1 Rebel in a Dress: How Belva Lockwood Made the Case For

Rebel In A Dress:

How Belva Lockwood Made The Case For Women’s Rights

Grace McMahan

Junior Division

Historical Paper

Paper Length: 2500

Introduction

On a chilly day in early March of 1879, Ms. Belva Ann Lockwood entered the United

States Supreme Court. She entered not as a spectator or a defendant, but to be sworn in as the first female lawyer with the ability to argue in front of the highest court in the country. Although she was the first, Lockwood was not the last woman to argue in the halls of the court. She shattered the glass ceiling for women in law and paved the way for the others behind her. She daringly ran for president before women could even vote. Her inability to be discouraged and her fierce belief in her ideas showed others that women could be impactful figures. Belva Lockwood was the first woman to argue in front of the U.S. Supreme Court and the first female presidential candidate. Her work in law helped break barriers in terms of female integration into U.S. law and government, while simultaneously challenging gender inequalities.

Background

Born on October 24, 1830, in Royalton, New York, Belva Ann Bennett married at age eighteen. Her husband, Uriah, tragically died leaving Lockwood behind to raise their daughter,

Lura.1 After Lockwood started a job teaching, she discovered that she was paid half the amount of men with her same job. Lockwood believed that to abolish this type of discrimination, she needed to know more about it. Drollene Brown explains it as, “... another mountain that wouldn’t go away with wishing. But she was determined to move it. The tool she needed was education”.2

Lockwood then made the difficult decision to leave Lura in order to attend Genesee Wesleyan

Seminary. Many people disapproved of her actions, but she had ambitions that begged to be

1 M.G. Winstock, "Our Equal Rights Nominees: Lockwood and Lozier," Woman's Herald of Industry, October 1884, accessed April 16, 2020, http://triptych.brynmawr.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/InHOR/id/62603/rec/72. 2 Drollene P. Brown and James Watling, Belva Lockwood Wins Her Case (Niles: A Whitman, 1987), 13.

3 fulfilled. After graduating from Genesee College with honors in 1857, Lockwood purchased her own school, Owego Female Seminary. In 1866, she moved to Washington D.C. where she met and married Ezekiel Lockwood in 1868.3 One year later, Jessie Belva Lockwood was born. Her new baby only amplified Lockwood’s ambition. She was always interested in the laws that governed her country, and Washington reawakened a burning passion. Lockwood decided that the best way to change how things operated in her country was to become a lawyer. Jill Norgren writes that, “So in October 1869, challenging what most people thought was right and proper, she applied to become a student at law school in Washington, D.C.”.4 After applying twice, she was accepted at National University Law School where she thrived. After all her hard work,

Lockwood’s diploma was withheld because of her gender. She wrote to President Grant and demanded her diploma, stating that she had passed the curriculum and deserved it.5 Lockwood was awarded her diploma and soon joined the District of Columbia Bar association and flourished. But once again she faced a huge obstacle: she, as a woman, could not argue in federal court. Lockwood lobbied a bill that forbade discrimination against female lawyers in federal court. She advocated for her bill in the Supreme Court and Congress for three years. After a hard fight, “By means of energetic lobbying… Lockwood secured the passage of the Lockwood Bill, which permitted women to practice before the Supreme Court”.6 On March 3rd, 1879, Belva

Lockwood became the first woman admitted to practice law in the Supreme Court and other federal courts. One year later, she became the first woman to argue in the Supreme Court.

3 "Belva A. Lockwood." In DISCovering U.S. History. Detroit, MI: Gale, 2003. Gale In Context: Middle School (accessed April 16, 2020). https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/EJ2104101215/MSIC?u=vero32919&sid=MSIC&xid=858974bd. 4 Jill Norgren, Belva Lockwood: Equal Rights Pioneer (Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, 2009), 45. 5 Brown and Watling, Belva Lockwood, 29. 6 "Belva A. Lockwood."

In 1884, Lockwood ran for president though women could not vote. Lockwood was nominated by the National Equal Rights Party, a group of citizens who fought for equality.7 She made speeches, had photos taken, and her name was in every newspaper. Lockwood proclaimed,

“I cannot vote, but I can be voted for”.8 She traveled everywhere campaigning, just like a man.

