CONCLUSION

As the study is an attempt to understand the changes that occurred in the Malabar during the period of the eighteenth century, it is essential to sum up the conclusions pertaining to it are relevant in this context. The mainstream historical writings looked at the historical incidents in the eighteenth century as ‘authentic evidences of pre-modern feudal anarchism’ that had emerged in the Malabar society during aforementioned century. Another group of scholars viewed it as, ‘necessary changes that had aroused out of the frequent interactions between the Malabar society and the mercantile companies of the Europe’ with an objective shift of the static society of Malabar to a developed one.

Dilip M. Menon, in his study, has tried to explain the influence of the open political conflicts in the formation of political institutions in Malabar in the eighteenth century. He has made reference that; a new social condition has emerged, and that has opened up a suitable venue for anyone to put in experiments in the application of power in Malabar during the eighteenth century.918 Without making any explanation to the nature and the functioning of the experiments, he has made a general classification to it namely, the ‘households’, which are the byproducts of political rivalry during the period of the chaotic eighteenth century.

In contrary to the above, Abhilash Malayil has made an endeavour to make a different approach to this matter and has made an attempt to study has to how the ‘political fovours were problematized in the political chaos of Malabar’ in the eighteenth century. In that study, he has made an attempt to answer the question as to “what was the status or the trend of the native politics during the transitional period of the Company’s ascendancy in Malabar in the eighteenth century? He has assessed different political arrangement of Malabar in the eighteenth century and based on this, he has opined that all of them had common features that are collectively called as ‘adhocism’. According to Abhilash, the term ‘adhocism’ would mean an act of involvement in the creation or implementation of certain programmes towards the

918 Dilip M. Menon, Houses by the Sea State Formation Experiments in Malabar, 1760-1800, Economic and Political Weekly, July 17, 1999, pp.1995-2003.

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progress by overriding, redefining or rejecting the existing norms and rules of the society.919

The evolutionary process of the conveyances of land in Malabar during the eighteenth century indicates that land was transformed into a marketable commodity during that period. In this context, it is relevant to discuss the meaning of the terms commodity, marketable, asset, saleable etc.

In economics, the term commodity is defined as tangible goods that can be bought and sold or exchanged for the products of similar value. It is a reasonably interchangeable goods or materials that are bought and sold freely as an article of commerce. They are traded in bulk on a spot market.920 They include agricultural products, fuels metals and so on. While the term marketable means, a thing that is fit to be offered for sale in a market. Thus, the word marketable commodity means, a tangible as well as reasonably interchangeable goods or materials that is fit to be offered for sale; bought and sold freely as an article of commerce in bulk on a spot market. The word saleable means, a thing which is suitable for sale or worth enough to be sold. So also, the term asset means a valuable or useful thing owned by a person, which is regarded as having a value. The documents which are relating to the land transactions of Malabar in the eighteenth century indicate that, the land was transformed into an asset.

Thus, the land in the eighteenth century can be considered as a saleable asset i.e. a thing that is worth enough to or suitable for sale as a valuable thing. However, the increasing number of janmam transactions as well as the transactions on annu perum artam basis, many references of vilaola karanams etc. indicated that land is a thing in demand that can be reasonably bought and sold as an article in Malabar during the period of the eighteenth century. If we analyse those transactions in such a way, we can find the complete alienation of rights pertain to land from one person to another as per current value of the land; here, we can see the basic features of a marketable commodity in land transactions of Malabar in the eighteenth century.

919Abhilash Malayail,‘Raashtriyakooru Pathinettaamnuttandavasaanam: Kadathanaattilninnulla Nireeshanangal’, in P.J. Sajeev (ed.), Padanangal ,Vol. VII, Issue 1, January 2016, Government Arts and Science College Research Journal, , p.18. 920www.bussinessdictionary.com

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The European companies put into practice many methods to hold on the land of Malabar in eighteenth century. The land conveyances of the colonial records have exposed that the European Companies such as VOC, E. E. I. C., and the French East Company have attempted to put their hold directly, on the land transactions of Malabar during the early decades of the eighteenth century. They have used different ways to put its hold on the land transactions of Malabar during the eighteenth century. The E. E. I. C. held land under its control of the Europeans to start cultivation in the lands under the direct control of the Company, letting of grounds in Malabar in the long term, acquiring the temple lands as part of the clearance of the debt of the concerned ruler of the locality, confiscation of the estates of the merchants in Malabar as the surety for the Company’s money advance, obtaining of the land in Malabar as reward for its timely help to the native rulers in their struggle against their opponents and so on. The VOC had mainly concentrated in the system of letting of lands of different category for a long period. The French East India Company was mainly concentrated in the Mahe region. Thus, during the eighteenth century, the VOC and the E. E. I. C. were two important land holders of European origin who concentrated in southern and northern regions of Malabar during the period of the eighteenth century. The entry of such European commercial enterprises as the land holders of Malabar in the eighteenth century is a new trend in the land relations of the region.

The statement of Mr. Brown, the British official in Malabar that he has purchased a janmam land on money payment as per the customs of the region, has possessed all the rights on it and no one has any right to question him in this matter, indicates the existence of absolute private property right on land, which has sold on the payment of money to anybody, even if, the buyer is a foreigner. The statements of Murdoch Brown are indication of the British notions of absolute ownership on the land as well as of the private property, which was implemented by the British in Malabar in later years.

Moreover, the eighteenth century has witnessed the attempt of the British official to intervene in the land transactions, especially the transactions of janmam lands of Malabar. The involvement of Brown is an example to the successful attempt of a foreigner to obtain land on janmam holdings on money payment. Moreover, we

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can see the entry of the Europeans as the kanakkars of Malabar during the eighteenth century.

