken to help them negotiate reading in our information-saturated culture. As edu- will make them more confident when they are faced these issues. cators continue to imagine ways of better preparing with difficult source material. With dedicated instruc- our students to conduct digital research and engage Larger classes may not be conducive to holding in- tion along the lines of what is described above, students the source materials they locate, we would be wise to dividual reading conferences, but there are other ways will be prepared to engage sources more effectively and of helping students become stronger readers and more productively as they read and, ultimately, as they write confident in their reading abilities. In my own classes, in all of their courses. I spend time modeling different ways of reading, and In fact, in their anonymous evaluations of my re- we discuss the need to choose a reading approach based search-writing course, students were asked what they on the purpose of the related writing assignment. In a thought they could take from this course to other research writing course, assignments vary radically from courses, and the most common response was that they a short summary of a source to the final, full-scale re- felt more prepared to complete research-driven assign- search-driven essay. Students’ reading approaches should ments. One student commented, “This course helped vary as much as the assignments. For example, the way me understand the importance of preparing to write” one reads a source in order to summarize it should be and [I will take with me] “the ability to write an effec- different from how one reads a source in order to com- tive research paper, as well as new study and preparation pare it to another source. Rather than assume students strategies.” Similarly, another student mentioned that know how to summarize, instructors can devote class she will bring with her to future courses “the strategies time to teaching students how to read for main ideas so for writing papers, and for preparing for them, as well.” that they are prepared to summarize sources in their en- A particularly enthusiastic student noted “Everything tirety rather than summarize decontextualized sentences [from the course] has benefitted my research and writ-

By addressing sources and source use within the admittedly limited context of research-focused writing courses and assignments, I do not intend to oversim- plify Robillard’s discussion. Robillard’s use of the term “source” is certainly more expansive and complex than the focus of this short piece suggests.

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References Nicholas, D., Rowlands, I., & Huntington, P. (2008). Informa- Hargittai, E., L. Fullerton, E. Menchen-Trevino & K.Y. tion behaviour of the researcher of the future. Retrieved from The Teaching and Learning of Intensive French at Ekiti Thomas. (2010). Trust online: Young adults’ evaluation of web http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/programmes/reppres/ content. International Journal of Communication, 4, 468-494. gg_final_keynote_11012008.pdf. State University: A Literacy Based Model for Second Head, A. J. (2007). Beyond Google: How do students conduct Ostenson, J. (2009). Skeptics on the internet: Teaching students academic research? First Monday, 12 (8). Retrieved from to read critically. English Journal, 98 (5), 54-59. Language Acquisition in Nigeria http://firstmonday.org/article/view/1998/1873. Performance on SAT verbal/critical reading and writing exams. Head, A. J. & M. B. Eisenberg. (2009). Finding context: What (2015) Humanities Indicators. Retrieved from http://www. — Odey Ebi Veronica and Moruwawon Babatunde Samuel today’s college students say about conducting research in the humanitiesindicators.org/default.aspx. digital age. Project Information Literacy Progress Report. Retrieved Purdy, James P. (2012). Why first-year college students select from http://projectinfolit.org/pdfs/PIL_Progress online research resources as their favorite. First Monday 17 (9-3). Odey Veronica Eby, Ph.D. is a Senior Lecturer of French at the University of Calabar, Cross River State, Nige- Report_2_2009.pdf. Retrieved from http://firstmonday.org/article/view/4088/3289. ria. Formerly Chair of the Department of Modern Languages and Translations Studies, in 2014 she was ap- Head, A.J. & M.B. Eisenberg. (2010). How today’s college Qualley, D. (1993). Using reading in the writing classroom. In pointed as Coordinator of the Language Immersion Program for third-year students of French, a collaborative students use Wikipedia for course–related research. First Nuts & Bolts: A Practical Guide to Teaching College Composition program between the University of Calabar, the Centre Universitaires d’Etudes Française (CUEF) in Abijan, Monday, 15 (3). Retrieved from http://firstmonday.org/ojs/ (pp.101-128). Portsmouth, NH, Boynton/Cook. Ivory Coast, and the Village du Bénin, Republic of Togo. She teaches undergraduate and graduate courses index.php/fm/article/view/2830/2476. Robillard, A. E. (2015). Prototypical reading: volume, desire, in French grammar and composition writing and African literature. Her scholarly works have appeared in Horning, A. S. (2011). Where to put the manicules: A theory anxiety. College Composition and Communication, 67 (2), distinguished scholarly journals both within and outside Nigeria, and she regularly presents her scholarship of expert reading. Across the Disciplines, 8(2). Retrieved from 198-215. http://wac.colostate.edu/atd/articles/horning2011/index.cfm. in national and international conferences. Twait, M. (2005). Undergraduate students’ source selection Howard, R. M., Serviss, T., & Rodrigue, T.K. (2010). Writing criteria: A qualitative study. Journal of Academic Librarianship, Moruwawon Babatunde Samuel holds a Ph.D. in Translation Studies from the University of Ibadan and is from sources, writing from Sentences. Writing and Pedagogy, 31 (6), 567-573. a Senior Lecturer of French at Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria. Formerly Assistant Director of the 2(5), 177-192. university’s Pre-Degree Program, in 2008 he was appointed as Coordinator of the Language Immersion Pro- Jamieson, S. (2013). Reading and engaging sources: What gram for third-year students of French, a collaborative program between Ekiti State University and Village students’ use of sources reveals about advanced reading skills. Across the Disciplines 10(4). Retrieved from du Bénin, Republic of Togo. Dr. Moruwawon works on the complex connections between language, litera- http://wac.colostate.edu/atd/reading/index.cfm. ture, culture and translation. He specializes in the theory, practice and teaching of translation. His articles Kuhlthau, C.C. (2004). Seeking meaning. Westport, CT: Librar- have been published both within and outside Nigeria in distinguished scholarly journals such as Michigan ies Unlimited. Sociological Review, Concordia Discors vs Discordia Concors, Journal for Teaching and Learning (South East McClure, Randall. (2011). Googlepedia: Turning information European University Language Center), and R-Evolutionary. behaviors into research skills. Writing Spaces, 2. Retrieved from http://wac.colostate.edu/books/writingspaces2/mcclure--google- pedia.pdf. Abstract French at the pre-degree level at Ekiti State University represents a good literacy model for the acquisition of While the teaching and learning of English is given French as second official language in Nigeria. Although prominence in Nigeria, French is not accorded much Nigeria has centers (Alliance Française and private relevance in the country. The disparity is due to the co- French Centers) across the country where professionals lonial history of the country, a former colony of the Brit- and private individuals can learn the language, the efforts ish government. This paper discusses the conceptual- of these centers are not enough to meet the demands ization of intensive French at Ekiti State University and of learners who are interested in learning the language, the intersection of intensive second language teaching, thus, making Ekiti State University a viable platform for cultural theories, and public policy in Nigeria. The paper the teaching and learning of French in Nigeria. draws up major components and implications of the program in relation to state policies on education and Keywords regional relations. The key contribution of the article is teaching, learning, french, culture, nigerian university that in view of the diminishing interest of Nigerians to the learning of French language, intensive teaching of