Men and women alike were opposed to a woman leader. Lockwood did not win the election, but she did receive thousands of votes. She ran again in 1888. After losing this election, she began to travel representing the Universal Peace Union.9 Lockwood continued to argue for both women’s rights and peace for the rest of her life and practiced law into her eighties. Her most important case was for Cherokee Indian, Jim Taylor, whom she helped win five million dollars from the government. She was a strong woman who led an impressive life. Belva Lockwood died on May

19th, 1917 at eighty-six.10

Women’s Roles

During the 1800s, women did not have anywhere near the same rights as they do today.

As stated, “Farm and factory life demanded hard work from women, but the customs and laws of the times denied them many opportunities. They could not get as much education as boys and men. They could not compete for the same jobs”.11 Men were expected to work and make money. Women stayed at home and washed the laundry. Life for women in the 19th century was quite unfair. One important aspect of this gender bias was education. The author of “Woman,

7 See Appendix A 8 Dennis E. Baron, What's Your Pronoun?: Beyond He and She (New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, a division of W.W. Norton & Company, 2020), 60, accessed April 11, 2020. https://www.google.com/books/edition/What_s_Your_Pronoun_Beyond_He_and_She/SCqfDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1. 9 "Belva Lockwood," in Encyclopedia of World Biography Online (Detroit: Gale, 1999), 19, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1631007291/MSIC?u=vero32919&sid=MSIC&xid=dac0bd19. 10 New York Times Company, "Belva Lockwood, Lawyer, Dies At 85," New York Times, last modified May 20, 1917, accessed December 10, 2019, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1917/05/20/102345717.pdf. 11 Norgren, Belva Lockwood, 10.

Her Education, and Influence” states that women were, “... regarded too much as a mere appendage of a man”.12 This statement shows that women in the 1800s were not expected to be independent. They relied on their husbands and could not have ideas of their own. If they spoke out, they were considered ‘improper’. Even if these women resented those expectations and wanted to have more control over their lives, the law forbade it. They had zero rights in terms of property and money. Women, especially married ones, were seen as having the same thoughts as their husbands with no opinions of their own.

Breaking Barriers for Equal Rights

Belva Lockwood’s first ‘cases’ were for equality. One of her early successes took the form of a bill introduced by Congressman Samuel Arnell. Lockwood believed it was unfair that women who worked for the government were paid less for the same work. Arnell helped pass

Lockwood’s bill granting equal pay for civil service regardless of gender. A newspaper clipping from Laura Kerr describes Lockwood as, “... primarily responsible for the law which gave women employees of the civil service the same rate of pay that a man received”.13 On June 11,

1870, her bill opened the civil service profession to women and helped them receive fair pay in the workplace. Without Lockwood, unfair wages would have continued for these women.

The Arnell bill was not the only way Belva Lockwood fought for women’s rights.

Lockwood wanted to change people’s perceptions of women and their place in the world. She argued for their rights not only by protesting and joining suffrage groups like the National

12 Marion Kirkland Reid, Woman, Her Influence and Education (Fowlers and Wells, 1855), 37, accessed January 16, 2020, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/umn.31951001871107k. 13 Laura, Kerr, "The Girl Who Ran For President." National American Woman Suffrage Association Records: General Correspondence, -1961; Lockwood, Belva A. - 1961, 1839.

American Woman Suffrage Association, but by taking action. In a letter to one journalist, she stated, “I am, and always have been a progressive woman, and… have always done, or attempted to do those things which I have considered conducive to my health, convenience… ”14 and listed her accomplishments including attending college and arguing in court. Lockwood used action to share her ideas. Her zeal and tenacity helped to convince others of her progressive ideas and led to the deterioration of gender discrimination. Lockwood was always working to inspire change, and her ideas took her all over Washington. When she observed men using bicycles to get around, she decided to give it a try15. Belva Lockwood was the first woman in Washington to ride a bicycle. She proved that a woman could do such a thing.16 An article in one South Carolina newspaper states, “She was the first of her sex to mount the tricycle and demonstrate the right of a woman to ride whatever her business calls”.17 Actions like riding a bicycle were one important reason that Lockwood helped break barriers for women’s rights; she changed the way they were seen. If a woman could campaign for her rights, and ride a bicycle, what couldn’t she do? These are the questions people started to ask themselves as they saw the things Belva Lockwood was fighting to change. She fought for women to have equal rights, and helped change how they were perceived.