Malabar witnessed number of external interventions during the period of the eighteenth century like Siddis of Janjira, Angrias, Nayakas of Bednure, and rulers of Vodayar-Kudaku etc. The rivalry between the Kolatiri and reached its climax when in January, 1731 A.D.; the Siddis of Janjira invaded the domain of Kolatiri in support of Ali Raja.921 Prince Kunji Homo’s letter to the Chief factor at Tellichery in 1731 A.D. reveals the perilous situation faced by the prince, one of the remaining elements of old Kolatunadu swarupam, pertaining to their attack. In which, the invasion of the Nayakas had resulted in a more striking impact on the history of Malabar, especially of the .

The invasion of Somasekhara Nayaka came up to the island of Dharmadam and it caused many disturbances in the power relations of Kolatunadu in eighteenth century. In this context, the stand of Raja was striking as he entered into agreement with the E. E. I. C. for war assistance as well as for financial support.922 The invasion of the Canarese also created confusion among other native as well as foreign powers of Malabar in eighteenth century. The invitation of some members of Kolatiri family against Prince Regent, entry of Bednur Nayakas and signing of a treaty and subsequent alteration of the status of region lay in between River Valarpattanam and River Nileswaram as the tributary of Bednur in 1732 are the examples to afore mentioned facts.923 Again, the formation of an alliance between the Prince Regent and Canarese and joined attack on in 1733924; the formation of a confederacy of native and foreign authorities like the Prince Regent, Raja of Kottayam and the E. E. I. C. against the Canarese925 and the entry of the VOC in this confederacy926 and the retreat of the Canarese etc. provided supportive evidences to the shifting alliances which were created by the Canarese invasion in Malabar in eighteenth century. Moreover, the Canarese implementation of the policy of economic ban on Malabar was another important aspect and by which they decided to stop the supply of rice to

921 A. P. Ibrahimkunju, Op. cit., p.137. 922 Ibid., p. 70. 923 Tellichery Consultations, Vol. V, p. 45.; Vol.VI,p.4. 924 Ibid., pp. 38, 45. 925 Ibid., Vol.VIII, p.70. 926 Ibid., p.90.

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the Company officials in Malabar. It had created confusion in the minds of the E. E. I. C. authority in Malabar and so they made a separated treaty with the Canarese related to this matter. The intermittent war continued till 1763 A.D. when Haider invaded the Bednur.

Thus, the long war between the Bednur and Kolatunadu led to the decline of the financial foundation of the both. It ultimately gave a blow to the status of the royal family of Kolatiri. Hence, it made easy for Haider to invade these territories without much effort. Moreover, it fostered the trade interest of the Europeans, especially that of the E. E. I. C.

Scholars have put forward many theories regarding the nature of the state in Malabar during this period and in this study this question has been one of the major points of enquiry. We can find that the institutions of power were structurally decentralized, even while we see the elements of centralization frequently. We can see such examples in Malabar in eighteenth century. So also, during this period, we can observe the redistribution of resources was the custom oriented; even though, we can also, see new types of redistribution of sources emerging among new groups of the society such as the commercial classes as well as the non-Hindus. The Ali Raja of Kannur, Koodali Tazhatu Veedu etc. were few examples of such category of power centres. The economic conveyances of the Christian church clearly explicit the fact that besides few families, the new institutions like the church also emerged as the nodal centres of distribution of resources in some regions of Malabar in eighteenth century.

All most all power centres in Malabar during the eighteenth century were structurally decentralized. Few of them were developed and strengthened because of fact that they followed a custom based redistribution process of resources. The instance of Vanjeri Illam was one among them.

Here, we can see the features of ritual oriented hegemony; as the trustee of temple they used various customs and practices associated with the temple as the channels of revenue extraction as well as the medium to its redistribution. It was one of the best examples of the rise of a Brahmin family as trustee of a temple; its growth as the new power centre of their respective region through the maintenance of some

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institutions like sanketam, samudhayam, janam etc. and the application of some rituals and customs like rakshabhogam in the existing locality. Hence, the eighteenth century witnessed the emergences of ritual oriented hegemonic power centres in Malabar.

With slight variations, the power centres like Koodali TazhathuVeedu had emerged in Malabar in eighteenth century. It was also a power centre supported by ritual authority associated with the kavu; but it was a power centre that was non-Brahmin in category. Thus, it was a power centre of non-Brahmin category with all power rights enjoyed by the Brahmin family as the trustees of the Brahmin temple. Though it had a superstructure upon the base of ritual hegemony in a locality, data pertaining to it exposed its intervention in the trade transactions, as well as the commercial relations of the then Malabar. Hence, it had enjoyed the rights of a power centre through the implication of ritual hegemony over a locality of North Malabar; it had intervened in the commercial feuds and alliances of Malabar during the period of the eighteenth century. Such an interference in trade activities of the then Malabar was comparatively less or absent in case of Vanjeri Illam, the most notable Brahmin-ritual oriented power centre who maintained its hegemony over the region as the custodian of the Trikkandiyur temple in the southern parts of Vettatunadu. That was the differences between these two afore mention ritual oriented centres of power in Malabar in eighteenth century.

Besides we can find some other centres of power, which obtained their lion’s share of their power or completely through commercial activities of the period. They strived hard to obtain such a status through the direct participation in trade politic like concluding treaties, forming alliances with native and indigenous and European powers, and intruding in feuds, sometimes voluntarily, as part of solving issues which posed big hurdle to the smooth functioning of trade activities and so on. The Ali Raja of Kannur, Randatara Achanmar, Vazhunnor of Vadakara, and Nambiars of Iruvazhinadu etc. was the examples of above said category. They played their role very well in the trade relations of Malabar in eighteenth century.