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1. 0. Introduction bring much discourse competence from their first lan- activity. Classes in English immersion began in the mid- lar means of developing communicative competence in The intensive French program refers to the enrichment guage and, through the use of French in interaction, the dle 1970s, based on the Saint Lambert model. French among Anglophone learners of French as second learners enhance their general cognitive development. official language in Nigerian Universities. of the teaching and learning of French language from In 1974, the school district in Mille-Iles undertoo It is for this reason that the use of interactive teaching three to four times the number of hours regularly sched- an evaluation of its French immersion classes and com- strategies is one of the major characteristics of the Inten- 3.1. Nigerian Policy on French Language as Second uled for the teaching and learning activity in a concen- pared the results to those of the classes d’accueil (recep- sive French Program (Joan and Germain 2004:290). Foreign Language in Nigeria trated period of time. The intensive French program is tion classes) for children of immigrants offered by the After independence, the Nigerian government realized offered at the end of the secondary school cycle when Montreal Catholic School Commission. In these classes 2. Historical Overview of Intensive French the importance of French. This is because the nation students have been offered post-secondary school ad- that Quebec instituted in 1969, children learned French The intensive French program was first developed in is surrounded by French speaking neighbors: Republic mission, preferably into a University. The intensive pro- orally for five months, without the addition of any sub- Canada in order to respond to the serious difficulties of of Benin, Cameroon, Republic of Niger and Republic gram in French recognizes the students’ ability to learn ject matter, followed by five months of instruction in teaching communication in the core French classroom. of Chad. Geographically, Nigeria is supposed to be a the foreign language implicitly, respond well to it and the language related to the different subjects, before the The first step in the conception of the program was to French speaking nation but due to colonial factors, the move on to more advanced activities in French at the in- students entered the regular stream to learn all their sub- review empirical research about second language learn- country is an English speaking nation. In spite of the termediate level. In most Nigerian Universities, the in- jects in French. As a result of the quality of the results ing. According to Joan and Germain (2004: 279), three colonial history of the country, some states of the Fed- tensive French program is offered in the pre-degree level, obtained in the classes d’accueil, (reception classes) the findings appeared to be crucial: eration such as Sokoto State, Cross River State, Ogun where two to four teachers are involved in the teaching Mille-Illes school district decided to begin a similar type State, Kwara State, Oyo State, Borno State, Adamawa and learning activity. All activities related to the learning a. The level of achievement attained in a second of program for teaching French to Anglophone students. State and Kano State share some identical cultural lean- of French as a second official language are taught with language is closely related to the amount of time This program experienced similar success and the school ings found in the surrounding Francophone countries. the conditions and priorities of the university in mind. spent in learning the language. district decided to embark on the teaching of English Both Nigeria and these Francophone neighbors revolve This feature makes the program open to students over a to Francophone students in the same way, initiating in b. Students exposed to intensive periods of lan- around economic, political and cultural exchanges that wider variety of ability levels than is generally the case 1976 a five-month intensive English program at Grade guage learning attain a higher level of achievement make it compulsory for the country to learn and speak in other non-language related disciplines. In an attempt Six, as English was taught in Grade One. In the same than those who receive the same amount of instruc- the French language. In view of this, in 1996 Gener- to guarantee the development of communication skills year, intensive English classes were also begun in Green- tion time spread out over a longer period. al Sanni Abacha, the former Nigerian military Head of in French and accelerate spontaneous use of French by field Park in the South Shore of Montreal. The first State, declared in Ouagadougou the new status of French the learner, the period allocated to the teaching of other c. Students exposed to a period of authentic use of classes for intensive French based on the model of the as Nigeria’s second official language. The declaration was subjects in the regular curriculum is deferred to the end language, as is the case in immersion program, at- classes d’accueil for immigrant children were organised welcome because French as a modern language would of the academic session when the learner is promoted to tain a higher level of communicative competence by Lise Billy of the Mille-Iles school District. The results serve as a means of communication and understanding the first year level of the University. than that achieved by their peers who are exposed of these intensive classes were evaluated by researchers not only within Africa but also beyond Africa, since no to language only as an object of study. from Concordia University for English and Université In some universities where French language is African language has evolved and developed to meet this du Quebec in Montreal for French (Billy, 1980: 420). combined with other foreign languages, such as Ger- These findings appeared to indicate that in order to -im purpose. The two most developed languages in Africa man, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, as the case may be, prove the results of the core French program, the inte- The findings indicated an intensive period of lan- are Hausa and Swahili and they are mainly spoken in the amount of time devoted to French is reduced. The gration of an intensive period of exposure to French in guage study was a valid option for improving commu- West and East Africa respectively (Offorma, 2012: 142). amount of reduction in each subject area varies from which French is used as the language of communication nicative abilities and that this option was more effective The declaration of French as Nigeria’s second offi- university to university. The intensive French program would be necessary (ibid.: 279). Following the proc- at the primary level than with students at Grade One. cial language is not limited to the then Abacha regime. serves as a literacy-based model for second language ac- lamation of Canada’s Official Language Act in 1969, After two years, the results of the intensive French ex- President Olusegun Obasanjo made a similar declara- quisition and emphasizes the development of literacy parents began to look for more effective ways for their perience were summarized this way: Teaching a second tion in 2002 when he made French the second official skills in French and spontaneous communication ability children to learn to communicate in French and English language through an intensive period can work for small language as well as giving it the status of core subject in the Anglophone learners of French language. Listen- as a second language in school. At that time, a group children as well as older ones but younger children re- in both Junior and Senior secondary schools across ing, speaking, writing and representing are developed of Anglophone parents on Montreal’s South Shore quire more time to achieve results comparable to those the country (Igboanusi 2008). The major challenge of in an integrated manner to ensure good communicative convinced the school board in Saint Lambert to start of eleven years-olds (Joan and Germain, 2004: 264). teaching and learning French in Nigeria is the lack of ability of the learner. The intensive French program as- the first French immersion classes. The success of these The success of intensive French in Canada has gone competent teachers to handle the teaching of the lan- sumes that a learner has no previous linguistic knowl- classes caused francophone parents on the North Shore beyond the continent and spread to other countries of guage. The government realized this and empowered the edge in the first language. The learner is expected to of Montreal to develop an interest in English immersion the world, including Nigeria, and has become a popu-