14 Madeleine B. Stern, and Belva Lockwood. "Two Unpublished Letters from Belva Lockwood." Signs 1, no. 1 (1975): 269-75, accessed April 9, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/3172983. 15 See Appendix B 16 "Another Scandal," New York Times (NY), October 12, 1884, accessed April 16, 2020, http://triptych.brynmawr.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/InHOR/id/62603/rec/72 17 "Our Washington Letter," The Easley Messenger (Easley, SC), September 26, 1884, 4, accessed January 25, 2020, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn93067656/1884-09-26/ed-1/seq-4/.

Women In Law

As few rights as women had, they had even less say in the laws that could change them.

In the 19th century, it was unheard of for women to hold positions like lawyers. People did not approve of female lawyers and said that, “... a lady in a court of law - sitting near dangerous criminals and men spitting chewing tobacco - was not proper. It was fine to be a teacher or even a woman doctor treating other women, but not a lawyer”.18 Women remained home while men held important positions, like lawyers or judges. Women who did not conform to these traditional roles were seen as indecorous. People believed women were delicate, maternal figures who needed protection from the cruelties of society. That was simply how the world worked.19

Not only did the law forbid it, but almost everyone thought that women belonged trapped as housewives. For the most part, women and girls stayed in their place and remained docile and agreeable. Before Belva Lockwood, no woman had ever argued in federal court before. Women lawyers in criminal court were particularly forbidden. It was seen as radical for a woman to be with dangerous men and argue her case among them. In her Supreme Court journal piece, Jill

Norgren describes that, “The post-bellum emphasis on gentility… of women made the thought of women working in the criminal courts particularly egregious, even loathsome. If courts, in general, represented a male world, criminal court was the stage upon which played all of society's morally repugnant dramas from which women were to be shielded”.20 Women had to be

18 Norgren, Belva Lockwood, 45. 19 Scott Bomboy, "On This Day, Women First Allowed to Argue Supreme Court Cases," Constitution Daily, last modified February 15, 2019, accessed January 4, 2020, https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/on-this-day-women-first-allowed-to-argue-supreme-court-cases. 20 Jill Norgren, "Before It Was Merely Difficult: Belva Lockwood's Life in Law and Politics," Journal of Supreme Court History, o.s., 1 (1999): 26, accessed January 20, 2020, https://supremecourthistory.org/pub_journal_1999_vol_1.html.

8 protected from the horrors of criminal life. If a woman, like Lockwood, were to argue in court, they were out of their place and would be shunned in society.

Breaking Barriers in Law

Despite this, Lockwood’s biggest accomplishments are her victories in law. With her law diploma in hand, Lockwood began a successful law practice. The one obstacle she faced was the inability to argue in any federal court, including the Supreme Court. Lockwood refused to sit back and let someone else tell her what she could and could not do. A journal entry about

Lockwood states that, “This lady, having been refused admission to the bar of the Supreme Court of the United States, immediately appealed to Congress, and by … hard work has succeeded in having her bill passed by both houses”.21 After a difficult battle with Congress, Lockwood shattered the glass ceiling that integrated women into law. She convinced lawmakers to allow women to practice in federal court. This monumental step towards equality truly changed how women could practice law. Female lawyers could now practice in the highest court in the nation, thanks to her perseverance and hard work. She took advantage of the law she had created. In

1880, Belva Lockwood argued for the first time in the Supreme Court, marking a historic milestone for women everywhere. Jill Norgren states that, “Attorney Lockwood spoke for twenty minutes. It was the first time in U.S. history that a woman's voice was heard in legal argument at the Supreme Court”.22 Lockwood had hurdled the biggest obstacle that female lawyers faced and forever changed the way society would view women in law. She had successfully made it so that all women could argue in the highest court in the country.

21 National American Woman Suffrage Association, National American Woman Suffrage Association Records: General Correspondence, -1961; Lockwood, Belva A. -1961, 1839. 22 Norgren, Belva Lockwood, 64.