Apart from this, a bunch of power centres involved in the power relations of Malabar in eighteenth century. Due to their geographical locations, they played the role that was slight different from that of the other contemporary centres of powers in

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Malabar in eighteenth century. They were the power pockets which sprang up in the buffer zones such as Tanur Raja, Punnatur Raja, Kavalappara Nair, and Kurungot Nair. The case of the Punnatur Nampiti was also similar to that of the Vettatu Raja. The Samutiri’s policy of aggrandizement led to the territorial expansion of the kingdom of Kozhikode towards south and paved the way for the change of the role of Punnatur Nampiti as the chieftain under whose suzerainty the buffer region lay in between the kingdoms of Kozhikode and . We had already discussed in detail way the intervention of the Nampiti in the power relations of Malabar in eighteenth century. Kavalappara Nair as the chieftain of the region lying in between the south eastern borders of the Samutiri’s kingdom and the northern border of the Kochi kingdom, also played a crucial role in the political relations of Malabar in eighteenth century.

The examples of the power centres situated in the borders zones, sharing the boundaries of both the native kingdoms of Malabar, the indigenous powers of South India, are also worth mentioned in this context. Tarur Swarupam, Venganadu Nampiti, and the rulers of Kumbala and Nileeswaram were some examples to aforesaid fact.

Tarur swarupam which faced the raids of Mysorean’s in its initial period, its role in this events and how it tackled it etc. revealed to what extent it involved in the power relations of Malabar in eighteenth century. The rise and growth of Venganaduu Nampiti to the status of a Raja of the locality and the part done by the Rajas of Kumbalam and Nileeswaram who faced the frequent raids of the external elements of South Canara measured the frequency of their intervention in the power politics of Malabar during the period of the eighteenth century.

Thus, we can find a number of power centres in Malabar during the period of eighteenth century with divergent at the same time having peculiar features. They wrested away from the clutches of their over lords like the Raja of Kolatunadu and the Samutiri of Calicut and sometime from the Raja of Cochin. They rendered at most attention to and put efforts to become an independent centres of power in their respective locality and majority of them attained success in this endeavour.

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Malabar during the period of the eighteenth century witnessed the emergence of new groups in the society such as the commercial lords like Chovakkaran Mussa, local magnates namely Dharmoth Panikkar, Para Nambi and Tarakkal Menon the important royal functionaries of the Samutiri of Calicut, number of stanees in Kadatanadu region viz, Nambiar, Thottathil Nambiar etc., influential European official like Robert Adams, Routdriguese, and Murdoch Brown.

Tharakkal Menon, head of the 1000 Nairs was the head of Tharakkal family carrying out many functions in the kingdom of Kozhikode under the Samutiri. He was appointed as the poltti of various royal estates in the kingdom927 and was conferred with ‘valum pudavayum’ by the Samutiri. In the year 1762 A.D. Tharakkal Iramma Menon attempted to kill the then Samutiri of Calicut and in the next year he was executed and his lands were confiscated, his house was razed to ground and the women and children of the family were taken under the protection of the Samutiri.928 It indicated the growth of royal functionaries of the Samutiri to raise their hands against their overlord. He belonged to the community of Varier, the Menon was a title conferred on him by the Samutiri. Tharakkal Varier is the temple trustee of the Mulayankavu near Kodikkunnatu Bhagavati temple at Karimpuzha. As they were the commandant of the Samutiri, he conferred the title ‘Iremma Menon’ to the head of the family.929

Another striking feature of Malabar during this period was the rise and growth of European settlements on the coastal regions of Malabar. The French settlement at Mahe, the British settlement at Tellicherry, the Dutch at Chettuva Island emerged and these powers maintained hold in and around their settlement areas as the miniature forms of colonial system of government in Malabar during the period of the eighteenth century.

The data, which is related to the history of Malabar, shed light on the lands under the control of the mosques as well as the temples of the region in eighteenth century. As per the available data, we can find that, acres of land in different

927 V.V. Haridas , Samutiris and the Political Culture of the Medieval Kerala, Orient Black Swan, Hyderabad, 2016, p. 131. 928 Ibid., p.134. 929 Ibid.

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categories such as wetlands, garden lands and dry lands were granted as inam by Tipu Sultan to various temples and mosques in Malabar during the eighteenth century. Tanur Mosque in Rayiramangalam amsam and SreeKrishna Temple in amsam of Taluk; Koilandy Mosque and Pisharikkavu Temple in Viyur amsam of Kurumbranad Taluk are worth mentioning.

Along with the Temples and the Mosques, the involvement of the Churches is visible in the conveyances of land in Malabar during the period. The Syrian Christian church at Palayur is the best example to be mentioned here. The church emerged as a new participator in the transactions of land along with another new role as the money lender in the existing society. Thus, not only the Hindu religious institutions of the non–Brahmin category, but also the institutions of the Christian as well as the Muslims acquired the new role as the participators of land conveyances, either as holders of land or as the money lenders in Malabar during the eighteenth century.

The temples during the period of the eighteenth century were one of the influential centres of revenue extraction. Along with the Brahmin temples, the temples of non- Brahmin category emerged and was actively involved in the process of revenue extraction in society of Malabar during this period. The case of Koodali kavu was the best example of it and; as per the nature of the channels of the extraction; we can find that it was done by the kavu in two heads namely ritual and non- ritual. The collection of Koodali kavil melayma, Thirunal pirannal vaka, Vilakku vakkenda vaka, Koodali kavil varam etc. constituted in the first category. The collection of Kalpanapanam, ravanapanam, desam melayma, melaymapalisa etc. came under the second category. Here, kavu had played the role as an agency for efficient extraction of surplus revenue from the society. On the other hand, the kavu redistributed the accumulated revenue in various ways such as money lending, transactions of kanam, panayam and janmam very effectively. Thus, through these processes of redistribution, acres of land came under the purview of the kavu in eighteenth century.