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nation’s universities to rise up and save the situation. The with their teachers in a week with emphasis on four anchors twelve instructors: one professor, two senior understanding occurs in second language learning when University of Ibadan and University of Nigeria, Nsuk- skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. The pro- lecturers, five lecturers (four of the category Lecturer 1 the learner unfavorably compares his own culture with ka commenced a pilot course in French with the sole gram stresses orality before literacy. At the pre-degree and one of the category Lecturer II), and one assistant the culture of the language to be acquired. This results in aim of producing French teachers for the nation. Today, level, effective syllabus is developed for the learners and lecturer. Intensive French is one of the means through a great handicap in language learning. In language learn- French language is taught in federal, state and private more suitable course materials are prepared for them. which some universities in Nigeria obtain candidates ing, two languages and two cultures come in contact, universities in the country. However, most parents are It must be noted here that French is a unique foreign into the various departments in the universities. Inten- and hence a great deal of sympathetic understanding of not warm to send their children to learn the language in language to the Nigerian learner of the language. The sive French is offered in most Nigerian universities, with cultural patterns of the second language and culture is private universities due to high tuition charges. reason for this is that the Nigerian learner does not have each maintaining some guidelines for its implementa- essential. Elizabeth (2006:592) commented on learners’ the opportunity to interact with native speakers of the tion as approved by the Senate of the university. Parents, attitudes towards a second or foreign culture thus: 3.2. Ekiti State University and the Teaching of language outside the classroom setting. The creation of students, and teachers have acclaimed the program as A classroom interaction several years ago led me to Intensive French Nigeria French Village is designed to facilitate commu- very efficient for the acquisition of French in Nigeria. reflect upon the relationship between the learner’s The Intensive French program was developed at Ekiti nication in French in the English speaking Nigerian en- cultural identity and his or her attitudes towards University to respond to the challenge of teaching and vironment due to the high cost of the acculturation fee 4. Cultural Awareness among Anglophone cultural differences and to think of the implicit cul- learning of French in the University. Ade Ojo (1993:4) at the approved language immersion center located at Learners of French at Ekiti State University ture agenda governing my own teaching. During remarks that on the eve of the 21st Century, when it is the Village du Benin, University of Togo, Togo. Culture is an important constituent of language and an oral exercise, a student had occasion to utter the now compulsory within the European Economic Com- second language acquisition. Each culture has a unique During the teaching and learning activities in the exclamation “Ooo là, là!”. By way of response. I mission countries for the child to learn at least three pattern and the behavior of an individual, linguistic or classroom, emphasis is on learning to communicate in laughed and added, Mais en France, on dit “Oh là international languages, every Nigerian child should otherwise, is manifested through culture. Foreign lan- the second language because French is taught through- là!,” to which he unhesitatingly replied, in English, be motivated to learn French in addition to English in guage acquisition implies the modification of the learn- out the learning hours with the use of a great variety “But I’m American!”. I was struck by the contrast order to be at ease with his or her peers in the modern er’s behavior and injecting a new way of life and new of interesting activities. The objective of the program is between my student’s attitude toward cultural iden- world. Following the official proclamation more than values of life into the already settled behavior pattern to improve the learner’s communication abilities. The tity and mine as an instructor. I wanted to present two decades ago by the late Nigerian Military ruler, (Trivendi 1978:92). When we talk of equivalence in intensive French program is not based on student se- my student with native-speaker models of language. General Sanni Abacha, to make French Nigeria’s second teaching or learning a second language we raise the dif- lection, a feature that makes it different from program My student, by contrast, was clearly not interested official language, and the need to increase and encour- ficult problem of setting up semantic equivalence in the in other universities outside of Nigeria. For example, in in sounding or acting French. Instead, he asserted age Nigerians to learn French, Ekiti State University matrix of the target-language culture. Second language Canada, it is based on student selection. According to his American identity and gave voice to it through has since mobilized her resources to arrest the decline learning involves a process of cultural acquisition, and Joan (2004: 280), the intensive English program is gen- the speaking of French, a reaction that seemed to in the number of French teachers and French schools cultural problems in language arise because of the in- erally offered to selected students. In order to be cho- me at the time to reflect a certain resistance to lan- in the nation. Let me state here that French language is frastructure of preconceived and hidden notions. It is sen for the program, students must show considerable guage and culture learning. associated with Christian religion in some quarters in not possible to learn a new language without having a motivation for learning English, as well as achieving Nigeria, especially in the Northern part of Nigeria. This sympathetic understanding of the cultural setting of the The learner’s attitude toward a second language culture above-average levels in all their studies. These selection explains why some Muslim parents discourage their language. may range across fear, hostility and resistance among criteria are in part imposed because of the increased children from learning French, particularly at the sec- other things. However, the most challenging situation work load that students must accept in the second se- Culture is defined as the socially inherited assem- ondary school level (Amosu, 2005: 111). The intensive is when the learner is not fully willing to identify with mester when they complete the entire regular curricu- blage of practices and beliefs that determine the texture French program was developed in Nigerian universities or become like the cultural other, which raises the ques- lum for all other subjects. One of the basic principles of of our lives. This socially inherited assemblage of prac- where French is taught as a discipline to respond to the tion of identity while equally pointing to the need to the intensive program is the belief that while learners are tices and beliefs, or cultural patterns, may be (i) static challenge of teaching and learning French in Nigeria. acknowledge the learner as a cultural subject. Just as we learning a second language, they are equally developing units: man, woman, horse, dog, cow, teacher, barber, Intensive French is known as a pre-degree program at may have the pleasure of teaching students who are mo- capacities that can be used in the L1 setting (Cummins, animal, church, etc.; (ii) process: to rest, to study, to Ekiti State University. tivated by the appeal and excitement of difference and 2001; Netten and Germain, 2000b). run, to think, to hear, to read, etc.; or (iii) qualities: who, as a result of classroom study or experience abroad, good, bad, hot, cold, slow, fast, moral immoral (Sapir 3.3 Academic Program even adopt an altered cultural personality or identity, 3.4 Program Resources and Personnel 1949:546). These classifications are never the same in Learners of French at the pre-degree program are ex- so too, we may grapple with the problem of students Ekiti State University has qualified personnel to han- a given culture at a given time. It means that culture pected to have not less than sixteen hours of contact who rigorously embrace long-standing negative stereo- dle the courses designed for the program. The program involves all aspects of shared life in a community. Mis- types and images of a second or foreign culture (Damen