Lockwood had more ideas about ways her country could improve. The best way she thought to do this was to run for president. Although disputed, Lockwood was the first woman to launch a full-fledged presidential campaign.23 The Equal Rights Party, a small political group, nominated Lockwood in 1884. Many people thought that because of her gender, she could never be successful. The Daily Morning Astorian reported that, “The public is beginning to lose all interest in the fact that Mrs. Lockwood is running for presidency. It never was an interesting sight to watch a woman run, anyway”.24 Belva Lockwood ran for president thirty-six years before women could vote. Her daring move turned heads, but she proceeded to launch two historic campaigns that would integrate women into the highest power of all. In her letter to accept the nomination, she stated that, “It will be my earnest effort to promote and maintain equal political privileges to every class of our citizens irrespective of sex, color or nationality.”25

26 Her campaign platforms brought new ideas to the table and broke barriers on the limitations placed on women. Although she did not win either election, her campaigns had “showed that she lived in a country where women could speak their minds. She had used that freedom to run a political campaign. She had proven that a woman could discuss politics with intelligence and that people would listen”.27 Belva’s effort changed minds and moved mountains for the feminist movement. She had overcome many obstacles in law and government that changed America forever.

23 Judith Chase Churchill, "First Woman to Run for President." National American Woman Suffrage Association Records: General Correspondence, -1961; Lockwood, Belva A. - 1961, 1839. Manuscript/Mixed Material. 24"Booms For Belva," The Daily Morning Astorian (Astoria, OR), October 16, 1884, accessed January 15, 2020, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn96061150/1884-10-16/ed-1/seq-3/#date1=1883&sort=relevance&rows=20&words=Bel va+Lockwood&searchType=basic&sequence=0&index=15&state=&date2=1884&proxtext=Belva+Lockwood&y=20&x=11&da teFilterType=yearRange&page=1. 25 Stern, Lockwood. "Two Unpublished Letters from Belva Lockwood." 26 See Appendix C 27 Norgren, Belva Lockwood, 77.

Effects and Conclusion

The effects of Lockwood’s efforts were felt immediately. Women began stepping up, and times were changing. By 1890, “... more brave women were running for public office. Not for president - that was still too daring. But they did run for school boards, city councils, and even mayor. It was a start, and Lockwood’s campaign had helped make it happen.”28 The country and the world felt the effects of what she had done. She played a big part in a movement that continues today. While Lockwood was alive, eleven states allowed women to vote.29 Everything she fought for and accomplished led to these changes. Women were slowly being seen as more equal. In 1919, the nineteenth amendment to the Constitution stated that, “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex”.30 31 Belva Lockwood was part of the change that passed this amendment.

Lockwood’s work in court also changed things. After Lockwood’s federal court law passed, women could argue in the Supreme Court. However, it was not until 1911 that another woman dared to follow in her path.32 33 Lockwood’s work made it a little bit easier for the women who came after her. Today, the impact of her actions is still felt. Throughout the last two centuries, women lawyers have become more prevalent because of Lockwood’s monumental efforts to break gender roles in law. Marlene Trestman says that, “as of the close of 2016, a total of 726

28 Norgren, Belva Lockwood, 77. 29 National Constitution Center, "Centuries of Citizenship: A Constitutional Timeline," Constitution Center.org, last modified 2006, accessed January 18, 2020, https://constitutioncenter.org/timeline/html/cw08_12159.html. 30 U.S. Const. amend. XIX § 1. Accessed January 25, 2020. https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendment/amendment-xix. 31 See Appendix D 32 Marlene Trestman, "Women Advocates Before the Supreme Court, from October Term 1880 through December 2016," Supreme Court History, last modified 2016, accessed January 20, 2020, http://supremecourthistory.org/history_oral_advocates.html#_edn1. 33See Appendix E

11 women have presented arguments at the Supreme Court 1,430 times”.34 As more women followed Lockwood’s example, having a woman lawyer in court became less and less unusual.

In 1981, the first female Supreme Court Justice, Sandra D. O’Connor was appointed followed by

Ruth Bader Ginsburg. The extraordinary effects that Belva Lockwood had on women’s image and their place in the world are as important today as they were over a century ago. Belva

Lockwood broke rules, changed minds and smashed every barrier she encountered. Her influence will forever be felt by the rebels who follow in her footsteps.

34 Marlene Trestman, "Women Advocates Before the Supreme Court, from October Term 1880 through December 2016," Supreme Court History, last modified 2016, accessed January 20, 2020, http://supremecourthistory.org/history_oral_advocates.html#_edn1.

Appendix A:

Above is Belva Lockwood and her running mate, Marietta Stow’s, presidential ticket announcing their candidacy. This ticket is an example of one way Lockwood fought for the equal rights movement. Lockwood was determined to march to the beat of her own drum despite others' opinions. It was this ambition that allowed her to break barriers for women’s rights during her campaign.

Citation: Minoski, Tammi. Image of Belva Lockwood and Marietta Stow's Ticket. Twitter.