Along with it we can see the emergence of the trustee of the kavu as one of the biggest land holder in the society. The Koodali Veedu, one of the Nambiar families as the trustee of the kavu as well as the proprietor of the kalari associated with it obtained so many lands in various parts of North Malabar and it was scattered in

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of present day. Here, we can see the transfiguration of the kavu a notable kanam holder in Malabar in eighteenth century and it helped the Veedu to elevate its status from one of the uralar of the kavu to the sole custodian of it and subsequently, the apex authority in the socio-economic and power relations of Koodali and its surrounding areas of North Malabar in eighteenth century. Thus, the documents indicate that it was in eighteenth century, kavus emerged as an influential centres appertain to the socio- economic- power relations of the Malabar society. The Koodali Veedu then emerged as one of the major players in the politics of Malabar. For further details, see Appendix VI, the mape exposes the area covered under the Koodali Veedu through it economic convayences, especially its land transaction in eighteenth century.

So also, the another side of this transition associated with the temples of the non-Brahmin category was the emergence of one family or household as the trustees of these temples and their gradual evolution as the apex authority in the socio-economic and power relations of Malabar in eighteenth century; which were enjoyed by the Brahmins and associated temples hitherto. The emergence of one family from one of the trustees of the temple to the sole custodian of it and gradual transformation as one of the authorities in a locality happened not only in case of the non-Brahmin category, but, it was occurred in case of the Brahmins too. The transformation of Vanjeri Illam, as the prime custodian of Trikkandiyur Shiva temple and its evolution as a power centre in that locality was the example to it. Thus, emergence of households of both Brahmin and non Brahmin groups as the sole custodian of the temples and through which, their evolution as emerging centres of power in Malabar was one of the important transformations which had occurred in the region during the period of the eighteenth century.

Besides, we can see the rise of a number of households associated with trade and commerce activities in various parts of Malabar in eighteenth century. The Randatara Achanmar, Iruvazhinad Nambiars and Ali Raja of Kannur, Chovvakaran family of etc. were prominent among them. Thus, in the period of the eighteenth century, number of households/ families either temple centered or trade centered emerged in Malabar. They were either Brahmin or non-Brahmin or non- Hindu category of the social ladder. Though, majority of them were formed in the earlier period, they transformed later as a power pockets in various localities of

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Malabar is a feature that is visible in the eighteenth century. Here lies the importance of the eighteenth century as far as the histories of these households were concerned and vice versa.

Apart from this, few families of the royal functionaries were also emerged as influential element in Malabar during the period of the eighteenth century. Tharakkal Variyam, the family of Iremma Menon, one of the important royal functionaries of the Samutiri of Calicut was an example to it.

The eighteenth century was a period of transition as far as the different sections of the Malabar society were concerned. They were the traders, artisans and other sections of the society. The traders became an influential element in the society through adopting new roles as money lenders, brokers, Kanakkar, Janmis, and so on. They actively engaged in the money lending not only to the common people but also to the native powers. They also, had done the role of the broker in the transactions between the native people and the European powers. Apart from this, they invested the money which had accumulated in their hands through the trade activities in eighteenth century, they took interest to invest the money on land and it paved the way for the emergence of the traders with a new role as one of the proprietors of lands in Malabar.

The eighteenth century witnessed the improvement of the economic conditions of the Tiyyas or Ezhavas of Malabar. They began to engage in various professions in the civil and military administration of the Europeans in India like the French East India Company and the E. E. I. C.930 It led to a gradual elevation of their economic status. Likewise, the people from the artisans and lower castes were obtained the new entry to the land as the occupants of land, sometimes the proprietors of lands etc. which were hither to forbid to them in the society.

The condition of the bottom layer of the caste hierarchy was far below the general standard of living of the society. Every landed proprietor had possessed a

930 From the Diary of the Tellicherry Factory, Dated 9th July 1765, cited in Logan, Treatise…., No. I. CXXVIII, pp. 114-115. As per this publication, the tiyyas along with the nairs as guards were appointed to petrol for safety and protection in 1765.

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cluster of the slaves and who formed the integral part of his property.931 However, we can find some interesting elements pertaining to the servile groups of the society in eighteenth century. There are references of the number of groups which constituted within the folder of ‘Aladiyar’ like Paravan, Padanna Vettuvan, Parayas, Cherumans as the janmam holder, occupants of the lands on janmam holdings, including the devaswam properties during the period of the eighteenth century.

This could be also due to the fact that by then economy was becoming increasingly monetized and the need for money by the upper caste must have been one of the reasons that they started looking out for giving their vast resources of land to this groups whom they felt could toil on land and give them the rent and other dues due to them punctually. The Christians, Ezhavas and the people of the other community toiled on these lands and would produce products that could be sold in the markets and bring in money.

Moreover, this period witnessed the use of the non- Brahmin temple properties as the item of surety to the money debt of the local chiefs in Malabar. The document shed light on the fact that the Randatara Achanmar had some debt to the E. E. I. C. As part of it, the kavus in the Randatara region were agreed to pay a portion of their revenue to the E. E. I. C. towards the money debt of the Achanmar. If they failed to do so, their properties were confiscated to the Company. It indicated that these temples were obliged to bear the economic liabilities of the power centres of their respective region in Malabar. The temples at Andalur, Mozhapilangad, , Perlacheri, and Thiruvengad932 were some of these kavus mentioned in these agreements. The Company, through these agreements and declarations had infiltrated gradually into the properties of temples in Malabar in eighteenth century. Thus, the period witnessed the intrusion of the Company’s hold on the temples, specifically on the land owned by them in Malabar region. This indicates that the Malabar society realized the potential of land as a valuable asset that can alienate as well as marketable.

931 Abbe J. Dubis, Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies, Third Edition, Oxford, 1959, pp. 56-57. Cited in J. Vasantha kumari, Judiciary and Social Change in Malabar 1792-1940. IRISH Tellicherry, 2012, p.49. 932 Logan, Treatise,…., Nos. I. LVI, LVII, LVIII, LIX, LX, LXI. pp. 51-53.

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In short, during the period of the eighteenth century, the temples of Malabar represented mixed features having some conventional customary elements as well as some transitional aspects in its management, property transactions etc. Thus, they represented the continuation of some traditional elements at the same time, with some aspects which had undergone certain changes. Hence, we can find the elements of both continuity and change as far as the temples of the Malabar were concerned during the period of the eighteenth century.