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1987:142). Widdowson (1998:712) writes that cumu- cultural horizons with the understanding that different offering or receiving compliments, providing a glimpse The success of the program is based on balanced course lative approaches to language instruction must come cultures use different patterns that are similar to the into the rich field of intercultural pragmatics. The learn- contents and the professionalism of the teachers. The to terms with the learners’ reality, and that certain ap- learner’s culture. In addition to identifying the learn- ers analyze how these speech acts manifest in French in placement rate of graduates of the program is very high. proaches create contextual conditions that are appropri- er’s position as a cultural subject, the development of contexts that are familiar to them. Following this, they The graduates of the program get offers of appointment ate to the learners and enable them to authenticate the cross-cultural awareness requires recognizing the in- view segments of television programs and films to listen in the job market upon completion of the mandatory language as discourse on their own terms. Similarly, cul- ternal diversity and conflict that typically characterize and to look for how native speakers of French behave in one year in the National Youth Service Corps. ture learning is most legitimately considered authentic the home culture (Galloway 1999:164). The purpose various similar contexts. Cultural understanding is not The contribution of the intensive program has been when the reality of the learner’s cultural identities, and of developing awareness of self as a cultural subject in an automatic by-product of language acquisition (Brière conclusively tremendous among Anglophone learners of the mixed messages and feelings that are apt to emerge classroom study is thus to increase the learner’s under- 1986:205). Thus, it is important to place a high premi- French at Ekiti State University. It has helped course de- when studying other cultures, are acknowledged in the standing of the nature of cultural identity with its con- um on it in the early formation of the second foreign velopers and instructors to be more aware of inter-cul- classroom rather than displaced or repressed. The main flicts and multiple dimensions, to make cultural practic- language learner. All Anglophone learners of French in turalization, thus enhancing the quality of education, objective of teaching culture in foreign language acqui- es in their own environment visible to them (Crawford Nigerian universities are required to follow this mod- which has been recognized worldwide. Most important- sition is to foster understanding. and McLaren 2003:146), and to preclude simplistic el for the acquisition of French. This model provides ly, graduates have manifested satisfaction through an reactions to difference and overgeneralization about re- a formative opportunity to reflect upon the nature of Murti (2002:29) underscores the unique advan- informal survey. gional or national cultures. The consideration of culture language and culture and on the cultural dimension of tage of the non-native instructor, who, in her words, is in second foreign language acquisition is a paramount their own identities. well situated to teach people from other cultures how to Conclusion feature of Anglophone learners of French in Nigerian use somebody else’s linguistic code in somebody else’s Globalization is the current focus of every government, universities. 5. Implications of Intensive French for Teaching cultural context. Learning a foreign language implies and Learning Activity at Ekiti State University institution and department across the globe. Ekiti State learning the values and practices of the language. It Due to the academic needs of these learners, the University strives to achieve this feat by following the The goal of the intensive French program at Ekiti State equally informs us about our own culture, values and National Universities Commission approved centers examples of Japan and China who adhere strictly to the University is to help students acquire communicative practices. Culture-specific content includes knowledge within and outside Nigeria where foreign language implementation of their nation’s foreign language policy skills in an Anglophone setting. In a classroom environ- about societal values, practices and products. These learners are made to acquire cultural immersion in the by ensuring that one foreign language is taught at the ment, the presence of the instructor allows students to goals relate to the recognition and comprehension of foreign language. Before the establishment of The Ni- pre-university level. The intensive program at Ekiti State establish direct dialogue with the instructors and with distinctive cultural views on various issues and patterns gerian French Language Village in 1991, cultural im- University pays attention to the attainment of the Mil- one another. Teaching and learning challenges are re- of behavior and interaction, as well as to familiarization mersion for all foreign language learners used to require lennium Development Goals and National Economic solved as they arise, and solutions are found, thus cre- with cultural production of many kinds ranging from that students spend their “one year abroad program in Empowerment Strategies of the country. The key contri- ating opportunities for the learner to carry on with the implements of daily life to painting of literature (Eliza- France”. The inability of the Nigerian government to bution of this article is that, in view of the diminishing learning activity. The use of modern teaching methods beth 2006:595). Cultural awareness in foreign language finance candidates in this program led to its replace- interest of Nigerians to the learning of the French lan- equally contributes to the learning capability of the acquisition involves not only the understanding of for- ment with the following approved centers: the Nigerian guage, the intensive teaching of French at the pre-degree learners coupled with the extensive attention of the eign culture, but also the recognition and understanding French Language Village, located in Badagry, a border level at Ekiti State University represents a good literacy teachers, who act as moderators during teaching activi- of self as a cultural object. This awareness of self is a town between Nigeria and the Republic of Benin; and model for the acquisition of French as second official ties while ensuring at the same time that different con- necessary corollary to awareness of others as affirmed by Le Village du Benin, located in the heart of Université language in Nigeria. Although Nigeria has centers (Al- cepts taught in the course are understood. Admitting Damen (1987:141): Nationale du Togo, Togo. By 1991, the Nigerian French liance Francaise and private French centers) across the students from different parts of the country and beyond Village was created for the purpose of providing cul- country, where professionals and private individuals can Cross-cultural awareness involves uncovering and creates the challenge of inter-culturalization, defined as tural and linguistic immersion for all Nigerian learners learn the language, the efforts of these centers are not understanding one’s own culturally conditioned the effort made to adapt course content to the environ- of French, including those from colleges of education, enough to meet the demands of learners who are inter- behavior and thinking as well as the pattern of oth- ment and experiences of these students. This implies polytechnics and universities. ested in learning French, thus making Ekiti State Uni- ers. Thus, the process involves not only perceiving that the foreign language teaching is carried out while versity a viable platform for the teaching and learning of the similarities and differences in other cultures but The driving force for the recognition of these cen- taking into account the diverse cultural backgrounds of French in Nigeria. also recognizing the given of the native culture. ters is humanistic, linguistic and cultural as well as the learners. Informal public surveys of the program af- practical with emphasis on culture-specific language The objective of understanding self and others as cul- firms that the program is good for Anglophone learners behavior. It accommodates speech acts such as extend- turally constructed features is to broaden the learner’s of French in Nigeria because it meets students’ needs. ing, accepting or refusing invitations, apologizing and

38 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF INTENSIVE FRENCH | VERONICA, SAMUEL PROGRAM REPORTS | THE TEACHING AND LEARING OF INTENSIVE FRENCH 39 PROGRAM REPORTS The Teaching and Learning of CURRENT CLIPS & LINKS Intensive French continued

References Galloway, V. (1999). Bridge and boundaries: Growing the Ajiboye, Tunde. (2005). Integrating foreign languages into the cross-cultural mind. In Language Learners of Tomorrow: Websites Related to Teaching and Learning Nigerian educational system: What policies? Nigeria and the Processing and Promise (pp.151-187). Lincolnwood, IL: Foreign Language Question (pp155-164). Ibadan, Nigeria: National Textbook. — Kayla Beman Caltop Publication. Igboanusi, Herbert and Martin Pu¨tz. (2008). The future of Ade, Ojo. (1993). Foreign language learning in Nigeria: Chal- French in Nigeria’s language policies. Journal of multilingual “Currents Clips and Links” is a list of links to interesting, non-commercial websites related to teaching and lenges, resources and reach. A paper presented at the Nigerian and multicultural development, 29 (3), 235-259. learning, compiled by Kayla Beman. Currents invites reader recommendations of similar sites that they’ve International Language Fair. NEXPO, Lingua, 93, 14th- 16th Offorma, G. (2012). French language education in found useful. April. Nigeria. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/280554230. August 05, 2016. Amosu, Tundonu. (2005). Support for foreign languages in The Stanford Teaching Commons is a website designed by the Stanford Center for Teaching and Learning and Nigeria: A case for positive reappraisal. Nigeria and the Foreign Murti, K (2002). Whose identity? The non-native teacher as Stanford’s Vice Provost for Online Learning. The website serves as a resource for faculty and staff to share ideas and Language Question. Ibadan, Nigeria: Caltop Publication. cultural mediator in the classroom. ACL bulletin, 34 (1), 26-29. collaborate on teaching and learning issues. The website provides webpages on different aspects of teaching such as Brière, J-F. (1986). Cultural understanding through cross-cul- Netten, J and German, C. (2000). Teacher’s guide for intensive course design, writing learning goals, and developing online courses. The website also features a blog called, “Teach- tural pragmatic analysis. French Review, 60, 203-208. French. Unpublished document prepared for the Intensive ing Talk”, where faculty and staff can write blog posts on special interest topics and teaching and learning issues. French Research Project. Cummins, J. (2001). The entry and exit fallacy in bilingual edu- https://teachingcommons.stanford.edu/ cation. In C. Baker and N.H. Hornberger (Eds). An introductory Netten, J and German, C. (2004). Developing the curriculum reader to the writing of Jim Cummins (pp.110-138). Clevedon, for intensive French. The Canadian modern language review, The Cornell University Center for Teaching Excellence is based out of Cornell University and features a web- UK: Multingual Matters. 60 (3), 295-308. site with multiple resources for teaching and learning. The Center website has a section called, “Teaching Ideas”, which features webpages dedicated to course design, teaching large lectures, teaching with technology, and assessing Crowford, L.M and McLaren, P. (2003). A critical perspective Sapir, E. (1949). Language. Selected writings of Edward Sapir. on culture in the second language classroom. In D.L Language University of California Press. student learning. The website also has an interactive section called, “Two Minute Teaching Tips”, where the Cornell and R.M. Paige (Eds.). Culture as the core: Perspectives on Culture faculty can share their own methods of classroom instruction. Some topics include benefits of active learning and Trivendi, H.C. (1978). Cultural and linguistic problems in in Second Language Learning (pp.127-157). Greenwich, CT: online discussion. These sections also feature instructional videos and links to other resources regarding each topic. translation. The New Order Book Depot, India. Information Age Publishing. https://www.cte.cornell.edu/ Damen, L. (1987). Culture learning: The fifth dimension in the Widdowson, H. O. (1998). Context, community and authentic Quarterly The Dartmouth Center for the Advancement of Learning is based out of Dartmouth College and features a web- language classroom. Reading, M.A: Addison-Wesley. language. TESOL , 32, 705-716. site with resources pertaining to course design and course assessments and evaluations. The course design portion Elizabeth, M.K. (2006). Cross-cultural awareness for second lists articles on creating a syllabus template and developing learning objectives. The section also contains a recom- foreign language learners. The Canadian modern language review, mended reading list on teaching and learning in general. The resources portion of the website also features sections 62 (4), 591-610. on classroom assessment and how to understand end-of-the-term evaluations. http://dcal.dartmouth.edu/ The McGraw Center for Teaching and Learning is based out of Princeton University and features a website with a variety of resources for faculty. Of note, the website has a section called, “The Scholar as Teacher: Tip-Sheet Series”, which is a collection of webpages dedicated to common teaching and learning issues. Some topics include: Strategies for Blended and Online Learning, Giving Lectures and Leading Discussions, Grading Students and Course Assess- ment, Understanding Student Learning, and Advising and Mentoring Students. The website also features a section on Mid-Semester Course Evaluations and provides instructions on how to conduct a Mid-Semester Course Evaluation. https://mcgraw.princeton.edu/ The Teaching Center is based out of Washington University in St. Louis and provides a variety of resources for teaching and learning. The website features sections on course design, writing assignments and feedback, teaching methods, and digital pedagogy. Each of these sections contain subsections that correspond with each topic. For example, under course design, there are subsections on preparing a syllabus, tips for faculty teaching for the first time, and structuring an introductory lecture course. The website also features a blog where faculty and staff at Washington University can post special interest topics in teaching and learning. https://teachingcenter.wustl.edu/