September 19, 2019. Accessed April 13, 2020. https://twitter.com/

TammiMinoski/status/1175254058032148481/photo/1.

Appendix B:

This illustration depicting Lockwood on her bicycle is one that proves how confident she was and shows another way she helped defeat the stereotype of women at the time. Lockwood’s ideas, like riding a bicycle, were the most important way she affected people. She simply brought new ways of thinking to the table.

Citation: Louisville Courier Newspaper. The Exposition's Distinguished Guest. October 14, 1884. Illustration. Accessed April 11, 2020. https://recoveringdemocracyarchives.umd.edu/rda-unit/mrs-lockwoods-speech/.

Appendix C:

The letter above is from Lockwood to the members of the National Equal Rights Party addressing their nomination of Lockwood for president of the United States. Not only is it an excellent primary source that directly tells of her reaction to her nomination, but it outlines most of her beliefs and platforms of her campaign. It helped give a better idea of what Lockwood stood for, and how she spoke about her beliefs and ideas.

Citation: Stern, Madeleine B., and Belva Lockwood. "Two Unpublished Letters from Belva

Lockwood." Signs 1, no. 1 (1975): 269-75. Accessed April 9, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/3172983.

Appendix D:

This image of the Constitution helped to show the eventual impact of Lockwood’s work. In

1919, the 19th Amendment was passed, which allowed women to vote, just two years after

Lockwood’s death. Her achievements and contributions to the suffrage movement were essential in the ratification of this amendment.

Citation: Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Photograph. National Archives Catalog. May 19, 1919. Accessed April 11, 2020. https://catalog.archives.gov/OpaAPI/media/596314/content/arcmedia/congress/00759.pdf

Appendix E:

This chart of arguments in the Supreme Court by women shows how, even after she changed the laws, for a long time Lockwood was the only woman to argue in the Supreme Court. However, through this action, she shed light on women’s abilities to perform the same actions as a man.

Lockwood cracked the glass ceiling of law for women and slowly but surely, female lawyers became the norm.

Citation: Trestman, Marlene. "Women Advocates Before the Supreme Court, from October

Term 1880 through December 2016." Supreme Court History. Last modified 2016. Accessed

January 20, 2020. http://supremecourthistory.org/ history_oral_advocates.html#_edn1

Annotated Bibliography

Primary Sources

Churchill, Judith Chase. "First Woman to Run for President." National American Woman Suffrage Association. National American Woman Suffrage Association Records: General Correspondence, -1961; Lockwood, Belva A. - 1961, 1839. Manuscript/Mixed Material. This source was a primary source that I was able to use to prove that Victoria Woodhull was not the first woman to run for president. It states that credit goes to Lockwood and also describes her fierce personality.

The Daily Morning Astorian (Astoria, OR). "Booms For Belva." October 16, 1884, 3. Accessed January 15, 2020. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn96061150/1884-10-16/ed-1/seq-3/#date1=1883 &sort=relevance&rows=20&words=Belva+Lockwood&searchType=basic&sequence=0 &index=15&state=&date2=1884&proxtext=Belva+Lockwood&y=20&x=11&dateFilterT ype=yearRange&page=1. This newspaper clipping gave different viewpoints of what people at the time thought of a female president. It was interesting to hear negative viewpoints because most sources only state the victories that Lockwood had. I was able to use this source in my essay to prove that a lot of citizens were too close-minded to consider a female leader.

The Easley Messenger (Easley, SC). "Our Washington Letter." September 26, 1884, 4. Accessed January 25, 2020. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn93067656/1884-09-26/ed-1/seq-4/. This newspaper column about Belva Lockwood provided a useful description of her bicycle rides. I used evidence from this source to prove that Belva was a rebel who changed the way that women were seen.

Kerr, Laura. "The Girl Who Ran For President." National American Woman Suffrage Association. National American Woman Suffrage Association Records: General Correspondence, -1961; Lockwood, Belva A. - 1961, 1839. Manuscript/Mixed Material. This newspaper article reviewing a book about Lockwood described the highlights of her career including the Arnell Bill and her Supreme Court case. I used it specifically to prove that she was the cause for the Arnell Bill and therefore equal pay for civil service employees.

Louisville Courier Newspaper. The Exposition's Distinguished Guest. October 14, 1884. Illustration. Accessed April 11, 2020. https://recoveringdemocracyarchives.umd.edu/rda-unit/mrs-lockwoods-speech/. This illustration of Lockwood was used in my appendix to show Lockwood on her bicycle. I wanted to show how she defied the rules and became the first Washington woman to ride a bike.