Moreover, the society of Malabar had been practicing widely the use and spread of the money as a medium to assess the value of a thing in the eighteenth century. The conveyance related to the purchase of Ubhayam for 25000 Urupia in 1789 A.D. indicates the process of the monetization of Malabar economy in the eighteenth century, even prior to the direct intervention of the British in Malabar.

Thus, we can observe the aspects of continuity in Malabar to certain extent. The documents belonged to the last decades of the eighteenth century, reveals that presence of the Brahmin was essential for the trial at Cutchery in the year 1797 A.D. He was considered as the reliable and authentic authority to provide in legal matters which pertains to the property transactions, local feuds etc. The documents reveal the role of the Brahmins in the system of law and punishment in Malabar during this period. They acted as the treasure house of knowledge, ethics and reliable authority to clear out all doubts and confusions pertaining to afore said matters. So also, the period witnessed the continuation of the system of imposing fines as atonement to temple as in the earlier period.

Even though, we can find that the Malabar society had undergone some changes in every field. The prevalence and spread of the system of money lending and the involvement of various sections, as well as institutions of the society in it either as borrowers or as lenders indicate monetization of Malabar economy. We can say that the century witnessed the application of the notion of investment in different spheres, particularly on land. For instance, the trading folks, temple managers, especially the trustees of kavu, etc invested their money on land; and it was done in an unprecedented manner in eighteenth century. The calculation of fines, interests etc. in terms of money signaled the monetization of Malabar economy.

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Moreover, the period witnessed the transition of land as most valuable and saleable asset. It was in the eighteenth century, the land was transformed into a commodity, which is worth enough to or suitable for sale as a valuable thing in the society. Thus, land can be seen as becoming property with various rights attached to it during this period. What is striking is that with European officials buying land in case of disputes we see that they assert the rights of private property as is seen in Brown’s case. This can be seen as the early attempts of the Europeans in interpreting the rights of land in Malabar akin to private ownership. It paved the way for the enhancement of the value of the land as the most saleable asset. Along with the native people and institutions, the European commercial enterprises like the VOC and employees turned their attention towards the land, and took keen interest to invest their revenue on lands.

In association with the land relations of Malabar, the century witnessed the emergence of a bunch of new occupants of land, who constituted in non-Brahmin, non-Hindu (Christian /Muslim/ European); Craftsmen, Traders and Aladiyars categories of the society. Likewise, during this period we can see the emergence of a bunch of new proprietors of land who belonged to various categories such as non-Brahmin, non-Hindu (Christians, Muslims/ Europeans), Tiyyas, Aladiyars etc. of the society.

Another remarkable change occurred in relation to the swam lands of Malabar. The occupancy right on the swam lands was passed into the hands of Muslims, Christians, Tiyyas, and other common people of the society.

Besides, we can find that the approval or recognition of the British was one of the essential elements to conduct the ceremonies associated with the temples in North Malabar during the period of the eighteenth century. So also, it signified the intrusion of the colonial government in the customary laws of Malabar during the eighteenth century.

During the eighteenth century a bunch of native officials of the European Company’s emerged in Malabar and it ultimately led to the formation of a new layer in Malabar society that rendered all support to the Company affairs in Malabar in

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eighteenth century. The Tiyyas and the Muslim sepoys of the French East India Company, the Tamil Brahmin communities appointed as Canagoees in every nook and corner of Malabar etc. formed as the backbone of supportive factors of the E. E. I. C. administration in Malabar in eighteenth century.

The period also witnessed the emergence of new power centres in different regions of Malabar. Though, they were backup by divergent factors such as conventional religious as well as ritual institutions, trade activities, ritual as well as trade activities, geographical locale etc. ; all sprang up with new vigour to become independent from the yoke of their overlords. They gave up their earlier role as the executors of the orders of their overlords and endeavoured to announce their independence at their own will. Nevertheless, they were swallowed by a prodigious entity, the E. E. I. C. in the closing years of the eighteenth century; it was a new development that was unobservable in the history of the region in the earlier periods.

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Glossary

Aalvancheri Tamprakkal - One of the local chieftains in Malabar Achanmar - Local chieftains of Randatara Achen -A title of males in royal families especially in Calicut, and Cochin Achupanam - A coin Adhikari - An officer in charge of amsam Adimakkodi - Oath of flag or flag of fealty Agraharam - House of Tamil Brahmin Akampadi janam - A group of companions Amildars - Revenue collecting officer Ammam koil - Temple of Goddess Amsam - A territorial division Anchariyan - The person related to small vessel Ankam - A royal privilege Annu perum artham - Current value Aranuttavar - Six Hundred, one of the variant of the Hundred organisation of ancient period. Arisapadi janam - A group of companions of ruler Ariyittuvazhcha - Installation ceremony of the new ruler Artam - Surety to loans Asari -Carpenter Athiru -Boundary Attiper - Absolute transfer Ayyan - Non- Brahmin god Bazar -Market Bhagavathy - Mother Goddess Bhuswamin - Lord of land Brahmadeyas - Brahmin villages Brahmaswam - Land owned by the Brahmins Canara - Konkan Candy - A unit of measuring land