40 THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF INTENSIVE FRENCH | VERONICA, SAMUEL CURRENT CLIPS & LINKS | WEBSITE RELATED TO TEACHING AND LEARNING 41 CURRENTS | MARCH 2017 BOOK REVIEWS

Chapter topics include Intellectual Property, Free text considers the barriers to the use of OER and what is An Open Education Reader. Edited by David Wiley. Software, Open Source, Open Content, differentiating needed to make it economically feasible and sustainable, between Open Source Software and Content licenses, as well as promoting quality. Wiley points out that OER Pressbooks, Creative Commons License, 2014. CourseWare, Educational Resources, and Textbooks. will not end traditional textbook publishing as we know Most important perhaps to graduate students, junior it, but instead will offer up resources to an unreached — Kara Larson Maloney, PhD, is adjunct faculty in the English scholars and new instructors is the section on Research area of the market. His Reader helps supporters and pro- department at Binghamton University. in Open Education and The Economics of Open. One ponents understand OER’s place within the educational of the greatest fears and hesitations about OER can be continuum by consolidating on-topic resources in one Open universities and accessible education are not new Wiley’s Reader serves as an excellent introduction to the uncertainty of its economics and sustainability, as single place. well as the issue of credibility – how will this research topics within the realm of academia. Institutions and Open Educational Resources (OER) and the dilemma of This reader is an excellent conglomeration of re- be validated if it is not vetted by a known press and a organizations around the world have been trying to intellectual property laws. The book itself is an interac- sources on the topic of Open Education. It serves as a rigorous peer-review process? Readings from the OER break down education barriers for decades, whether or tive website, wherein each reading includes background self-directed course on the topic and helps introduce Research Hub and the Open University in the United not these organizations were affiliated with the academe. and summary information, as well as discussion ques- and reinforce the ideas of OER and its importance to Kingdom help quell some of these initial fears and open “Open” defines content that is a copyrightable work li- tions that the reader may use to further their own con- the academe. There are drawbacks, however, to this for- up a legitimate dialogue in which scholars may address censed in an accessible format, so that others might re- versation on the topic. Each section also includes links mat in terms of connectivity and accessibility. Rather these issues on their own terms. TheReader also offers tain, reuse, revise, remix, or redistribute it. As a learning to additional resources which will assist in broadening than a traditional publisher, Wiley utilizes Pressbooks, up a careful comparison of the types of open source philosophy, open education seeks to use such materials the conversation and increasing the reader’s understand- an online software that allows authors to create books licenses, such as MIT, BSD, Creative Commons, and to empower students through more flexible, hands-on ing. The book makes use of articles, wikis, and other in a number of print and e-formats, and to make these Apache, showing the pros and cons of each and how learning processes. In an idealistic world, professors and resources that are all available under open copyright and books available to readers through a variety of plat- they intersect. Touching upon the role of media and instructors would easily navigate the line between “fa- Creative Commons attribution, so that anyone might forms. Wiley’s text is available as a free website, allowing how it intersects with education, this text also presents cilitating” and “dominating” learning, but that is not access them, as long as they have internet access. Each anyone the ability to view and read it at their leisure. new opportunities to bring technology into the class- always the case. As such, book projects like David Wi- chapter feeds into the next, and the reader can easily tog- Because of its size and its format, however, the Reader is room that were possible twenty and thirty years ago, as ley’s An Open Education Reader can be an asset to new- gle between them using arrow navigation or the Table of only available as a website and is not easily download- well as the questions that these new innovations even- ly-minted instructors and senior faculty alike as we all Contents at the top of the browser window. able. This decision is understandable, as the Reader itself tually bring, such as who owns what material and has negotiate this struggle. serves as a holding space for a variety of readings, con- David Wiley has been involved in the field of open the right to disseminate it. This collection also includes necting them together to make a comprehensive web- An Open Education Reader is a self-professed “col- education for over two decades and coined the term access to evaluation reports that MIT ran in light of its based textbook, but, for those who might need or want lection of readings on open education with commen- “open content” in 1998. He received his PhD in In- own open courseware system to show the benefits that a reading offline in PDF format, it becomes problematic tary.” David Wiley compiled this collection as part of his structional Psychology and Technology from Brigham OER has on a community. Also of use is the OER Lit- to access the various chapters. IPT 515R course at Brigham Young University, entitled Young University in 2000 and served as a postdoctoral erature Review from 2012 that will give readers a better Introduction to Open Education in Fall of 2014. What fellow at Utah State University in Instructional Technol- idea of the state of the scholarly conversation and how While there is some commentary in the form of makes this book unique, especially in terms of pedago- ogy. As co-founder of Lumen Learning, an organization OER has evolved since its inception. article summaries and key points, this Reader might gy, is that the contributing authors of this volume are engaged in making OER a larger, more accessible part of benefit from a more comprehensive transition between One of the questions of OER is the future of pub- students from that particular course, each adding sum- the pedagogical landscape, he has devoted much of his the chapters and topics, so that readers might see the lishing and what effects open-access resources will have maries and discussion questions for the readings in this academic career to, as he puts it, “reinvigorating peda- interconnectivity and participate to a greater degree in on the scholarly publication and textbook industries. book. Another fascinating aspect is that Wiley intends gogy” and making the idea of higher education more af- the larger conversation. The chapter, “Open Business This is a question that many other industries, includ- this to be a living document, inviting and encouraging fordable and attainable. These qualities are visible with- Models,” achieves this somewhat in its section describ- ing entertainment and news organizations, are current- the community to suggest improvements and correc- in the Reader and cement the credibility of his work. He ing “A Summer 2014 Conversation on Business Mod- ly wrestling with and will continue to do so into the tions to ensure that this book is as complete and accu- has sourced the resources that are, in his eyes, the most els in Open Education.” In this section, four articles future. David Wiley’s Reader addresses these concerns rate as possible. comprehensive tools available to allow people to engage are put into context with each other, and the included on several levels, not only in terms of “intellectual prop- in the conversation about Open Education. background and discussion questions help guide read- erty” but also as it relates to quality and economy. This ers through this particular conversation on the OER

