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Death Metal: Characterising the E Ects of Environmental Lead Pollution On Durham E-Theses Death Metal: Characterising the eects of environmental lead pollution on mobility and childhood health within the Roman Empire. MOORE, JOANNA,FAYE How to cite: MOORE, JOANNA,FAYE (2019) Death Metal: Characterising the eects of environmental lead pollution on mobility and childhood health within the Roman Empire., Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/13292/ Use policy This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 UK: England & Wales (CC BY) Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 DEATH METAL: Characterising the effects of environmental lead pollution on mobility and childhood health within the Roman Empire. Joanna Faye MOORE Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Archaeology Durham University 2019 ABSTRACT The use of lead was ubiquitous throughout the Roman Empire, including as material for water pipes, eating vessels and as a sweetener for wine. Children are particularly susceptible to the effects of lead and it is likely that the widespread use of this deadly metal amongst Roman populations led to a range of adverse health effects. Indeed, lead poisoning has even been implicated in the downfall of the Roman Empire. This research examines the direct effect of lead poisoning on the inhabitants of the Empire, and for the first time introduces a bioarchaeological perspective to how lead exposure affected health during the Roman period. The results provide strong evidence that Roman lead pollution contributed to the high prevalence of metabolic diseases during childhood and implicates elevated lead burdens in the high prevalence of infant remains in Roman skeletal assemblages. This study has also shown the effectiveness of lead isotope analysis as a tool in archaeological migration studies. The successful establishment of baseline lead isotope ranges in previously unstudied regions of the Roman Empire has greatly enhanced our ability to identify the potential origins of isotopic outliers. Although this study has shown that anthropogenic lead isotope ratios are not country specific, the results have demonstrated that lead isotope ratios can differentiate between populations based on the orogenic age of the region in which an individual spent their childhood. This has improved our understanding of how anthropogenic lead isotope ratios in Roman individuals varies across a continent, and has demonstrated that lead isotope ratios are capable of discriminating between geographical regions of origin when other isotope system are not. i TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES viii LIST OF FIGURES ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xiii STATEMENT OF COPYRIGHT xiv DEDICATION xv CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Research context 1 1.1.1 Using lead isotopes to explore migration 1 1.1.2 Investigating lead poisoning within the Roman Empire 3 1.2 Research aims 5 1.2.1 Objectives 5 1.3 Period of study 6 1.4 Sample population 7 1.5 Structure of the thesis 9 CHAPTER TWO: LEAD ANALYSES IN BIOARCHAEOLOGY 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Geochemistry 13 2.2.1 Lead 13 2.2.2 Lead isotopes 15 2.3 Lead in the environment 16 2.3.1 Geographical variation in lead isotopes 16 2.3.2 Lead isoscapes 18 2.3.3 Anthropogenic environmental lead pollution 21 2.4 Uses in bioarchaeology 24 2.4.1 Lead in skeletal tissues 24 2.4.2 Variations in human lead isotope ratios 26 2.4.3 Cultural focusing 29 2.4.4 Contamination from the burial environment 32 2.4.5 Lead concentrations 33 2.5 Summary 34 ii CHAPTER THREE: ISOTOPE ANALYSIS OF ROMAN POPULATIONS 36 3.1 Introduction 36 3.2 People on the move 37 3.2.1 Voluntary migration 38 3.2.2 Compulsory migration 39 3.3 Finding the foreigners 40 3.3.1 Burial rites 41 3.3.2 Isotope analyses 42 3.3.2.1 Stable light isotope systems 44 3.3.2.2 Radiogenic isotope systems 46 3.3.2.3 Multi-isotope approach 48 3.3.3 Isotopic evidence for Roman migration 49 3.4 Lead as a commodity 53 3.5 Unwittingly poisoned 55 3.6 Summary 61 CHAPTER FOUR: THE IMPACT OF LEAD ON HUMAN HEALTH 64 4.1 Introduction 64 4.2 Metabolism and toxicokinetics of lead 65 4.2.1 Exposure, absorption and storage 65 4.2.2 Mechanisms of toxicity 67 4.3 Clinical manifestations of lead poisoning 68 4.3.1 Acute poisoning 68 4.3.2 Chronic poisoning 68 4.4 Skeletal manifestations of