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Cerrikkal - Private property of ruler Chaal kandam -A paddy field near to furrow Chadayan -A filthy person; related to dead body Chakiyaar -Temple oriented group Chakravatin - Ruler Chaliyan -Weaver Champu - A kind of literary composition partly in prose and partly in verse emerged in Kerala Chandrolsavam - A poem compiled in 16th century Changatham - Nair guard Chaver - Suicide squad Chavettu viruthi - The land given to the suicide squad as remuneration Cheras -Kings of Kerala Cherikkal - Private property of the ruler Cherumans - Servile community Chetties - Tamil merchants Chettiyar -One of the merchant groups from Tamil Nadu Chingum - A month in year Chira - Tank, reservoir; a low lying rice field to store water Chitpavan Brahmin - Hindu Maharashtriyan Brahmin community Chomadon -Head load worker Chungam - Toll Cutchery - An office of administration, a court home. Dalawa -A Minister in Danoo - A month in Kollam Era. Darmasastra -Law Book Daroga - A police official Deepu Raja -King of island Desa-bhoga - Rights enjoyed by a local chieftain as the apex authority in a particular locality Desam - Subdivision of amsam Desamaryada - Local practices Desams - A Small territorial Unit Desavakkam - Certain right enjoyed by a local authority or

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Dezhavazhi upon desam Desavazhi -Chieftain of a desam Devaswam - Property of god Devathar uralar - Trustees of temple Dubhashi - Linguist Dungays - A measurement of crops Dweepu Raja - Ruler of island Edangazhi - A unit of measurement for grains Edavaka - A principality of a middle lord Edayeedu - Right enjoyed by the Brahmins on the brahmaswam land Ezhavas - A service group in kerala Fanams - A Malabar silver coin; in gold also; exchange rate is 1/ 32 fanam for 1 Rupee. Fitna - Civil war within the Rashidin Caliphate Fouzdars - Military commander along with judicial and land revenue functions Ganas - Trust or Committee Ganj -Small permanent markets attached to qasbahs Gavishti - Battle for cow Ghasi - A champion, one hero especially one who fight against infidels Gopthi - Lord of cow Grandhavari -Chronicle written on palm leaf Gurikkalachan - A master in Kalari Hanafis - One of the four Islamic schools of jurisprudence Illam - Residence of the Malayali Brahmin Inam - Land granted free and revenue to persons holding Jagir -Holding land; a type of feudal land grants introduced by Delhi Sultans Jagirdar - The person who hold jagir Jagirdari - Related to jagir Jamabandy - A revenue system introduced by Tipu Sultan in Malabar

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Janam - A Militia, a body of men Janmaari - Janmam holder Janmam - Birth Right; hereditary proprietorship on land Janmis - Land lord; chieftain Jivitam -Holding of temple land by the temple functionaries of lower category Jonaka teruvu - Street of Muslims Jonakan -Muslim Kaccam - Rules Kadim - One who serves others Kadu - Forest Kalari - A Gymnasium; a place where martial arts were taught Kalavaniyar - Potters Kalpana panama - Money in the form of kanam Kammalars - Craft men Kammaran -Smiths Kanakkapilla -Accountant Kanakkudiyaan - Tenant; kanam holder Kanakkukal -Accounts statements Kanam - Land tenure based on mortgage or lease Kanamdaar - Kanam holder Kandam - Paddy field Kandi - A stick of 4 yards length measure of ground Kanisan - Astrologer Kanuka - To see Kanungo -A Revenue Officer at Pargana level, made survey of land revenue Kara - Dry land Karaarnamam - Written agreement or contract Karalar - Tenants Karanam - Document Karanmai - A tenure granted by local chieftain Kari - Share of rent for few years

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Karuvan - Blacksmith Karyastans - Overseer Kashyapa - A monk in ancient India Kattanar - Catholic Priest in a church Kattodi - Forest land Kaval fanam - Fee for security Kaval - Security Kavalpanam - Security tax Kavu -A Shrine of Bhagavathi Kazhakam - Temple Kazis -An individual who participated in military raids Keikkaran - Attendant Keyies - A trading family in Malabar Kezhmaryada - Local Custom Khas - Land under the direct collection of the Company’s Government Khasi - Chief priest in mosque Kizhakku - East Kizhiyakkam - A custom prevailed in medieval Kerala Kokasandesa - Messenger poems Kokasandesa -A Messenger poem composed around 1400 A.D. Kol - Measuring rod; measure of three feet Kolatiri - A title of the Raja of Kolathunad Kollan - Black smith Kooru - Share; favour Koothu - Performing art Koson (kusavan) -Potter Kotta -Fort Kotwals - Leaders of forts; primarily police officers who performed some judicial duties Kovilakam -Palace Koyas - Respectable person in the society Koyima - Local chieftain Kudikal - Residence of lower class people

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Kudimai -Non-transferable, a nominal rent Kuditala - The cluster of kudikal Kudiyiruppu -House plot of a kudiyan Kulikkanam - Lease for the improvement of land Kulkarni -A caste in North India Kumbham - A month in Kollam Era Kuni parambu - A small garden land in the midst of rice fields Kur - Share Kuru avakasam - The right to share Kurumalsaram - Competition for share Kurup - Antarala jati in Kerala Kuruvalcha - Rule of the order of seniority Kutimai - A bundle of services Kuzhikkanam - A lease for improving lands Mada - Unit of measurement for grains Mada nellu - Name of an Idangazhi Madad-i-Maash -A revenue free land given to learned person Mahabarata - An epic Makaram - A month in kollam era Malabari -Reference to people who belonged to Malabar Mala -Mountain Mala -Chain song Malayali -Native of Kerala Mamankam -A festival usually celebrated once in 12 years on the banks of river Bharathapuzha Manipravalam -A literary language, mixture of Tamil and Sanskrit emerged after the 11th AD Mansab - Rank; Dignity Mappilla - Malabar Muslim Marayan -Drummer Marumakkathayam -Matriliny Maryada - Custom and usages Matampi - Chieftain Mayyazhi - Mahi