National American Woman Suffrage Association. National American Woman Suffrage Association Records: General Correspondence, -1961; Lockwood, Belva A. - 1961, 1839. Manuscript/Mixed Material. This journal entry was a fantastic primary source that carefully described the court case and directly gives credit to Lockwood for the victory of allowing women to be in the Supreme Court. It gave direct evidence that Belva was the reason that the law was passed which was useful in proving that she broke barriers.

New York Times (NY). "Another Scandal." October 12, 1884, 8. Accessed April 16, 2020. http://triptych.brynmawr.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/InHOR/id/62603/rec/72. This newspaper was a wonderful primary source used to explain Lockwood's riding on her bicycle and how it was seen as scandalous. It also described how other women’s suffrage leaders did not approve of Lockwood's actions because even they thought she was too rebellious.

New York Times Company. "Belva Lockwood, Lawyer, Dies At 85." New York Times. Last modified May 20, 1917. Accessed December 10, 2019. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1917/05/20/102345717.pdf. This obituary of Lockwood after her death gave lots of background information about one of her important cases, a case for the Cherokee Indians against the U.S. government. It also included statements about her being the first woman presidential candidate in history.

Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Photograph. National Archives Catalog. May 19, 1919. Accessed April 11, 2020. https://catalog.archives.gov/OpaAPI/media/596314/content/arcmedia/congress/00759.pdf This image of the 19th Amendment was used in my appendix to exemplify the granting of women's suffrage in the United States. Lockwood was an important part of the creation of this amendment, and I wanted to show the impact her work made on this country.

Reid, Marion Kirkland. Woman, Her Influence and Education. Fowlers and Wells, 1855. Accessed January 16, 2020. https://hdl.handle.net/2027/umn.31951001871107k. This digital book was a very useful primary source from a time when women were standing up for themselves. This book was written about how inequality affects women. In addition, I learned about unfair laws, education and why women deserve equal rights. It was interesting to hear this from a woman who lived during this time and to read about topics that are still discussed today.

Stern, Madeleine B., and Belva Lockwood. "Two Unpublished Letters from Belva Lockwood." Signs 1, no. 1 (1975): 269-75. Accessed April 9, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/3172983. This collection of letters including an acceptance letter regarding Lockwood's presidential nomination was a great primary source that listed all of her views and platforms. I used it in my paper to detail her thoughts on how she would deal with sexism if elected. I also used an image of this letter in my appendix to further show her thoughts

on the matters of her candidacy. Additionally, I quoted the second letter in the collection, a reply to a journalist, detailing Lockwood's self-analysis about her accomplishments throughout her impressive life.

U.S. Const. amend. XIX § 1. Accessed January 25, 2020. https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/amendment/amendment-xix. The 19th Amendment to the Constitution was used in my paper to prove that Lockwood's efforts helped women gain the right to vote. I wanted to explain exactly what the amendment stated to show the audience the impact of it.

Winstock, M.G. "Our Equal Rights Nominees: Lockwood and Lozier." Woman's Herald of Industry, October 1884, 4. Accessed April 16, 2020. http://triptych.brynmawr.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/InHOR/id/62603/rec/72. This newspaper description during the election gave a nice summarized description of Lockwood's background life. It described her humble beginnings and how she made a name for herself. It was a useful source to determine the most important parts of her early and personal life.

Secondary Sources

Baron, Dennis E. What's Your Pronoun?: Beyond He and She. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, a division of W.W. Norton & Company, 2020. Accessed April 11, 2020. https://www.google.com/books/edition/What_s_Your_Pronoun_Beyond_He_and_She/S CqfDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1. This digital book was used in my project to quote Lockwood's speech. I took a direct quotation from the section of the book about female lawyers where Lockwood was used as an example. It is one of her more famous quotes that I felt should be included.

"Belva A. Lockwood." In DISCovering U.S. History. Detroit, MI: Gale, 2003. Gale In Context: Middle School (accessed April 8, 2020). https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/EJ2104101215/MSIC?u=vero32919&sid=MSIC&xid=858 974bd. This biographical article from DISCovering U.S. History helped me to have a basic understanding of Belva's life, especially her early background, in order to do more specific research. I also used evidence to support my thesis that she was an equal rights advocate using quotes from the article.