lead poisoning 70 4.4.1 Carious lesions 70 4.4.2 Enamel hypoplasia 72 4.4.3 Anaemia 73 4.4.4 Rickets 75 4.4.5 Scurvy 77 4.4.6 Gout 79 4.4.7 Lead lines 81 4.5 Lead body burden 82 4.5.1 Estimating lead body burden 82 iii 4.5.1.1 Bones 83 4.5.1.2 Teeth 84 4.5.2 Dynamic lead burdens 85 4.5.3 Estimating blood to mineral lead ratios 88 4.6 Evidence of lead poisoning in the Roman Empire 90 4.6.1 Lead poisoning in antiquity 90 4.6.2 Assessing lead poisoning in archaeological remains 92 4.7 Summary 97 CHAPTER FIVE: ROMAN HEALTH AND MORTALITY 99 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 Roman health 99 5.3 Childhood mortality 104 5.4 Infanticide and exposure 106 5.5 Summary 109 CHAPTER SIX: MATERIALS AND METHODS 110 6.1 Introduction 110 6.2 Methodology outline 110 6.3 Sites 111 6.3.1 Dealul Furcilor – Alba Iulia, Romania 112 6.3.2 Beirut, Lebanon 113 6.3.3 Michelet – Caen, France 115 6.3.4 Santa Caterina – Barcelona, Spain 116 6.3.5 PERI 2 – Tarragona, Spain 118 6.3.6 Western Emonske Necropolis – Ljubliana, Slovenia 119 6.3.7 Primary Health Care Centre – Musselburgh, Scotland 119 6.3.8 Lead coffin burials – York and Ilchester, England 120 6.4 Osteological analyses 121 6.4.1 Sex assessment 122 6.4.1.1 Adult sex assessment 122 6.4.1.1.1 Sexually dimorphic pelvic traits 122 6.4.1.1.2 Sexually dimorphic cranial traits 123 6.4.1.1.3 Metric sex assessment 124 6.4.1.2 Non-adult sex assessment 125 iv 6.4.1.3 Application of sex assessment methods 125 6.4.2 Age-at-death estimation 126 6.4.2.1 Adult age-at-death estimation 127 6.4.2.1.1 Dental attrition 127 6.4.2.1.2 Pubic symphysis 128 6.4.2.1.3 Auricular surface 128 6.4.2.1.4 Cranial suture closure 129 6.4.2.1.5 Late fusing epiphyses 129 6.4.2.2 Non-adult age-at-death estimation 130 6.4.2.2.1 Dental development and eruption 130 6.4.2.2.2 Long bone length 130 6.4.2.2.3 Epiphyseal fusion 130 6.4.2.3 Application of age-at-death estimation methods 131 6.4.3 Palaeopathological analysis 132 6.4.3.1 Carious lesions 133 6.4.3.2 Enamel hypoplasia 133 6.4.3.3 Cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis 134 6.4.3.4 Rickets 134 6.4.3.5 Scurvy 136 6.5 Data recording 137 6.6 Sampling strategy 138 6.7 Tooth selection 138 6.8 Isotope analysis 140 6.8.1 Sample preparation 141 6.8.2 Mass spectrometry 142 6.8.2.1 Strontium isotope analysis 142 6.8.2.2 Lead isotope analysis 142 6.8.2.3 Trace element analysis 143 6.9 Data comparisons 143 6.10 Statistical analyses 144 CHAPTER SEVEN: LEAD CONCENTRATIONS AND HEALTH 145 7.1 Introduction 145 7.2 Inter-dental variations 146 v 7.3 Geographical variations 155 7.4 Comparing males and females 158 7.5 Health and mortality 165 7.5.1 Lead and mortality 165 7.5.2 Lead and disease 169 7.5.3 Cribra orbitalia 173 7.5.4 Poison or paucity 176 7.6 Summary 180 CHAPTER EIGHT: LEAD ISOTOPE RATIOS AND MIGRATION 182 8.1 Introduction 182 8.2 Cultural focusing 183 8.3 Establishing local ranges 189 8.3.1 Romania 190 8.3.2 France 194 8.3.3 Lebanon 198 8.3.4 Spain 201 8.3.5 Slovenia 204 8.4 Geographical variations 208 8.5 Comparing lead and strontium 215 8.6 Identifying migrants across a continent 225 8.6.1 Romania 225 8.6.2 France 227 8.6.3 Lebanon 228 8.6.4 Spain 229 8.7 Isotopic investigations of intrusive burial rites 234 8.7.1 Lead coffin burials 234 8.7.1.1 The lead coffins 237 8.7.1.2 Investigating origins 240 8.7.1.3 Conclusions 243 8.7.2 Decapitation burials 246 8.8 Summary 253 CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 256 9.1 Introduction 256 vi 9.2 Lead concentration analysis 256 9.2.1 Sample variation 256 9.2.2 Comparing males and females 257 9.2.3 Health and mortality 258 9.3 Lead isotope analysis 259 9.3.1 Cultural focusing 259 9.3.2 Establishing local ranges 260 9.3.3 Geographic variation 260 9.3.4 Identifying migrants 261 9.4 Limitations 261 9.5 Future research 263 9.6 Final conclusions 264 BIBLIOGRAPHY 266 APPENDICES 324 A1 Osteological and lead concentration data 325 A2 Lead and strontium isotope ratio data 329 vii LIST OF TABLES 6.1 Sexually dimorphic pelvic traits used for sex assessment 123 6.2 Sexually dimorphic traits of the skull used for sex assessment 124 6.3 Skeletal elements used for metric sex assessment 125 6.4 Sex categories used 126 6.5 Age categories used 132 6.6 Codes and pathological descriptions for presence and severity of 134 cribra orbitalia 6.7 Rachitic lesions used in the identification of rickets and their 135 diagnostic category.
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