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Meenam - A month in kollam year Mel Ubhayanghal - Produces of the trees Melaykkuru - Upper share to the Brahmins Melayma - Share of the overlord Melppadi - The above half Melubhayappattam - The rent fixed upon the upper part of the ground Melvaram -Owner’s share of produce Menokki -Accountant; superintendent Merpadi - Owner’s share of produce Mirasi -Land held under hereditary title Mirasidars -A hereditary owner, especially of land/peasant Mopla - Mukkuva - Fishermen Mundakan kandam - Paddy field Munnoottavar - Three Hundred, one of the variant of the Hundred Organisation of ancient period Muppil nair - A title enjoyed by the head of Kavalappara family Muppu - Seniority Muppumura - Order of seniority Naalarum -Four persons Nadu -District Naduvazhis - Governor of a district. Nakarathaar - Head of the town Nalaar -The four persons Nalutali -Four chief temples of the capital Nambiar - A Sub caste of Nairs Nambidi -Inferior Brahmana or temple oriented group performing ceremonies for sudras Nambudiri - Kerala Brahmin Nankaimar - Women belonged to nambiar community Nattukootam -Assembly of the village Nattumuppan - Head of the village Natuvar - People of the village Nawab - Mughal regional governor

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Nawab Wazir - A high ranking political adviser or minister Nazhi - A measure for grains Nazrani - Christian Nepalisa - Interest in the form of paddy Nerpalisa - Interest at the rate of half of the principle Nilam - Paddy field Niluvapanam - Balance rent; rent arrear Nirattipper - Absolute transfer by libation of water Nizamat -Administrative, judicial and military powers Nizhal menokki kai ezhuthu - The statement written by accountant or superintendent or scribe Nizhal Menokki - Scribe Olas - Palm leaf -A Festival of Kerala Oraviledam -An important family of chieftain in North Malabar Ossan - Barber Otti - A kind of mortgage Ottiolakkaranam - Deed of mortgage Paattampalissa - Interest of rent Padakaaram - Rights enjoyed by Brahmin family Padappattu -War song Padinjaru - West Palisa - Interest Palisa panam -Interest in the form of money Pallikkal Mukri -Priest or theologian in mosque Palliparamba - Land under the Church Panaipattam - Deed of mortgage of lands Panam - A coin, in most cases gold coin of the Samutiri Panayam - Mortgage Paneppattolakkaranam - Document related to panayam transaction Paniyallars - Labourers Paradesi - Foreigner Paradevatha - Mother goddess of the family Parambu - Dry land

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Paravan - A servile community Pargana Sarrishtadars - Administrative officers of courts in Parganas Pargana -A unit of administration Parishad -Council Patainayakan - War chief Patam - Rent Pathinonnu -Eleven Patingarekovilakam - Western Palace Pattakkaran - Chief of the desam Patter - Tamil Brahmin Patwaris -A term used in South Asia for a land record officer Payattuka - Fencing Payattukaran - Fencing master Pazhaya veeraraya panam - A kind of coin Peedika - Shop Peedikakku -In favour of shop Perumkollan - Chief of blacksmiths Perumpadanayakan - Chief of the military wing Perumtattan -Chief of gold smiths Peruvaniyan -Oil maker or oil merchant Peshwas -Prime Minister in Maratha Empire Pidippatu vila - Sufficient value or money Pillai - A group within the Nair folk Pizha - Fine Pooram - A celebration associated with temple Potuval - Caste belonged to temple community Poyyil - Marshy land Pravattikkar -Managers Prayaschittam - Atonement Pulavar chettis -A merchant group Punam land -Hill tracts Punnathur kotta - The residence of Punnature Raja. Purushantaram -Succession fee

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Qasbahs - Place for the local leaders to live and defend when a city was under attack. Raja - King Rajadom - A Politically organized administrative unit having a monarchical form of government headed by a ruler. Rakshabhoga - Protection fee Ryots - Peasants Ryotwari -Land revenue system in India, which removed the intermediaries Saba - Brahmin council Sahada - A saint in gregorian sect of Christianity Sakshi - Witness Samanta - A chief under the ruler. Samudhayam -A council of Brahmins managing the affairs of a temple on behalf of its trustee. Samutiri - Ruler of Calicut Sanad - Charter Sanchayanam -Hindu custom of collecting bones of a cremated person on an auspicious day Sandesakavya -Messenger poem Sanketam - A Protected area under the temples. Shariat - Islamic canonical law Sloka - A verse; stanza in Sanskrit language Smartavicharam - Cast trial Smritis - Literary composition of later Vedic period Somalata - A creeper Stanapperu - Title name Stanis - Title holders Subbadar - The official in charge of subha Sudras - Lower layer of the community Suktas - Sanskrit devotional song Swam -Own Swarajya -Sovereignty

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Swarupam - A Royal house; house of a Chief Swarupatingal -From swarupam Tachan - Carpenter Talis - Temples Taluka - An administrative subdivision within a revenue district Tamprakkal -A lord or noble man; person in authority Tamrasadhana Pusthakam - Copper plates Tangal -A Muhammadan or Mappila priest: religious group claiming descent from Prophet. Tantrikal - high priest in temple Tara -A small unit of administration; a village Tarawad - A joint family Tarendum panam -Money given to Talappillinadu - A Nadu in Central Kerala Thandettam - Ceremony related to the assumption of the office of a chieftain Tarakan - Brokers Tarakar-mootaar - A trading community Tattan - Gold smith Tayvali -A branch in the matrilineal family, may have been derived from mother Thekku -South Thiyyan - Caste of toddy tappers Thottam - Garden Thura -Harbour Ubhayangal -Produce on the ground Ubhayapattam -Rent of the produce on the ground Ulkudis/Ulukuti - Actual tillers of the land Ulpati -Paddy field Unniccirutevicaritam - A Malayalam literary composition of the second half of the 13th century A.D. Ur - Village Uralars -Trustee of a temple Uranmai - Right pertaining to uralar