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market and its feasibility as far as corporate buy-in, eco- to dip their toes in the water in the field. TheReader nomics, and social acceptability. As a conclusion, this helps put open education concepts into context so that The Slow Professor. Maggie Berg and Barbara section does work to wrap up the incredibly-inclusive we as a community might solve its inevitable pitfalls: collection of readings, but this conversation could be how to navigate intellectual property and copyright, K. Seeber. University of Toronto Press, 2016 pushed further to include a more comprehensive wrap- commercial versus private and educational use, the tech- up and potentially even provoke greater conversation to nological and ethical history of open source, and vali- — Vanessa Osborne is a Lecturer in The Writing Program at be explored in future editions of this text. The editor dating and verifying information’s authenticity. It offers the University of Southern California and authors might also take advantage of the web-based up an incredible wealth of information that covers the interface to create a truly interactive section in which history of OER and how Open Education can widen The Slow Professor, a short and accessible volume, offers obsession with maximizing productivity. They deduce readers could comment and engage with the text and the academic playing field for historically underrepre- pragmatic and empowering strategies to resist the effect that the core conflict that faces professors is not poor each other directly. sented students. of university corporatization on teaching, learning, re- time management but rather the challenge of trying to An Open Education Reader is not a textbook to be search, and collegiality. The volume explicitly counters negotiate two disparate and contradictory temporali- undertaken as a straight read-through, but provides an the conventional crisis discourse that the authors see as ties—corporate time and the “timeless time” required excellent background and source list for those who want instilling a kind of defeatism and passivity. Blending the for academic work (p. 25). The authors enumerate how conventions of self-help manuals and critiques of the timeless time enables us to think creatively and critically corporate university, Berg and Seeber find inspiration and, paradoxically, increases output quantity and qual- in an unlikely place—the Slow Food Movement. This ity. The last few pages of the chapter offer manageable worldwide movement, begun in 1989 in Italy as a resis- steps to protect a time and place for timeless time not tance to fast food’s standardized and globalized offerings as an indulgence but as a necessity for intellectual work and its effects on agricultural, dining, and labor prac- (p. 28). These recommendations include some practical tices, emphasizes pleasure, passion, and mindfulness. steps such as getting off line, finding time to do noth- The authors imagine that professional practices guided ing, or acknowledging how long a task will realistically by the Slow Food manifesto can, to use a popular cor- take (pp. 30-31). Other items on the list—silencing the porate buzzword, “disrupt” the corporate ethos of effi- inner critic in particular—are not as easily accomplished ciency, productivity, and speed (p. 11). Through their as an item on a list of suggestions implies. focus on politics joined with pleasure, the authors offer The chapter on teaching, “Pedagogy and Pleasure,” tangible strategies for resistance in chapters dedicated to resoundingly advocates for live lectures during a time time management, teaching, research, and collegiality. when the trend toward streaming lectures and online The Slow Professor’sfirst chapter examines time classes are a corporate university’s answer to being more management schemes and identifies increasing work “student-centered.” Berg and Seeber perhaps too quick- obligations as a significant stressor, undermining the in- ly dispatch the concerns over remote learning, focusing tellectual work required of teaching and research. Berg instead on how the “proximity of bodies and the trans- and Seeber acknowledge the many privileges of the ac- mission of emotions” yield the enthusiasm, enjoyment, ademic lifestyle—most notably, flexible schedules and and pleasure that best enable student learning (p. 34). working on projects that captivate us. But they point Much of Berg and Seeber’s discussion of pedagogical out that the idealism that motivates academics can also effectiveness focuses on the embodied nature of class- be manipulated and lead to overwork. In response the room teaching. Supported by research, they contend authors evaluate popular time management schemes that intelligence is embodied—shaped by context and and find them universally lacking, preoccupied with by emotions. Citing student evaluations, the authors fragmentation, regimentation, and a guilt-inducing propose that students link their emotions to their assess-

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BOOK REVIEWS The Slow Professor continued