"Belva Lockwood." In Encyclopedia of World Biography Online. Vol. 19. Detroit: Gale, 1999. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/K1631007291/MSIC?u=vero32919&sid=MSIC&xid=dac 0bd19. This article gave me more specific information about Belva's early life that helped me to have a good idea of her humble beginning and how she ended up as the first

woman in the Supreme Court. I used it to gain background knowledge because it was one of the first sources that I was able to find on Lockwood's life.

Bomboy, Scott. "On This Day, Women First Allowed to Argue Supreme Court Cases." Constitution Daily. Last modified February 15, 2019. Accessed January 4, 2020. https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/on-this-day-women-first-allowed-to-argue-supreme-co urt-cases. This article about Belva's Supreme Court case was very useful for new details about the case. It includes quotes from some of the Justices that I used in my paper to provide the opinions of the people who were against women in the court. It was important to gain a more thorough understanding of the actual people who eventually passed the law and their opposition to it.

Brown, Drollene P., and James Watling. Belva Lockwood Wins Her Case. Niles: A Whitman, 1987. This biography about Lockwood was one of the most useful sources I found. It was very useful for a more in depth look at all of the different aspects of Lockwood's life and I used it specifically for examples of rebellious things she did that broke barriers.

Minoski, Tammi. Image of Belva Lockwood and Marietta Stow's Ticket. Twitter. September 19, 2019. Accessed April 13, 2020. https://twitter.com/TammiMinoski/status/1175254058032148481/photo/1. I used this image of Lockwood and Stow's presidential ticket in my appendix to further explain the importance of Lockwood's campaign for president. I explained how it broke barriers for equal rights and the suffrage movement, and this primary source is evidence of that.

National Constitution Center. "Centuries of Citizenship: A Constitutional Timeline." Constitution Center.org. Last modified 2006. Accessed January 18, 2020. https://constitutioncenter.org/timeline/html/cw08_12159.html. This list and map of when women were allowed to vote, state by state, showed me how before the 19th Amendment, women were still fighting for their rights. It helps to orient the events of Belva's life with the women's suffrage movement and its success, and lack thereof, in gaining voting rights.

National Women's History Museum. "Woman Suffrage Timeline (1840-1920)." Crusade for the Vote.org. Accessed January 18, 2020. http://www.crusadeforthevote.org/woman-suffrage-timeline-18401920. I used this timeline to get more background information about the women's suffrage movement and how it lined up with Lockwood's contributions. It showed me how long it took for women to gain rights and what a difficult battle it was.

New York Historical Society. "Resource 16: New York State Married Women's Property Law." Women and the American Story. Last modified 2017.

https://www.nyhistory.org/sites/default/files/newfiles/cwh-curriculum/Module%202/zRes ources/Resource%2016%20NYS%20Married%20Women's%20Law.pdf. This article about property law in New York showed me how laws like the property laws changed in the nineteenth century. I discovered from this article that women who fought for these rights, although important, were not the only cause for changing laws.

Norgren, Jill. "Before It Was Merely Difficult: Belva Lockwood's Life in Law and Politics." Journal of Supreme Court History, o.s., 1 (1999): 16-42. Accessed January 20, 2020. https://supremecourthistory.org/pub_journal_1999_vol_1.html. This detailed article from Jill Norgren, who also wrote Belva Lockwood: Equal Rights Pioneer, was a very in-depth look at Lockwood's life. In my paper, I used it to show how women were shunned from criminal court because it was thought to be too dangerous for them.

———. Belva Lockwood: Equal Rights Pioneer. Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, 2009. This book, written by Jill Norgren, was one of the most important sources used. It gave an overall summary of Lockwood's life and accomplishments that provided lots of evidence for writing a paper. I used this source as both background and a more detailed look at Lockwood's accomplishments.

Trestman, Marlene. "Women Advocates Before the Supreme Court, from October Term 1880 through December 2016." Supreme Court History. Last modified 2016. Accessed January 20, 2020. http://supremecourthistory.org/history_oral_advocates.html#_edn1. This website contained charts, which were used in my appendix, with important research by Marlene Trestman about arguments by women in the Supreme Court from 1880 to 2016. It helped give me background of how long it took for women to really be included in the most important U.S. court. In fact, there are still far fewer women than men that argue in the Supreme Court per year. This source specifically helped me learn how Belva truly was the first in the court.