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Urpalli - A privileged place for hunting game Vaalum pudavayum - Sword and robe; a custom in connection with the investiture ceremony of the authority Vaaram - Share of overlord especially collected from the farmers. Vadakkelamkur - A collateral branch of Kolatunadu Vadakku -North Valanchiyan -Barber Valappuparamu - Compound land; enclosure of house Valiya Ghasi - Supreme Priest Valliyalars - Labourers Valluva konathiri - Ruler of Valluvanadu Vaniyar - Traders Vannathan - Washer man Vassal - A person in subordinate position to another one Vattezhuttu - Ancient or medieval script of Malayalam language Vayu - Air Vazhi - Usage; provisional custom Vazhippizha -An old tax; may be tax imposed for the encroachment of way or road Vazhunnor - A governor under Raja of Kolatunadu Vazhunnor of Vadakara - Ruler of Vadakara Veedu - House Veerarayan fanams -A Coin issued by Samutiri both in silver and gold Velan - A service group Veppu - A Deposit; another name for otti in Palakkad Vilayolakaranam - Deed of purchase Viral - An inch Virutti - A land assigned in remuneration for service Vishukazhcha -Gift or present to the overlord by the subordinates Werooshigam - A month in Kollam Era. Yogam - A temple committee

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Zamindars -Land Lords Samutiri - Ruler of Calicut

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Appendix I

Major and minor swarupams in Malabar during the medieval period

(Not to Scale)

Prepared by the Researcher

KEY

1. Swarupam 2. Airur Swarupam 3. Talappilli Swarupam

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4. Valluvanadu Swarupam 5. Tarur Swarupam 6. Tanur Swarupam 7. Kurumbranad Swarupam 8. Puraikizhanad/ Puranad (Kottayam) 9. Arakkal Swarupam 10. Nileswaram 11. Kumbala

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Appendix II Land Transactions of Koodali Tazhathu Veedu in Decade wise from 16th to 18th centuries

Number of Transactions

Decades

Source compiled by the researcher

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Appendix III

European centres in Malabar in 17th & 18th centuries

(Not to Scale)

Prepared by the Researcher

KEY

A. DUTCH CENTERRS 1.Kannur Fort (1663-1795) 4.Calicut-A Ware House (1604)

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5.Ponnani (1662) 6.Chettuva Fort -1st Visit (1625); a factory (1710) 7.Pappinivattom (1710) 8.Kodungallur Fort (Kottapuram Fort) 1663 9.Palliport(1663-1789) 10.Moothakunnam (Land) 11.Maliankara (Land and Garden) 12.Fort Cochin(1663-1795)

B. BRITISH CENTERS 2.Talasserry Factory (1683-1795)

C.FRENCH CENTERS 3.Mahe (1724-1954)

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Appendix IV

Emerging power centres of Malabar in 18th century

(Not to Scale)

Prepared by the researcher

KEY 1. Ali Raja of Kannur (Arakkal Swarupam) 2. Randatara Achanmar 3. Chuzhali Nambiars (Chuzhali Swarupam) 4. Koodali Tazhathu Veedu 5. Iruvazhinadu Nambiars 6. Kurungot Nair 7. Vazhunoor of Vadakara (Tanur Swarupam) 8. Vanjeri Illam 9. Vettatunad 10. Palakkad Raja (Tarur Swarupam)

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11. Venganadu Nampiti (Kollengode Raja) 12. Kavalappara Family 13. Punnatur Nampiti (Punnatur Raja) A. Thalassery Factory-British B. French East India Company Settlement, Mahe C. Dutch Factory at Chettuva

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Appendix V

Channels of the Revenue Extraction and Redistribution of Koodali Tazhathu Veedu in 18th century

Prepared by the Researcher

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Appendix VI

Map showing some of the areas of land Transaction of the Koodali Thazhath Veedu in the 18th century

(Not to Scale)

Prepared by the Researcher

KEY

1. Puthiyangadi (Payannur Taluk) 2. (Payannur Taluk) 3. Kunnathui (Thalasserry Taluk) 4. Murikkencherry () 5. Puthiyaparambu (Irritty Taluk) 6. Thachankandiyal (Thalasserry Taluk ) 7. Mavilayil (Kannur Taluk )

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8. Poovathur (Irritty Taluk ) 9. Kavumthazha (Irritty Taluk ) 10. Kandoth (Thalassery Taluk ) 11. Nalamkeri (Irritty Taluk) 12. Kunnoth (Irritty Taluk) 13. Koodali (Thalasserry Takuk) 14. Mundayad (Kannur Taluk) 15. Kuttiyadi (Thalasserry Taluk) 16. Koothuparambu (Kannur Taluk) 17. Kanayanur () 18. Nidumbam (Thalassery Taluk) 19. Thalap (Kannur Taluk) 20. Theru (Payyannur Taluk) 21. Thattankandy (Thalasserry Taluk) 22. (Taliparambu Taluk) 23. Koorari Taluk) 24. Mattannur (Irritty Taluk) 25. Vesala (Kannur Taluk) 26. Kovoor (Irritty Taluk) 27. Kanhirode (Irritty Taluk) 28. Thattiyot (Irritty Taluk) 29. Nanichery () 30. (Kannur Taluk) 31. Puravoor (Kannur Taluk) 32. Mattannur-Edayanur-Kaithakkara (Thalassery Taluk) 33. Edavalath (Taliparamba Taluk) 34. Therur (Taliparamba Taluk) 35. Mattannur-Kuruvod (Irritty Taluk) 36. Mattannut-Kanave (Irritty) 37. Poovathur 38. Thekkumbad (Payyannur Taluk) 39. Thalamundu (Kannur Taluk) 40. Edayanur (Thalasserry Taluk) 41. Adyur-Chandroth region (Kannur Taluk)

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42. Manyur (Taliparamba Taluk) 43. Koodali-Vayalil (Thalasserry Taluk) 44. Kezhoor-Thattitot (Irritty Taluk) 45. Cheruvancherry Tazhidem (Thalasserry Taluk) 46. Kumbham (Thalasserry Taluk) 47. Kayaloor (Thalasserry Taluk) 48. Kuttiyattoor-Narikkara (Taliparamba Taluk) 49. Eachur-Vayalil

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