ment of a course, suggesting that how students feel is Seeber contend that the pressure to generate knowledge On the whole the volume offers solid generalized room, listening to students, creating collaborative work integral to how they learn (p. 36). In discussing the ways that directly responds to practical community needs advice for how to resist the effect of the increasing cor- opportunities, and balancing career and personal time that emotions contribute to the learning experience, the narrows the scope of research, privileging some kinds poratization of the university by invoking the useful obligation calls out for a nuanced theorization of the authors ascertain that much more than an exchange of of work over others to the detriment of expanding the conceit of the Slow Food Movement. But, as the volume ways in which gender and race plays into these behav- facts or ideas happens in a live classroom. A communi- field of knowledge (p. 53). In order to resist this kind goes on the connection to the politics and purpose of iors and conditions. For example, the book’s suggestions ty of affect, shared positive feelings, emerges, one that of thinking, the authors propose that we prioritize un- Slow Food winnows away, and one is left wondering if of bringing one’s emotional self into the classroom or motivates students to rise to academic challenges and derstanding, shifting away from focusing on product or mapping a movement based on food production, prac- setting aside the trappings of conventional academic emphasizes their belonging to a broader academic col- results to recognizing the value of process. To begin this tices, and consumption is useful or even necessary for a authority are likely to elicit a different response from lective (pp. 38-39). shift, the volume enumerates ways to challenge the cor- book on university labor practices. Most of the advice, students if the professor is a young, black woman or a porate understanding of research. Many of these steps focusing on “timeless time” and corporality could be ac- middle-aged white man. In their attempt to articulate In order to facilitate the emergence of this connect- are simple shifts in thinking but one suggestion, creating curately listed under the increasingly trendy concept of generalized and tangible strategies for instructors across ed community linked by positive emotions, the authors a shadow CV of rejections, “detours, delays, and aban- “mindfulness.” “Mindfulness,” however, lacks the politi- the university, the authors problematically overlook propose that teaching should be enjoyable, not as a Pol- doned projects” carries within it a way to push against cal, activist bent of Slow Food, so perhaps does not quite both institutional inequalities and the distinct ways that lyanna-ish pervasive cheerfulness but as a way to gener- the “culture of excellence” that suffuses academic life (p. captures the authors’ intentions. cultural assumptions shape one’s self-presentation and ate positive meaning even “within diversity” (p. 40). To 65). While The Slow Professordoes not mention it, this interactions. manifest this enjoyment Berg and Seeber offer advice Another critique stems from the way this book, as idea gained traction in the popular academic discourse and list spaces for self-examination in terms of one’s pre- a sort of manifesto, speaks to a generalized professo- Nevertheless, this volume approaches a dire situa- after Devoney Looser published “Me and My Shadow sentation and approach as a teacher. These recommen- riate and, thus, tends to gloss over the ways in which tion with an empowering enthusiasm and practicality CV” in The Chronicle of Higher Education. Creating a dations, linked to specific moments—entering class, academic labor operates differently depending on one’s that much of the academic discourse on the corporate publicly-disseminated shadow CV, particularly for those sustaining class, preparing for class, and marking—at- gender and race. With respect to gender in particular, university lacks. The Slow Professor offers a compelling who are esteemed in their fields, could help shape the tend to the embodied nature of classroom teaching. the volume frequently links the corporate university salvo in the fight against the corporate university, one conversation about the ways in which research projects Selections on “laughing,” “listening,” and “marking” to patriarchal alignment of university of the past. De- that will perhaps inspire others to respond with more do not follow a quick linear trajectory from idea to pub- propose that we shift the energy in the classroom away spite repeating this concept, the book undertheorizes specific and individualized strategies of resistance. lication. from the teacher and toward the students, encouraging the gender dynamics of academic labor. A book about laughter by not taking ourselves so seriously, taking time Chapter four and the volume’s conclusion turn to- embracing affect, bringing corporeality into the class- to really hear students’ concerns, or focusing on creating ward collegiality’s decline in the corporate university, ar- assignments that go beyond evaluation to consider what guing that connectivity and networking have supplanted is useful and enjoyable for students. While many of these the kind of conviviality and collegiality that can sustain ideas are quite useful, Berg and Seeber’s advice seems a community. Not only has our current university struc- less appropriate for a novice teacher or someone who ture instrumentalized time and research, it encourages us may struggle with “imposter syndrome.” While casting to think of our colleagues as resources to be leveraged— aside the “authority, control, and encyclopedic knowl- to engage with one another solely in ways that can be edge” that could “distance” students might be possible accounted for on a CV. Berg and Seeber suggest that we for a veteran teacher, for those whose authority may be alter our approach to our colleagues, thinking of how we questioned due to age, gender, appearance, experience, can actively build community as a means to creating a or ethnicity, shedding conventions of authority may not mutually supportive work environment. The conclusion happen so easily or uncomplicatedly (p. 42). offers a manifestation of these ideas whereby the two authors explain how they see the collaborative process Chapter three identifies how the corporatized uni- of writing this volume, the “conviviality of thinking to- versity affects research, often its most visible and quan- gether” as resistance to the atomization that characterizes tifiable marker of success and achievement. Berg and labor in the contemporary university (p. 89).

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discussions of “grit” in other treatments of learning, al- In both, Carey motions helpfully towards the idea that How We Learn: The Surprising Truth about When, lows the subconscious mind to attend to the learning no person, institution, or group has a monopoly on task unencumbered by the demands conscious thought learning and on improving learning, offering a some- Where, and Why It Happens. Benedict Carey imposes. The results of such workings need verification what prescient aversion of the perceived coast-based bias and refiguration, but they are often useful. For Carey, of academic intellectual work. motion away from the task need not be idle—indeed, it Random House, 2014. Similarly side-stepping the perception of elitism, is better if not, but instead something else that demands and similarly a credit to the author, is the remarkably — Geoffrey B. Elliott is part of the English faculty at conscious attention and focus, so that the mind remains conversational tone of the text. Although evidently well working and attending to other matters than that on Schreiner University in Kerrville, Texas researched, it is not an academic text in the sense that which it had gotten stuck. many studies are. Where jargon is used, it is explained Carey’s 2014 book enters a cacophonous, multiple-reg- Context provided, Carey moves on to address the Afterward, Carey treats the subconscious that per- in great detail. Where studies are presented, they are ister discussion about effective learning and contributes long-standing notion that consistency of study situa- forms unseen work. Synthesizing research, he asserts summarized helpfully and presented as short narratives a lucid, informed, conversational thread to it. The text tions is helpful—it helps, but not so much as is often that much effective learning depends on perceptual dis- within the broader text—itself liberally interspersed works through a brief introduction into a four-part supposed. Reproducing the situation in which some- crimination that has to be trained up, explicitly and im- with narrative asides, engaging anecdotes derived in discussion that treats basic cognitive theories, issues of thing is learned can help it be recalled, to be sure, but plicitly through life experience. (Indeed, he comments large part from the author’s experience as a journalist retention, methods of problem-solving, and means of full reproduction is not possible, and the primary factor to the effect that individualized exercises in such dis- and science writer. In all, the text is easily accessible to tapping the subconscious mind before offering a reflec- that needs reproduction is unclear. Rather, studying in crimination are likely to be a major component of in- a broad audience, presenting in simplified form—typ- tive conclusion and summarizing the book’s findings in a variety of situations proves helpful, as it disassociates struction moving forward.) He also argues for the need ically announced as “in plain English” or otherwise a question-and-answer appendix. In it, the author pres- the knowledge from one specific physical context, aid- for sleep, explicating its utility to the learning process paraphrased—complex concepts without doing so in a ents and expounds upon an idea of learning that seems ing generalization. Similarly, long periods of focused and suggesting it as a helpful side-stepping of difficult condescending or overly reductionist manner. to run counter to many prevailing pedagogical assump- study are of less effect than is commonly supposed; mental tasks in what he calls a “Night Shift Theory” (pp. Indeed, the text is quick to point out its own limita- tions and practices but seems also to chart out what is it is far better to split study time and stagger it across 206-09). From there, he returns to more broadly reflec- tions. Early in the text, Carey puts forth an explanatory often an intuitively understood path to learning. time (which is a commonplace, although one not of- tive questions about current difficulties understanding metaphor, likening the function of the brain to that of ten heeded). While there is not necessarily consensus learning, situating them in the juxtaposition of current The book’s main discussion begins with a basic a movie production crew before launching into a side- about the optimal pattern of staggering, it seems to be civilizations and the hunter-gatherer past of humanity. explication of the brain and the history of brain stud- bar about the limits of metaphors as explanatory devices around 20% of available time; breaking the study time In doing so, he offers some hope that matters will come ies, providing useful context for the reader and, more (pp. 5-6). He also notes in the text no few times that into fifths seems to make it most helpful. Further, each to be better understood; human attention to the study helpfully, presenting memory and the workings of the his own background and experience make him some- session, according to the text, should be split into thirds, of learning is still in its infancy and can thus be expected brain as narrative. It moves thence to forgetting, nota- thing of an unlikely character to treat learning as a topic, with the first third in reading review and the remaining to grow. bly citing the idea that forgetting allows the brain to and he is careful to note that much he explains from his two thirds in recitation. Carey then advocates the idea limit what the conscious mind has to process; he calls Much in the book merits commendation. For ex- own experience is anecdotal. As such, he usefully cir- of pretesting as a teaching tool, reporting that having to it the “Forget to Learn Theory” (p. 25), presenting it ample, Carey makes free reference to a variety of psy- cumscribes his claims, presenting his view as but one make uninformed or minimally informed guesses acti- as the mind shunting information aside for later recall chological and pedagogical studies conducted across de- of many and encouraging further reading through his vates the faculties in such a way that the more readily or retraining without interfering with immediate con- cades. It is to his credit that he looks at both disciplines discussion. For general readers, then, or academic read- take in the information that follows—but it has to fol- cerns. He then expounds upon the processes involved in broadly, using not only standard works within each, but ers not necessarily familiar with the disciplinary back- low quickly or immediately to be of any value. forgetting and the attendant virtues thereof—acknowl- also less-known studies, including one that “disappeared grounds concerned, the text is a valuable resource. edging the counter-intuitiveness of praising forgetting. From concerns of improving retention, the book entirely form the website of the journal in which it orig- That he does much well, however, does not mean he From there, he shifts into concepts of relative storage moves to application—and begins to run counter to inally appeared…it took editors weeks to find it” (p. does all well; there are problems to be found in the text. and retrieval strengths of memories—how well they are much formal instruction. Carey emerges as an advocate 152). He also does well to expand his searches beyond Particularly in the introduction and conclusion, but to retained and how easily they can be recalled. The former of an idea voiced by Isaac Asimov in “The Eureka Phe- traditionally major institutions—although the work some extent throughout the whole book, Carey betrays can only increase, while the latter is more flexible (pp. nomenon” (not cited in Carey, which seems odd) that done at them is often referenced—giving attention to some anxiety about his ethos. He asserts and reasserts 36-37). time away from the learning task improves performance such small schools as Rose State College in Oklahoma. his credentials and experience as a journalist reporting on it. Moving away from a difficult task, contrary to

48 HOW WE LEARN | ELLIOTT BOOK REVIEWS | HOW WE LEARN 49 BOOK REVIEWS How We Learn continued POETIC NOTE

on the kinds of materials his book treats, which can which is all too often lacking. The idea emerges that 1 come off as the author trying to convince himself and classroom activities ought to be divided, both across Banana Trees and Rooster Calls his reader that he has the authority and ability to handle instructional terms—the discussion of Ronda Leathers his topic. At the same time, the repeated assertions of his Dively is a useful example (pp. 144-45)—and within — Matthew Johnsen own limited capacities as a student and scholar come off instructional sessions. Pretesting and immediate review as something like the medieval humilitas, ostensibly pro- is presented as a useful technique, as are interrupting In a classroom without lights— If they were any less driven, testing his unworthiness as a means of ironically high- tasks to foster further attention to them and presenting Only natural light. They would not be here. lighting his perceived worth—or else as another means multiple types of tasks in succession to stimulate mental to put across the point that even “plain folks” can find flexibility. Despite some problems, How We Learn: The In a classroom without windows— Any less dedicated, some use in what he writes. Perhaps one with the latter is Surprising Truth about When, Where, and Why It Hap- Holes in walls. They may have given up. the casual assumption at a few points of the masculine as pens is likely to be a useful addition to educators’ book- The cool breeze and the sounds Any less bright, general, something which most style guides repudiate. shelves; I, at least, am glad to have read it. Of rooster crowing, They may not have recognized Even so, in terms of teaching, Carey’s book offers The sounds of babies bawling, The promise. much of use. In addition to reminding teachers that for- Of children playing getting is not failure, that getting stuck on an issue is not failure, but that both are marks of the mind working as Seep into the classroom. Making good on that promise, it ought, it offers direct, useful advice for the classroom, Keeping the hope, The green leaves of banana trees The vision of a future Form a backdrop to the lessons. Moving ever closer, The distance between today and This is what we are called to do. The future seems so great. Filling heads not with facts, The distance between the poverty But with visions of possible futures, That seeps through the holes in the walls And the paths to get there. Threatens to overwhelm Opening pathways. The hoped for riches. Convincing men and women The students To make their own futures. Ambitious, bright, Dedicated, driven— Written in Kampala, Uganda The only way they can be February 3, 2016 Coming from where they are.

1 This poem was written while the author was on sabbatical from Worcester State University where he is a Professor in the Sociology Department. It reflects on his time teaching sociology for one month at Stawa University in Kampala, Uganda in January/February 2016. He was struck by the contrast between the relatively primitive and impoverished teaching conditions compared with the students, who at their best were as well prepared as college students in the United States. This poem was written in Uganda and reflects, he believes, the fundamental nature of the teaching and learning experience.

50 HOW WE LEARN | ELLIOTT POETIC NOTE | BANANA TREES AND ROOSTER CALLS 51 Currents In Teaching and Learning

Information

Staff Amy Ebbeson,Worcester State University, MA Editor: Martin Fromm Katrina Liu,University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV Managing Editor: Linda Larrivee Lance Langdon,University of California, Irvine Book Review Editor: Kisha Tracy Christina Santana, Worcester State University, MA Editorial Assistant: Kayla Beman Nathan Pino,Texas State University Lori Dawson,Worcester State University, MA Editorial Advisory Board Bonnie Kanner,Worcester State University, MA Charles Cullum, English Maria Villalobos-Buehner, Rider University, NJ Emanuel Nneji, Communication Antonio Guijarro-Donadios, Worcester State University, MA Daron Barnard, Biology Kisha Tracy (Fitchburg State University) Call for Submissions Cleve Wiese, English Currents invites general submissions on issues of teaching and learning, including: Dan Shartin, Philosophy Short reports from different disciplines on classroom Design practices (2850-5700 words). Amanda Quintin Design Longer research, theoretical, or conceptual articles, Reviewers and explorations of issues and challenges facing teachers today (5700-7125 words). Dana Polanichka, Wheaton College, MA Book and website reviews. Tim Murphy, Worcester State University, MA Tanya Rodrigue, Salem State University, MA We welcome both individual and group submissions. All submissions must be original, previously Pamela Hollander, Worcester State University, PA unpublished work. Submissions received Lynette Goldberg, University of Tasmania, Australia will be reviewed on a rolling basis. Cleve Wiese, Worcester State University, MA Linda Larrivee, Worcester State University, WV Submissions and Contact Information Judith Jeon-Chapman, Worcester State University, MA Please address all submissions and inquiries to Dan Shartin,Worcester State University, MA Kayla Beman (Editorial Assistant) via Sandra Burger, University of Ottawa, Canada e-mail: [email protected] Jessie Moore, Elon University, NC For further information and submissions guidelines Charles Cullum, Worcester State University, MA see our website: www.worcester.edu/currents Mary Lynn Saul, Worcester State University, MA

Ann Frymier, Miami University, OH Currents in Teaching and Learning is a publication of Sam O’Connell, Worcester State University, MA Worcester State University, Worcester, MA, U.S.A. Doug Downs, Montana State University, MT ISSN: 1945-3043 © 2011, Worcester State University Alison Cook-Sather, Bryn Mawr College, PA Emanuel Nneji, Worcester State University, MA

VOLUME 9 NUMBER 1 MARCH 2017